WDR_2006 Equity and development_out.html

The TF-IDF algorithm has been used for the results. While using a minimum score of 0.3 and minimum average word weight of 0.01. If the score per category doesn't contain any scores it has been left out in the overview. Keep in mind that the term weight values are multiplied based on their PoS value. Only the PoS tags verb, noun, adjunctive and SPEC have a PoS value of 1. The rest have a value of 0.

Public Disclosure Authorized Public Disclosure Authorized Public Disclosure Authorized Public Disclosure Authorized world development report Equity and Development world development report Equity and Development world development report Equity and Development copublication of The World Bank and Oxford University Press The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development The World Bank Street NW Washington DC Telephone Internet www

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Oxford University Press Madison Avenue New York NY This volume is product of the staff of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development The World Bank

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The findings interpretations and conclusions expressed in this paper do not necessarily reflect the views of the Executive Directors of The World Bank or the governments they represent

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Rights and Permissions The material in this publication is copyrighted

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Copying and or transmitting portions or all of this work without permission may be violation of applicable law

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The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development The World Bank encourages dissemination of its work and will normally grant permission to reproduce portions of the work promptly

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For permission to photocopy or reprint any part of this work please send request with complete information to the Copyright Clearance Center Inc

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All other queries on rights and licenses including subsidiary rights should be addressed to the Office of the Publisher The World Bank Street NW Washington DC USA fax mail pubrights worldbank

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Cover image Dream of Sunday Afternoon in Alameda Park fresco by Diego Rivera

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The mural is located in Museo Mural Diego Rivera Mexico City

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Reproduction authorized by the Instituto Nacional de Bellas Artes Literatura Mexico Copyright Photograph by Francisco Kochen

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Contents Foreword xi Acknowledgments iii Abbreviations and Data Notes Overview iv Inequity within and across nations Why does equity matter for development

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Leveling the economic and political playing fields Introduction Equity and inequality of opportunity the basic concepts Inequality traps brief preview of the Report Part Inequity within and across countries focus on Palanpur Inequity within countries individuals and groups Inequalities in health Inequalities in education Economic inequalities The relationship between group differences and inequality Agency and equity inequalities of power The inequality trap for women Equity from global perspective Examples and concepts Global inequalities in health Global inequalities in education Global inequalities in income and expenditure vi CONTENTS Global inequalities in power glimpse of the future focus on empowerment Part II Why does equity matter

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Equity and well being Ethical and philosophical approaches to equity Equity and legal institutions People prefer fairness Income inequality and poverty reduction Inequality and investment Markets wealth status and investment behavior The evidence on underinvestment Inequalities and investment focus on Spain Equity institutions and the development process The distribution of power and institutional quality circles vicious and virtuous Institutions and political inequality matter for development historical evidence Institutions and political inequality matter for development contemporary evidence Transitions to more equitable institutions Conclusion focus on Indonesia Part III Leveling the economic and political playing fields Human capacities Early childhood development better start in life Basic education expanding opportunities to learn Toward better health for all Social protection managing risk and providing social assistance Summary Contents Justice land and infrastructure Building equitable justice systems Toward greater equity in access to land Providing infrastructure equitably Summary focus on taxation Markets and the macroeconomy How markets relate to equity Achieving equity and efficiency in financial markets Achieving equity and efficiency in labor markets Product markets and trade reform Macroeconomic management and equity focus on regional inequality Achieving greater global equity Making global markets work more equitably Providing development assistance to help build endowments Transitions to greater equity Summary focus on drug access Epilogue Bibliographic note Endnotes References Selected Indicators Measuring Equity Selected world development indicators Index vii CONTENTS viii Boxes

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Unequal opportunities persist across generations in Brazil

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Better maternal health in Malaysia and Sri Lanka

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Unequal assets unequal opportunities AIDS orphans in Southern Africa

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.628620328992891
WordScorePoS
asset0NN
opportunity0NN
aid0.123094312756122NN
southern0.0416126148005059JJ
africa0IN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.369897026439883
WordScorePoS
asset0NN
opportunity0.0361300980868102NN
aid0.0607878664258118NN
southern0JJ
africa0IN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.32739811546913
WordScorePoS
asset0NN
opportunity0.0261926252110933NN
aid0NN
southern0.0595900566394012JJ
africa0IN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.309881660465504
WordScorePoS
asset0.0811931365363091NN
opportunity0NN
aid0NN
southern0JJ
africa0IN

Health improvements and greater health equity in Peru

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.862136487845232
WordScorePoS
health0.191387734041787NN
improvement0NN

Child test scores in Ecuador the role of wealth parental education and place of residence

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.846396312074516
WordScorePoS
child0.076326555629389NN
education0.244244978014045NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.322336847965051
WordScorePoS
child0.10682408961305NN
education0.0152605842304358NN

Beware of intercountry comparisons of inequality

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.998828889740146
WordScorePoS
inequality0.635305170773079NN

Revisiting the Kuznets hypothesis for economic growth and inequality

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.910416094739929
WordScorePoS
economic0.103276847978089JJ
growth0.11178243319132NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.360830006145088
WordScorePoS
economic0.128463821595706JJ
growth0.208565600657229NN
inequality0NN

Inequitable agencies and institutions in Pakistan

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.912795836077049
WordScorePoS
agency0NN
institution0.274477239401321NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.32964357822037
WordScorePoS
agency0NN
institution0.0991236547760315NN

Legacies of discrimination and the reproduction of inequalities and poverty among the Batwa in Uganda

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.878833745616827
WordScorePoS
discrimination0NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
poverty0.05809266143877NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.435490013148678
WordScorePoS
discrimination0.0736315832425121NN
inequality0NN
poverty0.269969049497485NN

Sex ratios and missing women

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.86047859807025
WordScorePoS
sex0NN
ratio0.0688661930304451NN
woman0.221979360474357NN

Mobilizing support for universal coverage in Thailand

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.626812171995293
WordScorePoS
mobilize0.0898760357768464VB
support0.0451108483130998NN
universal0.0109843026967392JJ
coverage0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.469436493128527
WordScorePoS
mobilize0VB
support0.0184786920895884NN
universal0JJ
coverage0.0908430554521382NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.31675701194055
WordScorePoS
mobilize0VB
support0.0188084899376888NN
universal0.0549574626423028JJ
coverage0NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.306150272087233
WordScorePoS
mobilize0.0633470357346975VB
support0.00794883334420673NN
universal0JJ
coverage0NN

Public works programs key issues

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.440442078910441
WordScorePoS
public0.0727679293221751NN
key0NN
issue0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.417722852362004
WordScorePoS
public0.0390556786919513NN
key0NN
issue0.0299586785922821NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.378390508639713
WordScorePoS
public0NN
key0.0625160381065121NN
issue0NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.353327264521929
WordScorePoS
public0.0583751976558017NN
key0NN
issue0NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.319830364071884
WordScorePoS
public0NN
key0.0528409850971592NN
issue0NN

Africa orphans and public action

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.698912833430828
WordScorePoS
africa0IN
public0.0727679293221751NN
action0.0409315617631NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.358833398516282
WordScorePoS
africa0IN
public0.0583751976558017NN
action0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.307596672978644
WordScorePoS
africa0IN
public0.0390556786919513NN
action0.0109843026967392NN

Increasing legal literacy and public awareness My Rights on Armenian public television

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.625954512346475
WordScorePoS
increase0.0144029596227568NN
legal0JJ
literacy0.244520809605025NN
public0NN
awareness0NN
rights0.0352060273355634NNS

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.485910331555699
WordScorePoS
increase0.00402768349408688NN
legal0JJ
literacy0NN
public0.0727679293221751NN
awareness0NN
rights0.078760887431929NNS

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.317690823566775
WordScorePoS
increase0.00958677785775002NN
legal0JJ
literacy0NN
public0.028867295332595NN
awareness0.0819583881728876NN
rights0NNS

Affirmative action in India and the United States

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.841145587469872
WordScorePoS
action0.0369195714265843NN
unite0.0828215106044499VB

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.336805438429789
WordScorePoS
action0.0109843026967392NN
unite0.036961556179878VB

State frameworks and customary institutions in South Africa

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.881043263245518
WordScorePoS
framework0NN
institution0.274477239401321NN
south0RB
africa0IN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.318176576167782
WordScorePoS
framework0NN
institution0.0991236547760315NN
south0RB
africa0IN

The impact of legal aid in Ecuador

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.560092703061739
WordScorePoS
impact0NN
legal0JJ
aid0.123094312756122NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.499560688071072
WordScorePoS
impact0.0285977592242194NN
legal0.0811931365363091JJ
aid0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.394048135390656
WordScorePoS
impact0.0866018859977851NN
legal0JJ
aid0NN

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.376036084073701
WordScorePoS
impact0.042459973210532NN
legal0.0401833161726777JJ
aid0NN

Bogota Colombia civic culture program

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.801726288699618
WordScorePoS
culture0.0832510082312742NN

Land reform in South Africa picking up steam

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.663612706631554
WordScorePoS
land0.123873694868802NN
reform0NN
south0RB
africa0IN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.618363796272937
WordScorePoS
land0.024255976440725NN
reform0.0911713013253052NN
south0RB
africa0IN

Clarifying how customary rights fit with formal systems

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.627161571572447
WordScorePoS
rights0.0519476926891779NNS
system0.0519476926891779NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.4754378816765
WordScorePoS
rights0.078760887431929NNS
system0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.456358090535961
WordScorePoS
rights0NNS
system0.0756001353333673NN

Land and output tax combinations

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.714382577005257
WordScorePoS
land0.123873694868802NN
tax0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.468242770794726
WordScorePoS
land0NN
tax0.0811931365363091NN

Three competing concepts of inequality global international and intercountry

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.989897565046688
WordScorePoS
inequality0.635305170773079NN
global0.0133009891881297JJ
international0.00571634317201755JJ

Lagging infrastructure in Africa

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.919159986012171
WordScorePoS
infrastructure0.192202909044225NN
africa0IN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.311492983743198
WordScorePoS
infrastructure0.0651354046449052NN
africa0IN

The distributional impact of infrastructure privatization in Latin America mixed bag

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.789872034279622
WordScorePoS
impact0.0160169090870187NN
infrastructure0.192202909044225NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.438026879346046
WordScorePoS
impact0.0866018859977851NN
infrastructure0.028867295332595NN

simple representation of different concepts of equity

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.705615612442762
WordScorePoS
simple0JJ
representation0.0688661930304451NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.501377028288135
WordScorePoS
simple0.048933054487825JJ
representation0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.500727154228712
WordScorePoS
simple0JJ
representation0.0488696285210061NN

Capuchin monkeys don like inequity either

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Worker perceptions of unfairness product quality and consumer safety

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.794632462904136
WordScorePoS
worker0NN
product0.0199423462679015NN
quality0.0203215381458133NN
consumer0.325511803779102NN
safety0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.458138172897741
WordScorePoS
worker0.121575732851624NN
product0.0591643007226199NN
quality0.030144637392549NN
consumer0NN
safety0NN

The pro poor agenda for urban water in Senegal

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.8007873873745
WordScorePoS
poor0.0642010940957526JJ
agenda0NN
urban0JJ
water0.556409482163189NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.445086636625986
WordScorePoS
poor0.0229054731708393JJ
agenda0NN
urban0.27622591898666JJ
water0.0458109463416786NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.2850031513658
WordScorePoS
poor0.0339811641917276JJ
agenda0NN
urban0JJ
water0.186896403054502NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.194399266117206
WordScorePoS
poor0.150659516460257JJ
agenda0NN
urban0JJ
water0NN

Addressing accountability and transparency in telecommunications in Brazil and Peru

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.660807911846936
WordScorePoS
address0.064698038783335NN
accountability0NN
transparency0NN

Banking in the nineteenth century Mexico and the United States

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.959621941966712
WordScorePoS
banking0NN
century0.219293228426234NN
unite0.0828215106044499VB

Markets and development policy equity and social welfare in China

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.540835376657074
WordScorePoS
market0.0202620733250388NN
development0.0177346522508396NN
policy0.0848203862485078NN
social0.101310366625194JJ
welfare0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.421145827249531
WordScorePoS
market0NN
development0.0164833460638534NN
policy0.0450489732120807NN
social0.112994637345193JJ
welfare0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.34204829833946
WordScorePoS
market0.030649619577211NN
development0.0469463607292177NN
policy0.0641521854453136NN
social0JJ
welfare0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.315778063196544
WordScorePoS
market0.0169905820958638NN
development0.022306853314744NN
policy0.0203215381458133NN
social0.0169905820958638JJ
welfare0.0542519672965169NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.304873458568147
WordScorePoS
market0.0252035516550537NN
development0.0055149369084567NN
policy0.0452169560888236NN
social0.0504071033101074JJ
welfare0NN

Growth with poor institutions does not last

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.562660379083698
WordScorePoS
growth0NN
poor0JJ
institution0.274477239401321NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.511796609314131
WordScorePoS
growth0.208565600657229NN
poor0JJ
institution0.0410992516792148NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.415331520215525
WordScorePoS
growth0.0519476926891779NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
institution0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.432343678716694
WordScorePoS
growth0.11178243319132NN
poor0JJ
institution0.0991236547760315NN

Too much and too little regulation Russia before and after the transition

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.935352333071656
WordScorePoS
regulation0.0977392570420122NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.353717419725704
WordScorePoS
regulation0.036961556179878NN

Polarization conflict and growth

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.64731898137395
WordScorePoS
conflict0NN
growth0.208565600657229NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.61828494264116
WordScorePoS
conflict0.147263166485024NN
growth0.0519476926891779NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.346935882815242
WordScorePoS
conflict0NN
growth0.11178243319132NN

Organizing in the informal economy

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.606199034148427
WordScorePoS
organize0.107490825192354VB
economy0NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.473691142140013
WordScorePoS
organize0VB
economy0.0839946104936743NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.463561920332812
WordScorePoS
organize0VB
economy0.0821985033584295NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.352561828892254
WordScorePoS
organize0VB
economy0.0625160381065121NN

Aiding equitable growth in early modern Britain the role of the Poor Laws

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.679601051730176
WordScorePoS
aid0NN
equitable0JJ
growth0NN
modern0.462321869452858JJ
poor0JJ
law0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.485299122314388
WordScorePoS
aid0.0607878664258118NN
equitable0JJ
growth0.208565600657229NN
modern0.0607878664258118JJ
poor0JJ
law0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.297827296357461
WordScorePoS
aid0NN
equitable0JJ
growth0.0519476926891779NN
modern0JJ
poor0.150659516460257JJ
law0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.242084616235729
WordScorePoS
aid0NN
equitable0JJ
growth0NN
modern0JJ
poor0JJ
law0.164686343640793NN

Employment protection legislation

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.566821089116102
WordScorePoS
employment0.173804667214358NN
protection0NN
legislation0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.462315531027861
WordScorePoS
employment0.0393804437159645NN
protection0.0465610847355851NN
legislation0.0558185411034276NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.400611404407763
WordScorePoS
employment0NN
protection0.122839698738001NN
legislation0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.344691798011644
WordScorePoS
employment0NN
protection0.0660824365173543NN
legislation0.0396106020715138NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.339222859424484
WordScorePoS
employment0.104016094894625NN
protection0NN
legislation0NN

ECD programs are an essential ingredient for the attainment of education for all

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.883156041463903
WordScorePoS
essential0JJ
education0.244244978014045NN

Two cases of labor market reform One comprehensive one partial

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.623565852887171
WordScorePoS
market0.0913569596328122NN
reform0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.622298623971809
WordScorePoS
market0NN
reform0.0911713013253052NN

School fees an instrument of exclusion or accountability

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.801178309640881
WordScorePoS
school0.208127520578185NN
exclusion0NN
accountability0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.358469952074294
WordScorePoS
school0.0931221694711702NN
exclusion0NN
accountability0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.349696596622914
WordScorePoS
school0NN
exclusion0.0908430554521382NN
accountability0NN

Did the Russian crisis have equitable consequences

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.70649270686921
WordScorePoS
equitable0.0502364757923669JJ

Desegregating Roma schools in Bulgaria the Vidin model

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.880363915968638
WordScorePoS
school0.208127520578185NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.393899843477631
WordScorePoS
school0.0931221694711702NN

International law globalization and equity

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.90146881853727
WordScorePoS
international0.0189945307832458JJ
law0.164686343640793NN

Making migrant worker schemes more development friendly

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.888951982852328
WordScorePoS
migrant0.121575732851624NN
worker0.121575732851624NN
development0.0055149369084567NN

Remedying education the Balsakhi program in India

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.961591108592945
WordScorePoS
education0.244244978014045NN

School vouchers efficient and equitable

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.809671604999597
WordScorePoS
school0.208127520578185NN
efficient0JJ
equitable0.0299609328954485JJ

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.36899124501408
WordScorePoS
school0NN
efficient0.108503934593034JJ
equitable0JJ

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.316682204939924
WordScorePoS
school0.0931221694711702NN
efficient0JJ
equitable0JJ

Working with mothers to treat malaria

Label: 3, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
mother0.162963395911232NN
malaria0.20370424488904NN

Cotton subsidies are huge and tenacious

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.907401690205895
WordScorePoS
subsidy0.162850158165781NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.370149539849056
WordScorePoS
subsidy0.0664302389559493NN

Will improved working conditions in Cambodia textile industry survive the end of the quota system

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.702489119371758
WordScorePoS
improve0VB
condition0NN
textile0.0602029956716497NN
industry0.181897200573757NN
survive0VB
quota0NN
system0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.396504302286664
WordScorePoS
improve0.0150723186962745VB
condition0.121575732851624NN
textile0NN
industry0NN
survive0VB
quota0NN
system0NN

Expanding access to antiretroviral drugs in South Africa

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.676828713037935
WordScorePoS
expand0VB
access0.00610236075888593NN
antiretroviral0.0407408489778079JJ
drug0.0407408489778079NN
south0RB
africa0IN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.469180093820691
WordScorePoS
expand0.0449973847138318VB
access0.0157161992303584NN
antiretroviral0JJ
drug0NN
south0RB
africa0IN

Poor people and ethnic minorities receive lower quality care Figures Wealth matters for the immunization of children Opportunities are determined early Life expectancy improved and became more equal until the onset of the AIDS crisis long run diverging trend in income inequality begins to reverse because of growth in China and India Children performance differs when their caste is made salient Contents Catching up through early interventions Better to be close to economic opportunities

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.659643270880292
WordScorePoS
poor0JJ
people0.00571634317201755NNS
receive0VB
quality0.0121171980355011NN
care0NN
figure0NN
child0.0242343960710022NN
opportunity0.029046330719385NN
determine0VB
life0NN
expectancy0NN
improve0.0121171980355011VB
equal0.0202620733250388JJ
aid0NN
income0.166475342664294NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
reverse0NN
growth0.11178243319132NN
performance0.064698038783335NN
intervention0NN
economic0.103276847978089JJ

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.361788757640252
WordScorePoS
poor0JJ
people0.0106656521351091NNS
receive0VB
quality0.030144637392549NN
care0NN
figure0NN
child0.0452169560888236NN
opportunity0.0361300980868102NN
determine0VB
life0.0123650647908625NN
expectancy0NN
improve0.0150723186962745VB
equal0.0504071033101074JJ
aid0.0607878664258118NN
income0NN
inequality0NN
reverse0NN
growth0.208565600657229NN
performance0NN
intervention0NN
economic0.128463821595706JJ

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.280324681054974
WordScorePoS
poor0.150659516460257JJ
people0.0371911007748996NNS
receive0VB
quality0NN
care0NN
figure0NN
child0.0450489732120807NN
opportunity0NN
determine0VB
life0.0184786920895884NN
expectancy0NN
improve0VB
equal0.0376648791150643JJ
aid0NN
income0.0442083771593746NN
inequality0NN
reverse0NN
growth0.0519476926891779NN
performance0NN
intervention0NN
economic0.0959899298575892JJ

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.378737774343013
WordScorePoS
poor0JJ
people0.00539943740774902NNS
receive0.0814816979556159VB
quality0.0152605842304358NN
care0.104031537001265NN
figure0NN
child0.10682408961305NN
opportunity0NN
determine0.0307735781890304VB
life0.0250390290383647NN
expectancy0.0407408489778079NN
improve0VB
equal0JJ
aid0.123094312756122NN
income0NN
inequality0.0307735781890304NN
reverse0NN
growth0NN
performance0NN
intervention0.0407408489778079NN
economic0JJ

Absolute poverty declined globally but not in every region

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.894841866987743
WordScorePoS
poverty0.269969049497485NN
decline0NN
globally0RB
region0.184259548107002NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.333285581347717
WordScorePoS
poverty0.00914534810831654NN
decline0.0351951258079907NN
globally0RB
region0.124837844401518NN

The interaction of political economic and sociocultural inequalities

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.952088541144326
WordScorePoS
political0.0792212041430275JJ
economic0.103276847978089JJ
inequality0.635305170773079NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.149557899833203
WordScorePoS
political0JJ
economic0.128463821595706JJ
inequality0NN

There is no one to one relationship between voice and income

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.849085705657264
WordScorePoS
voice0.064698038783335NN
income0.166475342664294NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.406408302872692
WordScorePoS
voice0NN
income0.110649350233433NN

Infant mortality varies across countries but also by mother education within countries

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.862605215013113
WordScorePoS
infant0NN
mortality0.276962203701274NN
country0NN
mother0.162963395911232NN
education0.0152605842304358NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.462858933891487
WordScorePoS
infant0NN
mortality0NN
country0NN
mother0NN
education0.244244978014045NN

The distribution of observed offers in ultimatum games

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Stunting levels of children born in rural versus urban areas are far from the same

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.625071019650881
WordScorePoS
stunt0NN
level0.00692515656684925NN
child0.0273960270556257NN
bear0NN
rural0.0373517915079663JJ
urban0.27622591898666JJ

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.585394988697287
WordScorePoS
stunt0.11668334276823NN
level0.00552410547653725NN
child0.0546336178945768NN
bear0NN
rural0.148975141598503JJ
urban0JJ

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.338329591246386
WordScorePoS
stunt0NN
level0NN
child0.10682408961305NN
bear0.0814816979556159NN
rural0JJ
urban0JJ

Views on inequality from the World Values Survey

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.988987303096995
WordScorePoS
view0NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
world0.00276879546803864NN
value0NN
survey0.064698038783335NN

Access to childhood immunization services depends on parents economic status

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.434651585360518
WordScorePoS
access0.00344404437204141NN
childhood0NN
service0.0197870712294258NN
depend0VB
economic0.128463821595706JJ
status0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.462702071295426
WordScorePoS
access0.00138439773401932NN
childhood0NN
service0.00795378154685591NN
depend0VB
economic0.103276847978089JJ
status0.0488696285210061NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.416879215773482
WordScorePoS
access0.00514687440545096NN
childhood0NN
service0.0443555132287109NN
depend0VB
economic0.0959899298575892JJ
status0NN

and on average growth is distribution neutral

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.680001845465377
WordScorePoS
average0.146608885563018NN
growth0.11178243319132NN
neutral0JJ

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.54887677353568
WordScorePoS
average0NN
growth0.208565600657229NN
neutral0JJ

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.435918515581403
WordScorePoS
average0.1656430212089NN
growth0NN
neutral0JJ

Stunting and underweight in Cambodia ix

Label: 2, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
stunt0.11668334276823NN

Growth is the key to poverty reduction

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.63629077920588
WordScorePoS
growth0.0519476926891779NN
key0NN
poverty0.269969049497485NN
reduction0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.555071674349272
WordScorePoS
growth0.208565600657229NN
key0NN
poverty0.0722601961736204NN
reduction0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.429784217201751
WordScorePoS
growth0.11178243319132NN
key0NN
poverty0.05809266143877NN
reduction0.0475643836183697NN

The national growth incidence curves for Tunisia and Senegal

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.806769150229087
WordScorePoS
national0.0055149369084567JJ
growth0.208565600657229NN
incidence0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.454672362588984
WordScorePoS
national0.00886732612541978JJ
growth0.11178243319132NN
incidence0NN

Education levels vary across countries but they also depend on gender of household head

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.706290511445205
WordScorePoS
education0.244244978014045NN
level0.0231525547935232NN
country0NN
depend0VB
gender0.10561808200669NN
household0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.590673663563722
WordScorePoS
education0.0512260062633133NN
level0.0172651853471334NN
country0NN
depend0VB
gender0.196902218579822NN
household0.0465610847355851NN

Greater inequality reduces the power of growth to reduce poverty

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.870834288404106
WordScorePoS
inequality0.635305170773079NN
reduce0.0310356414389692VB
power0NN
growth0.11178243319132NN
poverty0.05809266143877NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.356349508513516
WordScorePoS
inequality0NN
reduce0.0164833460638534VB
power0NN
growth0.0519476926891779NN
poverty0.269969049497485NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.293061368145135
WordScorePoS
inequality0NN
reduce0.0055149369084567VB
power0NN
growth0.208565600657229NN
poverty0.0722601961736204NN

Education levels vary by country and between rural and urban sectors

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.635453782858271
WordScorePoS
education0NN
level0.00692515656684925NN
country0NN
rural0.0373517915079663JJ
urban0.27622591898666JJ
sector0NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.530163038188814
WordScorePoS
education0.244244978014045NN
level0.0231525547935232NN
country0NN
rural0JJ
urban0JJ
sector0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.342548436857979
WordScorePoS
education0NN
level0.00552410547653725NN
country0NN
rural0.148975141598503JJ
urban0JJ
sector0.0182713919265625NN

In rural Kerala and Tamil Nadu the rich access most of the credit and pay relatively low rates

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.618623471931321
WordScorePoS
rural0.148975141598503JJ
access0.00749031153171887NN
credit0NN
pay0NN
rate0.0155217067874935NN

The share of inequality in years of schooling attributable to differences between males and females has been declining

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.958592672823984
WordScorePoS
share0NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
schooling0NN
female0NN
decline0.02794560829783NN

Children performance differs when their caste is made public

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.495402646323094
WordScorePoS
child0.10682408961305NN
performance0NN
public0.021678073222951NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.40921205559744
WordScorePoS
child0.0242343960710022NN
performance0.064698038783335NN
public0.0172128079963482NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.346364529015207
WordScorePoS
child0.0170753354211044NN
performance0NN
public0.0727679293221751NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.343087130295844
WordScorePoS
child0.0603953832457135NN
performance0NN
public0.0285977592242194NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.33066596516856
WordScorePoS
child0.0273960270556257NN
performance0NN
public0.0583751976558017NN

Market capitalization controlled by the top families in selected countries

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.579045649426454
WordScorePoS
market0.0913569596328122NN
capitalization0NN
control0NN
family0.0297950283197006NN
country0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.445077196080096
WordScorePoS
market0NN
capitalization0NN
control0.0465610847355851NN
family0.0465610847355851NN
country0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.397774794598276
WordScorePoS
market0NN
capitalization0NN
control0.020806307400253NN
family0.0624189222007589NN
country0NN

Africa and Latin America have the world highest levels of inequality

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.988535096016575
WordScorePoS
africa0IN
world0.00276879546803864NN
level0NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN

Between group inequality decompositions social group of the household head

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.975223483603853
WordScorePoS
inequality0.635305170773079NN
social0.101310366625194JJ
household0.0330412182586772NN

Between group inequality decompositions education of the household head

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.924873197995272
WordScorePoS
inequality0.635305170773079NN
education0.0121171980355011NN
household0.0330412182586772NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.331973140375852
WordScorePoS
inequality0NN
education0.244244978014045NN
household0NN

Location education and social groups can make difference regressions of total inequality on shares of between group inequality of different household characteristics

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.955281667423385
WordScorePoS
location0NN
education0.0121171980355011NN
social0.101310366625194JJ
total0NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
share0NN
household0.0330412182586772NN
characteristic0JJ

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.16465047422461
WordScorePoS
location0NN
education0.244244978014045NN
social0JJ
total0NN
inequality0NN
share0NN
household0NN
characteristic0JJ

Women work longer hours than do men

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.883512810871549
WordScorePoS
woman0.221979360474357NN

Vanishing twin peaks in life expectancy at birth

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.842943870123346
WordScorePoS
life0.0250390290383647NN
expectancy0.0407408489778079NN
birth0.0748292956291867NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.394526995832991
WordScorePoS
life0NN
expectancy0NN
birth0.0658099748168827NN

Life expectancy is highly correlated with income particularly in poor countries

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.618011520785177
WordScorePoS
life0.0184786920895884NN
expectancy0NN
highly0RB
income0.0442083771593746NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
country0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.482237291734392
WordScorePoS
life0NN
expectancy0NN
highly0RB
income0.166475342664294NN
poor0JJ
country0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.345151088966312
WordScorePoS
life0NN
expectancy0NN
highly0RB
income0.0643370113878709NN
poor0.0548141757796873JJ
country0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.320523400851877
WordScorePoS
life0NN
expectancy0NN
highly0RB
income0.110649350233433NN
poor0JJ
country0NN

The distribution of years of schooling improved greatly in the second half of the twentieth century

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.933500738807394
WordScorePoS
schooling0NN
improve0.0102677744436108VB
century0.219293228426234NN

Mean years of schooling increased while inequality declined across birth cohorts

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.955374541772633
WordScorePoS
schooling0NN
increase0.00285817158600878NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
decline0.02794560829783NN
birth0.0396106020715138NN

Returns to capital vary with firm size evidence from small Mexican firms

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.65158284695393
WordScorePoS
return0NN
firm0NN
size0.0396106020715138NN
evidence0.12939607756667NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.606312649541902
WordScorePoS
return0NN
firm0.0602029956716497NN
size0.0368585655748969NN
evidence0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.414416625722746
WordScorePoS
return0.107490825192354NN
firm0NN
size0NN
evidence0NN

Inefficient allocation of resources the example of the Gounders vs

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.605985424253517
WordScorePoS
inefficient0.0542519672965169JJ
resource0.0416785799329393NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.466913548977273
WordScorePoS
inefficient0JJ
resource0.0739147683583536NN

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.36143363599274
WordScorePoS
inefficient0JJ
resource0.0572167664438909NN

the outsiders

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Average returns for switching to pineapples as an intercrop can exceed percent

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.795938963957206
WordScorePoS
average0.1656430212089NN
return0NN
exceed0.0828215106044499VB

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.469651437290897
WordScorePoS
average0.146608885563018NN
return0NN
exceed0VB

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.344339433133975
WordScorePoS
average0NN
return0.107490825192354NN
exceed0VB

Profit wealth ratios are highest for the smallest farms

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.953354488752001
WordScorePoS
ratio0NN
farm0.291708356920574NN

Countries with more secure property rights have higher average incomes

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.658239206955743
WordScorePoS
country0NN
secure0JJ
property0NN
rights0NNS
average0.146608885563018NN
income0.166475342664294NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.348253668144334
WordScorePoS
country0NN
secure0JJ
property0NN
rights0NNS
average0.1656430212089NN
income0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.356967486846371
WordScorePoS
country0NN
secure0JJ
property0.0736315832425121NN
rights0.0519476926891779NNS
average0NN
income0.0442083771593746NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.328687662813466
WordScorePoS
country0NN
secure0.121575732851624JJ
property0NN
rights0.0347609334428716NNS
average0NN
income0NN

Low population density in is associated with lower risk of expropriation today

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.712913187728104
WordScorePoS
population0.0194583992186006NN
density0.0731385760866977NN
risk0.0631828116343571NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.393864892856156
WordScorePoS
population0.0860640399817412NN
density0NN
risk0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.322135109120234
WordScorePoS
population0NN
density0NN
risk0.0703902516159815NN

Worse environments for European settlers are associated with worse institutions today

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.847969063132697
WordScorePoS
environment0NN
institution0.274477239401321NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.309753882624231
WordScorePoS
environment0.0591643007226199NN
institution0.0410992516792148NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.306232286720951
WordScorePoS
environment0NN
institution0.0991236547760315NN

worse environment for settlers is associated with fewer constraints on the executive at independence

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.601713434555671
WordScorePoS
environment0.0221298700466866NN
constraint0.0602029956716497NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.582978744211745
WordScorePoS
environment0.079769385071606NN
constraint0NN

Constraints on the executive are greater in Mauritius than in Guyana

Label: 9, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
constraint0.0602029956716497NN

GDP per capita is rising in Mauritius not in Guyana

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.71923165746179
WordScorePoS
gdp0NN
capita0NN
rise0.120914181920259NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.426272023619329
WordScorePoS
gdp0NN
capita0.04477822029736NN
rise0.0268848280079943NN

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.316438564504756
WordScorePoS
gdp0.0531983120572613NN
capita0NN
rise0NN

Inequality in Britain began to fall around

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.969699903110422
WordScorePoS
inequality0.635305170773079NN
fall0NN

Gender disparities in years of schooling declined but remained significant in some regions

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.526484823141186
WordScorePoS
gender0.0519476926891779NN
disparity0NN
schooling0NN
decline0NN
remain0VB
significant0.0376648791150643JJ
region0.184259548107002NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.468027684705261
WordScorePoS
gender0.196902218579822NN
disparity0NN
schooling0NN
decline0NN
remain0VB
significant0JJ
region0.0465610847355851NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.444319539862018
WordScorePoS
gender0.0175975629039954NN
disparity0NN
schooling0.0407408489778079NN
decline0.0351951258079907NN
remain0VB
significant0.0127591822694525JJ
region0.124837844401518NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.417320531881311
WordScorePoS
gender0.10561808200669NN
disparity0.0615662203253227NN
schooling0NN
decline0NN
remain0.0499016491051341VB
significant0JJ
region0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.301716674943192
WordScorePoS
gender0NN
disparity0.0488696285210061NN
schooling0NN
decline0.02794560829783NN
remain0.0396106020715138VB
significant0.0405241466500776JJ
region0NN

Children from better off households have big edge in cognitive abilities by age three

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.543336214231603
WordScorePoS
child0.10682408961305NN
household0NN
ability0NN
age0.0893142758861673NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.437807344958349
WordScorePoS
child0.0450489732120807NN
household0NN
ability0NN
age0.112994637345193NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.363469233137495
WordScorePoS
child0.0452169560888236NN
household0NN
ability0.0607878664258118NN
age0.0252035516550537NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.335111178660595
WordScorePoS
child0.0546336178945768NN
household0.0297950283197006NN
ability0NN
age0.0365427838531249NN

Incomes range broadly across countries and individuals

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.79110342658947
WordScorePoS
income0.166475342664294NN
range0NN
country0NN
individual0.064698038783335JJ

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.504790027789067
WordScorePoS
income0.110649350233433NN
range0.0368585655748969NN
country0NN
individual0JJ

Early childhood interventions are good investments

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.578305230818414
WordScorePoS
childhood0.0815069365350084NN
intervention0NN
investment0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.543660333635608
WordScorePoS
childhood0NN
intervention0NN
investment0.0766240489430275NN

Since intercountry inequality increased while international inequality declined

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.994383975605744
WordScorePoS
inequality0.635305170773079NN
increase0.00285817158600878NN
international0.00571634317201755JJ
decline0.02794560829783NN

Unlike relative inequality absolute inequality has been steadily increasing

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.99600638136886
WordScorePoS
relative0JJ
inequality0.635305170773079NN
increase0.00285817158600878NN

The inequality decline between countries was neutralized by increases within countries

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.987450193332974
WordScorePoS
inequality0.635305170773079NN
decline0.02794560829783NN
country0NN
increase0.00285817158600878NN

Inequality between countries became much more important over the long run

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.998828889740146
WordScorePoS
inequality0.635305170773079NN
country0NN

Catching up through early intervention

Label: 3, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
intervention0.0407408489778079NN

Boosting enrollments is not enough to overcome the learning gap

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.932470308256472
WordScorePoS
overcome0VBN
learn0.244520809605025VB
gap0NN

Almost all countries spend more on social insurance than on social assistance percent of GDP

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.549591380326865
WordScorePoS
country0NN
social0.101310366625194JJ
insurance0NN
assistance0.0330412182586772NN
gdp0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.527033560661057
WordScorePoS
country0NN
social0.112994637345193JJ
insurance0NN
assistance0NN
gdp0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.518639487717363
WordScorePoS
country0NN
social0.0504071033101074JJ
insurance0.0804764811724088NN
assistance0.0410992516792148NN
gdp0NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.300781796410711
WordScorePoS
country0NN
social0.0458109463416786JJ
insurance0NN
assistance0.0373517915079663NN
gdp0NN

Unequal initial land distributions go together with slower economic growth

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.692670325757788
WordScorePoS
land0NN
economic0.128463821595706JJ
growth0.208565600657229NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.441994593080525
WordScorePoS
land0NN
economic0.103276847978089JJ
growth0.11178243319132NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.369804884381102
WordScorePoS
land0.0319966432858631NN
economic0.0959899298575892JJ
growth0.0519476926891779NN

Title to land increases investment and access to credit CONTENTS

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.491413731303397
WordScorePoS
land0.123873694868802NN
increase0.0068563725919103NN
investment0NN
access0.00110699520004297NN
credit0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.472457016556993
WordScorePoS
land0NN
increase0.0159575617614215NN
investment0.0377086395700813NN
access0.0128821355880844NN
credit0.0602029956716497NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.383345982993265
WordScorePoS
land0.0325677023224526NN
increase0.0162235147372888NN
investment0.0383371018038178NN
access0.0157161992303584NN
credit0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.317628124090934
WordScorePoS
land0.0465651203624806NN
increase0.0128868286091919NN
investment0.0182713919265625NN
access0.00749031153171887NN
credit0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.313434840786036
WordScorePoS
land0NN
increase0.00432344066632653NN
investment0.0766240489430275NN
access0.00314118376811005NN
credit0NN

Poor families did not benefit from an expansion of access in Africa

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.546567984995252
WordScorePoS
poor0.150659516460257JJ
family0NN
benefit0NN
expansion0NN
access0.00514687440545096NN
africa0IN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.411486231081289
WordScorePoS
poor0.0548141757796873JJ
family0.0297950283197006NN
benefit0.0252000451111224NN
expansion0NN
access0.00749031153171887NN
africa0IN

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.373283503985085
WordScorePoS
poor0.0642010940957526JJ
family0.0348974218717993NN
benefit0NN
expansion0NN
access0.00731085509381114NN
africa0IN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.358882154307352
WordScorePoS
poor0.0229054731708393JJ
family0NN
benefit0NN
expansion0.0731385760866977NN
access0.00626002771693937NN
africa0IN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.328856961735579
WordScorePoS
poor0JJ
family0.0465610847355851NN
benefit0.0393804437159645NN
expansion0NN
access0.00780347258345989NN
africa0IN

It better for household welfare to be close to economic opportunities

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.478233001534158
WordScorePoS
household0NN
welfare0NN
economic0.128463821595706JJ
opportunity0.0361300980868102NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.480471648380257
WordScorePoS
household0.0330412182586772NN
welfare0NN
economic0.103276847978089JJ
opportunity0.029046330719385NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.444446981243423
WordScorePoS
household0.0554128417527413NN
welfare0.0542519672965169NN
economic0.0433009429988926JJ
opportunity0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.406178335819654
WordScorePoS
household0.0465610847355851NN
welfare0NN
economic0.0727679293221751JJ
opportunity0.02046578088155NN

Poorer households have lower quality water and pay more in Niger

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.866857582268665
WordScorePoS
household0NN
quality0.0255958462813622NN
water0.556409482163189NN
pay0.0295155485671997NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.372290618519044
WordScorePoS
household0.0554128417527413NN
quality0.0203215381458133NN
water0.186896403054502NN
pay0NN

Weaker institutions are associated with macroeconomic volatility and crises

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.887162597268603
WordScorePoS
institution0.274477239401321NN
macroeconomic0JJ
volatility0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.320386488925891
WordScorePoS
institution0.0991236547760315NN
macroeconomic0JJ
volatility0NN

Poland stock market started slowly but then surpassed the Czech Republic

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.595665689440101
WordScorePoS
stock0NN
market0.0913569596328122NN
slowly0RB
surpass0VBP

Labor shares fall during crises and don fully recover afterward

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.686764398983222
WordScorePoS
share0NN
fall0.123094312756122NN
fully0RB

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.449743416659513
WordScorePoS
share0.0365427838531249NN
fall0.0440683498519077NN
fully0RB

Patterns of employment and unemployment vary widely across African countries

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.860435853984635
WordScorePoS
pattern0NN
employment0.173804667214358NN
unemployment0.0804764811724088NN
widely0RB
african0IN
country0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.351969377229151
WordScorePoS
pattern0NN
employment0.104016094894625NN
unemployment0NN
widely0RB
african0IN
country0NN

In Argentina the wealthy had way out during the crisis

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Different labor market institutional setups can yield equally good productivity growth paths Scandinavia versus the United States

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.572156220296115
WordScorePoS
market0.0252035516550537NN
institutional0JJ
yield0NN
productivity0.0410992516792148NN
growth0.208565600657229NN
unite0VB

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.517194866108974
WordScorePoS
market0NN
institutional0.0828215106044499JJ
yield0.0828215106044499NN
productivity0NN
growth0NN
unite0.0828215106044499VB

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.366661411038261
WordScorePoS
market0.0913569596328122NN
institutional0JJ
yield0NN
productivity0.0595900566394012NN
growth0.0252000451111224NN
unite0VB

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.32461884342301
WordScorePoS
market0.0377086395700813NN
institutional0JJ
yield0NN
productivity0.0922368138456871NN
growth0.0260040237236563NN
unite0VB

Wage differentials are substantially larger today than at the end of the nineteenth century

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.876459177641645
WordScorePoS
wage0NN
differential0JJ
substantially0RB
century0.219293228426234NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.45390103929144
WordScorePoS
wage0.064698038783335NN
differential0.0488696285210061JJ
substantially0RB
century0NN

More subsidies than aid Tables

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.720714418994669
WordScorePoS
subsidy0.162850158165781NN
aid0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.544769787753377
WordScorePoS
subsidy0NN
aid0.123094312756122NN

Decomposition of inequality between and within communities

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.99557979210187
WordScorePoS
inequality0.635305170773079NN
community0.0202620733250388NN

Financial policy and institutions are often captured by the few case study evidence

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.670989617473612
WordScorePoS
financial0.0298222075472138JJ
policy0.0848203862485078NN
institution0.0991236547760315NN
capture0NN
study0NN
evidence0.12939607756667NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.608346245791007
WordScorePoS
financial0.016515769558553JJ
policy0.0201317944152378NN
institution0.274477239401321NN
capture0NN
study0NN
evidence0NN

Percentage of women who have ever experienced physical or sexual violence by an intimate partner

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.856047752014938
WordScorePoS
percentage0NN
woman0.221979360474357NN
experienced0JJ
sexual0.13773238606089JJ
violence0.0931221694711702NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.311326888905693
WordScorePoS
percentage0NN
woman0NN
experienced0JJ
sexual0JJ
violence0.164686343640793NN

Fiscal costs of selected banking crises

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.779546243269319
WordScorePoS
fiscal0.064698038783335JJ
cost0.0660824365173543NN
banking0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.479698046862464
WordScorePoS
fiscal0JJ
cost0NN
banking0.0804764811724088NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.32721658236259
WordScorePoS
fiscal0JJ
cost0.0548954478802642NN
banking0NN

Increases in life expectancy at birth slowed down dramatically in the

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.810431286673099
WordScorePoS
increase0.0143984997539974NN
life0.0250390290383647NN
expectancy0.0407408489778079NN
birth0.0748292956291867NN
slow0.0307735781890304JJ

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.350131901913689
WordScorePoS
increase0.00711043475673939NN
life0.0123650647908625NN
expectancy0NN
birth0NN
slow0.0607878664258118JJ

ODA as share of GNI and simulation for Poverty

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.812197376887454
WordScorePoS
oda0.1957322179513NN
share0.0766240489430275NN
gnus0.146799163463475NN
poverty0.0109843026967392NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.509760287164294
WordScorePoS
oda0NN
share0NN
gnus0NN
poverty0.269969049497485NN

Mean years of schooling increased continuously while inequality declined Income consumption inequality measures

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.940842258530998
WordScorePoS
schooling0NN
increase0.00285817158600878NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
decline0.02794560829783NN
income0.166475342664294NN
consumption0NN
measure0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.234056310950467
WordScorePoS
schooling0NN
increase0.00958677785775002NN
inequality0NN
decline0.0234335422829798NN
income0NN
consumption0.332151194779746NN
measure0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.121577551144724
WordScorePoS
schooling0NN
increase0.00711043475673939NN
inequality0NN
decline0NN
income0NN
consumption0.147812295323721NN
measure0.0347609334428716NN

Mobility matrix in absolute country per capita incomes to Education Health Classification of economies by region and income

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.549880551191649
WordScorePoS
mobility0.064698038783335NN
country0NN
capita0NN
income0.166475342664294NN
education0.0121171980355011NN
health0.0405241466500776NN
economy0NN
region0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.404800830562872
WordScorePoS
mobility0NN
country0NN
capita0NN
income0NN
education0.0152605842304358NN
health0.191387734041787NN
economy0NN
region0.124837844401518NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.360490234702489
WordScorePoS
mobility0NN
country0NN
capita0NN
income0.0442083771593746NN
education0.0225244866060403NN
health0NN
economy0NN
region0.184259548107002NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.298264546439627
WordScorePoS
mobility0NN
country0NN
capita0NN
income0NN
education0.244244978014045NN
health0NN
economy0NN
region0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.343830070873231
WordScorePoS
mobility0NN
country0NN
capita0NN
income0.110649350233433NN
education0.022550656390892NN
health0.0377086395700813NN
economy0NN
region0NN

The effect of income shocks on consumption Côte Ivoire Key indicators of development

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.638267233427772
WordScorePoS
effect0NN
income0NN
shock0NN
consumption0.332151194779746NN
key0NN
development0.022306853314744NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.331704145120393
WordScorePoS
effect0NN
income0.166475342664294NN
shock0NN
consumption0NN
key0NN
development0.0177346522508396NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.276094022556603
WordScorePoS
effect0NN
income0NN
shock0NN
consumption0.147812295323721NN
key0NN
development0.0055149369084567NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.340561082735152
WordScorePoS
effect0.0454743001434393NN
income0.110649350233433NN
shock0NN
consumption0NN
key0NN
development0.0330049940546426NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.325848299733586
WordScorePoS
effect0NN
income0.0442083771593746NN
shock0.120266261535276NN
consumption0NN
key0NN
development0.0164833460638534NN

Farm size productivity differences selected countries Poverty and income distribution

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.65561304825816
WordScorePoS
farm0.291708356920574NN
size0NN
productivity0.0595900566394012NN
country0NN
poverty0.0261926252110933NN
income0.0643370113878709NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.466196793776019
WordScorePoS
farm0NN
size0NN
productivity0NN
country0NN
poverty0.269969049497485NN
income0.0442083771593746NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.39200530888974
WordScorePoS
farm0NN
size0.0396106020715138NN
productivity0NN
country0NN
poverty0.05809266143877NN
income0.166475342664294NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.355748741972711
WordScorePoS
farm0NN
size0.0368585655748969NN
productivity0.0922368138456871NN
country0NN
poverty0NN
income0.110649350233433NN

Examples of social protection programs

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.765160152621017
WordScorePoS
social0.112994637345193JJ
protection0.122839698738001NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.543102861641951
WordScorePoS
social0.101310366625194JJ
protection0.0660824365173543NN

Targeting performance of conditional transfer schemes

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.726288661566322
WordScorePoS
target0.0898760357768464NN
performance0NN
transfer0.036961556179878NN

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.460189861225179
WordScorePoS
target0NN
performance0NN
transfer0.0803666323453555NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.37046944260773
WordScorePoS
target0NN
performance0.064698038783335NN
transfer0NN

Two pathologies in the interaction between equity and growth Economic activity Trade aid and finance Key indicators for other economies Foreword Poverty reduction comes about through individuals families and communities taking advantage of the opportunities available to them by working investing and innovating to better their lives

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.622987574194409
WordScorePoS
growth0.208565600657229NN
economic0.128463821595706JJ
activity0.0295821503613099NN
trade0.0591643007226199NN
aid0.0607878664258118NN
finance0NN
key0NN
economy0.0821985033584295NN
poverty0.0722601961736204NN
reduction0NN
individual0JJ
family0NN
community0NN
opportunity0.0361300980868102NN
invest0VB
life0.0123650647908625NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.394279505786585
WordScorePoS
growth0.0519476926891779NN
economic0.0959899298575892JJ
activity0NN
trade0NN
aid0NN
finance0NN
key0NN
economy0NN
poverty0.269969049497485NN
reduction0NN
individual0JJ
family0NN
community0NN
opportunity0NN
invest0VB
life0.0184786920895884NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.414264831564127
WordScorePoS
growth0.11178243319132NN
economic0.103276847978089JJ
activity0NN
trade0.0237821918091848NN
aid0NN
finance0NN
key0NN
economy0NN
poverty0.05809266143877NN
reduction0.0475643836183697NN
individual0.064698038783335JJ
family0NN
community0.0202620733250388NN
opportunity0.029046330719385NN
invest0VB
life0NN

But we live in world of extraordinary inequalities in opportunity both within and across countries

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.974256287645068
WordScorePoS
live0.0159075630937118VB
world0.00276879546803864NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
opportunity0.029046330719385NN
country0NN

Even the basic opportunity for life itself is disparately distributed whereas less than half of one percent of children born in Sweden die before their first birthday this is the case for close to of all children born in Mozambique

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.698601245681793
WordScorePoS
basic0JJ
opportunity0NN
life0.0250390290383647NN
distribute0VB
child0.10682408961305NN
bear0.0814816979556159NN
die0.0748292956291867VB
birthday0.0307735781890304NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.372268925357922
WordScorePoS
basic0JJ
opportunity0.029046330719385NN
life0NN
distribute0.064698038783335VB
child0.0242343960710022NN
bear0NN
die0.0792212041430275VB
birthday0.0488696285210061NN

Within El Salvador the infant mortality rate is for children of educated mothers but for those whose mothers have no schooling

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.95637748158218
WordScorePoS
infant0NN
mortality0.276962203701274NN
rate0.0433561464459019NN
child0.10682408961305NN
educate0.0407408489778079VB
mother0.162963395911232NN
schooling0.0407408489778079NN

In Eritrea immunization coverage is close to for children in the richest fifth of the population but only for the bottom fifth

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.671127032847921
WordScorePoS
coverage0NN
child0.0242343960710022NN
richest0.064698038783335JJS
population0.0860640399817412NN
bottom0.064698038783335NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.385263363455329
WordScorePoS
coverage0.0307735781890304NN
child0.10682408961305NN
richest0JJS
population0NN
bottom0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.380487699146549
WordScorePoS
coverage0.0908430554521382NN
child0.0450489732120807NN
richest0JJS
population0NN
bottom0NN

These children can not be blamed for the circumstances into which they are born yet their lives and their ability to contribute to the development of their nations are powerfully shaped by them

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.506035104032857
WordScorePoS
child0.10682408961305NN
circumstance0NN
bear0.0814816979556159NN
life0.0250390290383647NN
ability0NN
contribute0VB
development0.00837573444202498NN
nation0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.403788983284953
WordScorePoS
child0NN
circumstance0.0332151194779746NN
bear0NN
life0.0250071479597636NN
ability0.0409791940864438NN
contribute0.0554128417527413VB
development0.022306853314744NN
nation0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.39519479020676
WordScorePoS
child0.0452169560888236NN
circumstance0.049270765107907NN
bear0NN
life0.0123650647908625NN
ability0.0607878664258118NN
contribute0VB
development0.0055149369084567NN
nation0NN

That is why the World Development Report the twenty eighth in this annual series looks at the role of equity in the process of development

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.557017358877213
WordScorePoS
world0.00257642711761688NN
development0.0330049940546426NN
report0NN
process0.0737171311497939NN

Equity is defined in terms of two basic principles

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.694844505762006
WordScorePoS
term0.149793392961411NN
basic0JJ
principle0.036961556179878NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.511026858517237
WordScorePoS
term0.0396106020715138NN
basic0JJ
principle0.0977392570420122NN

The first is equal opportunities that person life achievements should be determined primarily by his or her talents and efforts rather than by pre determined circumstances such as race gender social or family background

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.552550788596398
WordScorePoS
equal0.114211783066808JJ
opportunity0.02046578088155NN
person0NN
life0.0140083044329373NN
achievement0NN
determine0VB
primarily0RB
effort0NN
circumstance0NN
race0NN
gender0.196902218579822NN
social0.0285529457667019JJ
family0.0465610847355851NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.445145732221538
WordScorePoS
equal0.0376648791150643JJ
opportunity0NN
person0.0442083771593746NN
life0.0184786920895884NN
achievement0.0736315832425121NN
determine0VB
primarily0RB
effort0NN
circumstance0NN
race0NN
gender0.0519476926891779NN
social0.112994637345193JJ
family0NN

The second principle is the avoidance of deprivation in outcomes particularly in health education and consumption levels

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.593957274185825
WordScorePoS
principle0NN
outcome0NN
health0.0339811641917276NN
education0.0101607690729067NN
consumption0.332151194779746NN
level0.00513687014008325NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.481206201780614
WordScorePoS
principle0NN
outcome0.0416255041156371NN
health0NN
education0.244244978014045NN
consumption0NN
level0.0231525547935232NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.321789771177609
WordScorePoS
principle0NN
outcome0NN
health0.191387734041787NN
education0.0152605842304358NN
consumption0NN
level0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.265507238733116
WordScorePoS
principle0NN
outcome0NN
health0NN
education0.0150723186962745NN
consumption0.147812295323721NN
level0.00761994916892276NN

For many if not most people equity is of intrinsic importance as development goal in its own right

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

But this report goes further by presenting persuasive evidence that broad sharing of economic and political opportunities is also instrumental for economic growth and development

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.604419939750775
WordScorePoS
report0NN
evidence0.12939607756667NN
share0NN
economic0.103276847978089JJ
political0.0792212041430275JJ
opportunity0.029046330719385NN
growth0.11178243319132NN
development0.0177346522508396NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.56081354121117
WordScorePoS
report0NN
evidence0NN
share0.0252035516550537NN
economic0.128463821595706JJ
political0JJ
opportunity0.0361300980868102NN
growth0.208565600657229NN
development0.0055149369084567NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.335731980496812
WordScorePoS
report0NN
evidence0NN
share0.0285529457667019NN
economic0.0727679293221751JJ
political0.111637082206855JJ
opportunity0.02046578088155NN
growth0NN
development0.0124956749436837NN

This is for economic reasons because greater equity can lead to fuller and more efficient use of nation resources

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.460047160188606
WordScorePoS
economic0.128463821595706JJ
lead0.0504071033101074NN
efficient0JJ
nation0NN
resource0.0123650647908625NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.506327205326371
WordScorePoS
economic0.0433009429988926JJ
lead0.0169905820958638NN
efficient0.108503934593034JJ
nation0NN
resource0.0416785799329393NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.408731505199019
WordScorePoS
economic0.0959899298575892JJ
lead0NN
efficient0JJ
nation0NN
resource0.0739147683583536NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.34373741954208
WordScorePoS
economic0.103276847978089JJ
lead0NN
efficient0JJ
nation0.0396106020715138NN
resource0NN

It is also for political and institutional reasons excessive inequalities in power and influence can lead to political social and economic institutions that are less conducive to long term growth

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.834114052803864
WordScorePoS
political0.0792212041430275JJ
institutional0JJ
excessive0JJ
inequality0.635305170773079NN
power0NN
influence0NN
lead0NN
social0.101310366625194JJ
economic0.103276847978089JJ
institution0.0991236547760315NN
conducive0JJ
term0.0396106020715138NN
growth0.11178243319132NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.319888307275012
WordScorePoS
political0JJ
institutional0JJ
excessive0JJ
inequality0NN
power0NN
influence0NN
lead0.0504071033101074NN
social0.0504071033101074JJ
economic0.128463821595706JJ
institution0.0410992516792148NN
conducive0JJ
term0NN
growth0.208565600657229NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.183324699171527
WordScorePoS
political0JJ
institutional0JJ
excessive0JJ
inequality0NN
power0NN
influence0NN
lead0NN
social0JJ
economic0JJ
institution0.274477239401321NN
conducive0JJ
term0NN
growth0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.166112337688935
WordScorePoS
political0JJ
institutional0.036961556179878JJ
excessive0JJ
inequality0NN
power0.036961556179878NN
influence0NN
lead0NN
social0JJ
economic0JJ
institution0.0249900578719309NN
conducive0JJ
term0.149793392961411NN
growth0NN

Few today prosperous societies if any developed by excluding the majority of their people from economic and political opportunities

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.389128996943255
WordScorePoS
prosperous0JJ
society0.0591643007226199NN
develop0VB
majority0NN
people0.0106656521351091NNS
economic0.128463821595706JJ
political0JJ
opportunity0.0361300980868102NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.547041604985573
WordScorePoS
prosperous0.0911713013253052JJ
society0.0335134328085675NN
develop0VB
majority0NN
people0NNS
economic0.0727679293221751JJ
political0.111637082206855JJ
opportunity0.02046578088155NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.531618453302588
WordScorePoS
prosperous0JJ
society0.0237821918091848NN
develop0VB
majority0.0792212041430275NN
people0.00571634317201755NNS
economic0.103276847978089JJ
political0.0792212041430275JJ
opportunity0.029046330719385NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.343296030904769
WordScorePoS
prosperous0JJ
society0NN
develop0VB
majority0.0736315832425121NN
people0.0371911007748996NNS
economic0.0959899298575892JJ
political0JJ
opportunity0NN

The implication of this message for the work of the World Bank and others in the development community is that focus on equity should be central concern in the design and implementation of policy for development and growth

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.498538217690023
WordScorePoS
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Equity in the international arena is also central concern and can play powerful complementary role to domestic action

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In globally interconnected world leveling the international playing fields both economically and politically will help domestic efforts to combine equity with efficiency and growth

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In my view the evidence that equity and economic efficiency as well as growth are complementary in the long run helps to integrate the main two components of the World Bank poverty reduction strategy

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The focus on broadening opportunities strongly supports the first xi xii WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT pillar of the Bank development strategy namely enhancing the investment climate for everyone

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Together with the interdependence between the economic and political dimensions of development it also reinforces the importance of empowerment

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This report shows that the two pillars are not independent from each other in supporting development but instead are intricately linked with one another

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It is my hope that this report will have real influence in the way that we and our development partners understand design and implement development policies

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Paul D

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Wolfowitz President The World Bank Acknowledgments This Report has been prepared by core team led by Francisco H

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Ferreira and Michael Walton and comprising Tamar Manuelyan Atinc Abhijit Banerjee Peter Lanjouw Marta Menéndez Berk Özler Giovanna Prennushi Vijayendra Rao James Robinson and Michael Woolcock

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Important additional contributions were made by Anthony Bebbington Stijn Claessens Margaret Ellen Grosh Karla Hoff Jean O

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Lanjouw Xubei Lou Ana Revenga Caroline Sage Mark Sundberg and Peter Timmer

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The team was assisted by Maria Caridad Araujo Andrew Beath Ximena del Carpio Celine Ferre Thomas Haven Claudio E

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Montenegro and Jeffery C

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Tanner

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The work was conducted under the general guidance of François Bourguignon

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Extensive and excellent advice was received from Anthony B

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Atkinson Angus Deaton Naila Kabeer Martin Ravallion and Amartya Sen to whom the team is grateful without implication

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Many others inside and outside the World Bank also provided helpful comments their names are listed in the Bibliographical Note

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The Development Data Group contributed to the data appendix and was responsible for the Selected World Development Indicators

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Much of the background research was supported by multidonor programmatic trust fund the Knowledge for Change Program funded by Canada the European Community Finland Norway Sweden Switzerland and the United Kingdom

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The team undertook wide range of consultations for this Report which included workshops in Amsterdam Beirut Berlin Cairo Dakar Geneva Helsinki Hyderabad London Milan Nairobi New Delhi Oslo Ottawa Paris Rio de Janeiro Stockholm Tokyo Venice and Washington D

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videoconferences with sites in Bogota Buenos Aires Mexico City and Tokyo and an on line discussion of the draft Report

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The team wishes to thank participants in these workshops videoconferences and discussions which included researchers government officials and staff of nongovernmental and private sector organizations

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Rebecca Sugui served as executive assistant to the team Ofelia Valladolid as program assistant Madhur Arora and Jason Victor as team assistants

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Evangeline Santo Domingo served as resource management assistant

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Bruce Ross Larson was the principal editor

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Book design editing and production were coordinated by the World Bank Office of the Publisher under the supervision of Susan Graham and Monika Lynde

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xiii Abbreviations and Data Notes Abbreviations The following abbreviations are used in this Report AA AIDS CCP DAC DHS ECD EPL FDI GDP GHG GNI HIPC HIV ICOR ICRISAT IDA ILO IMF IMS KDP MDG MMM MSF NAFTA Affirmative action Acquired immune deficiency syndrome Chinese Communist Party Development Assistance Committee Demographic and Health Survey Early child development Employment protection legislation Foreign direct investment Gross domestic product Greenhouse gas Gross national income Heavily Indebted Poor Countries Human immunodeficiency virus Incremental Capital Output Ratio International Crop Research Institute in the Semi Arid Tropics International Development Association International Labour Organization International Monetary Fund Intercontinental Marketing Services Kecamatan Development Project Millennium Development Goals Movement Militant Mauricien Médecins Sans Frontières North American Free Trade Agreement Data notes The countries included in regional and income groupings in this Report are listed in the Classification of Economies table at the beginning of the Selected World Development Indicators

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Income classifications are based on GNP per capita thresholds for income classifications in this edition may be found in the Introduction to Selected World Development Indicators

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Group averages reported in the figures and tables are unweighted averages of the countries in the group unless noted to the contrary

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xiv NGO ODA OECD Nongovernmental organization Official development assistance Organisation for Economic Co operation and Development PPA Participatory Poverty Assessment PPP Purchasing power parity PROMESA Promoción Mejoramiento de la Salud SMEs Small and medium enterprises TAC Treatment Action Campaign TIMSS Third International Mathematics and Science Study TRIPs Trade related aspects of intellectual property rights U

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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.443507517757755
WordScorePoS
oda0NN
oecd0NN
organization0NN
official0NN
development0.0164833460638534NN
assistance0NN
economic0.0959899298575892JJ
participatory0JJ
poverty0.269969049497485NN
power0NN
parity0NN
medium0NN
enterprise0NN
treatment0NN
action0.0269969049497485NN
international0.00531301439641424JJ
science0NN
study0NN
trip0NN
trade0NN
related0.0184786920895884JJ
aspect0NN
intellectual0JJ
property0.0736315832425121NN
rights0.0519476926891779NNS

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.400136704947997
WordScorePoS
oda0NN
oecd0NN
organization0.0347609334428716NN
official0NN
development0.0055149369084567NN
assistance0.0410992516792148NN
economic0.128463821595706JJ
participatory0JJ
poverty0.0722601961736204NN
power0NN
parity0NN
medium0.0607878664258118NN
enterprise0.0607878664258118NN
treatment0NN
action0NN
international0.00355521737836969JJ
science0NN
study0NN
trip0NN
trade0.0591643007226199NN
related0.0123650647908625JJ
aspect0NN
intellectual0JJ
property0NN
rights0.0347609334428716NNS

United Nations UNCTAD United Nations Conference on Trade and Development UNDP United Nations Development Programme UNAIDS Joint United Nations Programme on HIV AIDS UNICEF United Nations International Children Emergency Fund VAT Value added tax WHO World Health Organization WTO World Trade Organization WWII World War II The use of the word countries to refer to economies implies no judgment by the World Bank about the legal or other status of territory

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.530327046062131
WordScorePoS
unite0VB
nation0NN
conference0NN
trade0.0149758277542848NN
development0.00837573444202498NN
programme0.00914534810831654NN
hiv0.448149338755887NN
aid0.123094312756122NN
international0JJ
child0.10682408961305NN
fund0NN
add0VB
tax0NN
world0.00087176582269799NN
health0.191387734041787NN
organization0.0175975629039954NN
country0NN
economy0NN
bank0NN
legal0JJ
status0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.216050966166479
WordScorePoS
unite0VB
nation0NN
conference0.18234260265061NN
trade0NN
development0.0124956749436837NN
programme0.02046578088155NN
hiv0NN
aid0NN
international0.00402768349408688JJ
child0.0170753354211044NN
fund0NN
add0VB
tax0NN
world0.00585260443759492NN
health0.0571058915334038NN
organization0NN
country0NN
economy0.0465610847355851NN
bank0NN
legal0JJ
status0NN

The term developing countries includes low and middle income economies and thus may include economies in transition from central planning as matter of convenience

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.421016653838875
WordScorePoS
term0.0396106020715138NN
develop0VB
country0NN
include0VB
middle0JJ
income0.166475342664294NN
economy0NN
central0JJ
plan0.0344256159926965NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.316489759086668
WordScorePoS
term0.149793392961411NN
develop0VB
country0NN
include0VB
middle0JJ
income0.017987180284335NN
economy0NN
central0JJ
plan0.0130185595639838NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.590689578585802
WordScorePoS
term0.0749457204978913NN
develop0VB
country0NN
include0VB
middle0JJ
income0.0449973847138318NN
economy0.0625160381065121NN
central0.0924643738905717JJ
plan0NN

The term advanced countries may be used as matter of convenience to denote high income economies

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.503079852745123
WordScorePoS
term0.0396106020715138NN
advance0NN
country0NN
income0.166475342664294NN
economy0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.409571968579264
WordScorePoS
term0.149793392961411NN
advance0NN
country0NN
income0.017987180284335NN
economy0NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.598013020030853
WordScorePoS
term0.0749457204978913NN
advance0.0625160381065121NN
country0NN
income0.0449973847138318NN
economy0.0625160381065121NN

Dollar figures are current U

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.623957404759367
WordScorePoS
dollar0NN
figure0.0602029956716497NN
current0JJ

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.507153196357469
WordScorePoS
dollar0.048933054487825NN
figure0NN
current0JJ

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.347874342569013
WordScorePoS
dollar0NN
figure0NN
current0.0335649154577099JJ

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.344248978261541
WordScorePoS
dollar0NN
figure0NN
current0.0332151194779746JJ

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.337563142565091
WordScorePoS
dollar0NN
figure0NN
current0.0325700316331562JJ

dollars unless otherwise specified

Label: 17, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
dollar0.048933054487825NN

Billion means million trillion means billion

Label: 1, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
means0.120266261535276NNS

Overview Consider two South African children born on the same day in

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.746774961969066
WordScorePoS
south0RB
african0IN
child0.0450489732120807NN
bear0NN
day0.25973846344589NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.504494110402186
WordScorePoS
south0RB
african0IN
child0.10682408961305NN
bear0.0814816979556159NN
day0.0175975629039954NN

Nthabiseng is black born to poor family in rural area in the Eastern Cape province about kilometers from Cape Town

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.644705505639133
WordScorePoS
bear0NN
poor0.0548141757796873JJ
family0.0297950283197006NN
rural0.148975141598503JJ
eastern0JJ

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.415828464226292
WordScorePoS
bear0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
family0NN
rural0JJ
eastern0JJ

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.509620502882786
WordScorePoS
bear0.0814816979556159NN
poor0JJ
family0.0624189222007589NN
rural0JJ
eastern0.0407408489778079JJ

Her mother had no formal schooling

Label: 3, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
mother0.162963395911232NN
schooling0.0407408489778079NN

Pieter is white born to wealthy family in Cape Town

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.910455350424071
WordScorePoS
bear0.0814816979556159NN
family0.0624189222007589NN

His mother completed college education at the nearby prestigious Stellenbosch University

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.905575469335329
WordScorePoS
mother0NN
complete0.0815069365350084JJ
education0.244244978014045NN
university0.0815069365350084NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.396296517642259
WordScorePoS
mother0.162963395911232NN
complete0JJ
education0.0152605842304358NN
university0NN

On the day of their birth Nthabiseng and Pieter could hardly be held responsible for their family circumstances their race their parents income and education their urban or rural location or indeed their sex

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.557674447369982
WordScorePoS
day0NN
birth0.0396106020715138NN
hold0NN
responsible0.064698038783335JJ
family0NN
circumstance0NN
race0.0488696285210061NN
income0.166475342664294NN
education0.0121171980355011NN
urban0.0488696285210061JJ
rural0.0330412182586772JJ
location0NN
sex0.064698038783335NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.380586213513181
WordScorePoS
day0.25973846344589NN
birth0NN
hold0NN
responsible0JJ
family0NN
circumstance0NN
race0NN
income0.0442083771593746NN
education0.0225244866060403NN
urban0JJ
rural0JJ
location0NN
sex0NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.365555390418831
WordScorePoS
day0NN
birth0NN
hold0NN
responsible0JJ
family0NN
circumstance0NN
race0NN
income0NN
education0NN
urban0.27622591898666JJ
rural0.0373517915079663JJ
location0NN
sex0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.326563132846486
WordScorePoS
day0NN
birth0NN
hold0.18234260265061NN
responsible0JJ
family0.0465610847355851NN
circumstance0NN
race0NN
income0NN
education0.0512260062633133NN
urban0JJ
rural0JJ
location0NN
sex0NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.284730276762745
WordScorePoS
day0NN
birth0NN
hold0NN
responsible0JJ
family0NN
circumstance0NN
race0NN
income0NN
education0.244244978014045NN
urban0JJ
rural0JJ
location0NN
sex0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.283403882360722
WordScorePoS
day0NN
birth0NN
hold0NN
responsible0JJ
family0.0297950283197006NN
circumstance0NN
race0NN
income0.0643370113878709NN
education0NN
urban0JJ
rural0.148975141598503JJ
location0NN
sex0NN

Yet statistics suggest that those predetermined background variables will make major difference for the lives they lead

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.489817197745556
WordScorePoS
suggest0.0602029956716497VB
major0.0160169090870187JJ
life0NN
lead0.0188543197850406NN

Nthabiseng has

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

percent chance of dying in the first year of her life more than twice Pieter percent

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.583102551932698
WordScorePoS
chance0NN
die0.0748292956291867VB
life0.0250390290383647NN

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.488535253734985
WordScorePoS
chance0NN
die0.0836717266454039VB
life0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.462549927184166
WordScorePoS
chance0NN
die0.0792212041430275VB
life0NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.36928000455515
WordScorePoS
chance0.0548233071065585NN
die0VB
life0.00842350130803634NN

Pieter can look forward to years of life Nthabiseng to

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Pieter can expect to complete years of formal schooling Nthabiseng less than year

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.750049632700174
WordScorePoS
expect0VB
complete0.0815069365350084JJ
schooling0NN

Nthabiseng is likely to be considerably poorer than Pieter throughout her life

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Growing up she is less likely to have access to clean water and sanitation or to good schools

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.909753504707671
WordScorePoS
grow0VB
access0.00731085509381114NN
clean0.0348974218717993JJ
water0.556409482163189NN
sanitation0.334686906581616NN
school0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.217567068486848
WordScorePoS
grow0.0339811641917276VB
access0.00232174891244877NN
clean0JJ
water0.186896403054502NN
sanitation0NN
school0NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.209675843070732
WordScorePoS
grow0VB
access0.00697628678506322NN
clean0JJ
water0NN
sanitation0NN
school0.208127520578185NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.137196610678798
WordScorePoS
grow0VB
access0.0157161992303584NN
clean0.125032076213024JJ
water0NN
sanitation0NN
school0NN

So the opportunities these two children face to reach their full human potential are vastly different from the outset through no fault of their own

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.405796736098123
WordScorePoS
opportunity0NN
child0.076326555629389NN
reach0.0499016491051341NN
full0JJ
human0.0152653111258778JJ
potential0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.394396935126033
WordScorePoS
opportunity0.0361300980868102NN
child0.0452169560888236NN
reach0NN
full0.0410992516792148JJ
human0.0150723186962745JJ
potential0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.366037964495876
WordScorePoS
opportunity0NN
child0.10682408961305NN
reach0NN
full0.020806307400253JJ
human0JJ
potential0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.361951019935249
WordScorePoS
opportunity0NN
child0.0603953832457135NN
reach0.0658099748168827NN
full0JJ
human0JJ
potential0NN

Such disparities in opportunity translate into different abilities to contribute to South Africa development

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.452715027067223
WordScorePoS
disparity0NN
opportunity0NN
ability0.0409791940864438NN
contribute0.0554128417527413VB
south0RB
africa0IN
development0.022306853314744NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.390676897399446
WordScorePoS
disparity0NN
opportunity0.0361300980868102NN
ability0.0607878664258118NN
contribute0VB
south0RB
africa0IN
development0.0055149369084567NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.364809388520006
WordScorePoS
disparity0.0488696285210061NN
opportunity0.029046330719385NN
ability0NN
contribute0VB
south0RB
africa0IN
development0.0177346522508396NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.341328138804293
WordScorePoS
disparity0.0615662203253227NN
opportunity0NN
ability0NN
contribute0VB
south0RB
africa0IN
development0.0279277626235394NN

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.324762432803693
WordScorePoS
disparity0NN
opportunity0NN
ability0NN
contribute0.0815049608642826VB
south0RB
africa0IN
development0.0036456034155327NN

Nthabiseng health at birth may have been poorer owing to the poorer nutrition of her mother during her pregnancy

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.890611150351907
WordScorePoS
health0.191387734041787NN
birth0.0748292956291867NN
nutrition0NN
mother0.162963395911232NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.36320209381199
WordScorePoS
health0NN
birth0NN
nutrition0.175025014152344NN
mother0NN

By virtue of their gender socialization their geographic location and their access to schools Pieter is much more likely to acquire an education that will enable him to put his innate talents to full use

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.775765304048964
WordScorePoS
gender0.10561808200669NN
geographic0JJ
location0NN
access0.00697628678506322NN
school0.208127520578185NN
acquire0.0615662203253227NN
education0.244244978014045NN
enable0VB
full0JJ

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.547496746821561
WordScorePoS
gender0.196902218579822NN
geographic0JJ
location0NN
access0.00780347258345989NN
school0.0931221694711702NN
acquire0NN
education0.0512260062633133NN
enable0.0465610847355851VB
full0.0465610847355851JJ

Even if at age and despite the odds Nthabiseng manages to come up with great business idea such as an innovation to increase agricultural production she would find it much harder to persuade bank to lend her money at reasonable interest rate

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.678822295547065
WordScorePoS
age0.0365427838531249NN
manage0.0297950283197006VB
business0NN
idea0NN
innovation0NN
increase0.0128868286091919NN
agricultural0.250032943963815JJ
production0.0548141757796873NN
bank0.0881366997038154NN
money0NN
rate0.0155217067874935NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.397499797600619
WordScorePoS
age0NN
manage0VB
business0.0909486002868787NN
idea0NN
innovation0.122982418460916NN
increase0.0159575617614215NN
agricultural0.0368585655748969JJ
production0.0188543197850406NN
bank0NN
money0NN
rate0NN

Pieter having similarly bright idea say on how to design an improved version of promising software would likely find it easier to obtain credit with both college diploma and quite possibly some collateral

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

With the transition to democracy in South Africa Nthabiseng is able to vote and thus indirectly shape the policy of her government something denied to blacks under apartheid

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

But the legacy of apartheid unequal opportunities and political power will remain for some time to come

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.686816137884249
WordScorePoS
opportunity0.029046330719385NN
political0.0792212041430275JJ
power0NN
remain0.0396106020715138VB
time0.0607862199751165NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.434814932333555
WordScorePoS
opportunity0.02046578088155NN
political0.111637082206855JJ
power0NN
remain0VB
time0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.377537972721857
WordScorePoS
opportunity0.0135141354781442NN
political0.0368585655748969JJ
power0.0454743001434393NN
remain0VB
time0.0188543197850406NN

It is long road from such fundamental political change to changes in economic and social conditions

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.552315316103954
WordScorePoS
road0NN
fundamental0JJ
political0JJ
change0.402565546215053NN
economic0JJ
social0JJ
condition0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.412209371397692
WordScorePoS
road0NN
fundamental0JJ
political0JJ
change0NN
economic0.128463821595706JJ
social0.0504071033101074JJ
condition0.121575732851624NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.389381898144593
WordScorePoS
road0NN
fundamental0JJ
political0.0792212041430275JJ
change0NN
economic0.103276847978089JJ
social0.101310366625194JJ
condition0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.368758275690447
WordScorePoS
road0NN
fundamental0.0558185411034276JJ
political0.111637082206855JJ
change0NN
economic0.0727679293221751JJ
social0.0285529457667019JJ
condition0NN

As striking as the differences in life chances are between Pieter and Nthabiseng in South Africa they are dwarfed by the disparities between average South Africans and citizens of more developed countries

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.728768864639858
WordScorePoS
life0.00842350130803634NN
chance0.0548233071065585NN
south0RB
africa0IN
disparity0NN
average0.1656430212089NN
african0IN
develop0VB
country0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.622389623011359
WordScorePoS
life0NN
chance0NN
south0RB
africa0IN
disparity0.0488696285210061NN
average0.146608885563018NN
african0IN
develop0VB
country0NN

Consider the cards dealt to Sven born on that same day to an average Swedish household

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.676636342105713
WordScorePoS
bear0NN
day0.25973846344589NN
average0NN
household0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.468000724637179
WordScorePoS
bear0NN
day0NN
average0.146608885563018NN
household0.0330412182586772NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.431511322886832
WordScorePoS
bear0NN
day0NN
average0.1656430212089NN
household0NN

His chances of dying in the first year of life are very small

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.583102551932698
WordScorePoS
chance0NN
die0.0748292956291867VB
life0.0250390290383647NN

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.488535253734985
WordScorePoS
chance0NN
die0.0836717266454039VB
life0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.462549927184166
WordScorePoS
chance0NN
die0.0792212041430275VB
life0NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.36928000455515
WordScorePoS
chance0.0548233071065585NN
die0VB
life0.00842350130803634NN

percent and he can expect to live to the age of years longer than Pieter and years more than Nthabiseng

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.73066818283295
WordScorePoS
expect0VB
live0.0739258553811849VB
age0.112994637345193NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.466597630309445
WordScorePoS
expect0VB
live0.0300513417930436VB
age0.0893142758861673NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.33854284162948
WordScorePoS
expect0.0357189919948307VB
live0.0143446978608332VB
age0.0365427838531249NN

He is likely to complete

Label: 4, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
complete0.0815069365350084JJ

years of schooling years more than the average South African

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.736434231844477
WordScorePoS
schooling0NN
average0.1656430212089NN
south0RB
african0IN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.651810147105523
WordScorePoS
schooling0NN
average0.146608885563018NN
south0RB
african0IN

These differences in the quantity of schooling are compounded by differences in quality in the eighth grade Sven can expect to obtain score of on an internationally comparable math test while the average South African student will get score of only more than two standard deviations below the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development OECD median

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.478013387823236
WordScorePoS
schooling0NN
quality0.0121171980355011NN
expect0VB
obtain0VB
internationally0RB
average0.146608885563018NN
south0RB
african0IN
standard0NN
economic0.103276847978089JJ
cooperation0NN
development0.0177346522508396NN
oecd0NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.357950451149399
WordScorePoS
schooling0NN
quality0NN
expect0.0335649154577099VB
obtain0VB
internationally0RB
average0.1656430212089NN
south0RB
african0IN
standard0NN
economic0JJ
cooperation0.0102677744436108NN
development0NN
oecd0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.2804527708441
WordScorePoS
schooling0NN
quality0.030144637392549NN
expect0VB
obtain0VB
internationally0RB
average0NN
south0RB
african0IN
standard0NN
economic0.128463821595706JJ
cooperation0NN
development0.0055149369084567NN
oecd0NN

WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT Nthabiseng most likely will never reach that grade and so will not take the test

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.5480748668696
WordScorePoS
world0NN
development0.0368309542451156NN
report0NN
reach0.0658099748168827NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.540085218916556
WordScorePoS
world0.00464349782489754NN
development0.022306853314744NN
report0.0409791940864438NN
reach0.0332151194779746NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.424900931168801
WordScorePoS
world0.0017440716962658NN
development0.0279277626235394NN
report0NN
reach0.0499016491051341NN

These differences in life chances across nationality race gender and social groups will strike many readers as fundamentally unfair

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.625658144986495
WordScorePoS
life0.0140083044329373NN
chance0NN
race0NN
gender0.196902218579822NN
social0.0285529457667019JJ

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.479233250226123
WordScorePoS
life0.0184786920895884NN
chance0NN
race0NN
gender0.0519476926891779NN
social0.112994637345193JJ

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.392382761580172
WordScorePoS
life0NN
chance0NN
race0.0488696285210061NN
gender0NN
social0.101310366625194JJ

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.308674120892378
WordScorePoS
life0.0125233923809486NN
chance0NN
race0NN
gender0.10561808200669NN
social0JJ

They are also likely to lead to wasted human potential and thus to missed development opportunities

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.531591262182203
WordScorePoS
lead0.0169905820958638NN
waste0.138532104381853NN
human0.0101607690729067JJ
potential0NN
development0.022306853314744NN
opportunity0NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.440594812425368
WordScorePoS
lead0.0383371018038178NN
waste0.0625160381065121NN
human0JJ
potential0NN
development0NN
opportunity0.0549574626423028NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.345334615305092
WordScorePoS
lead0.0188543197850406NN
waste0NN
human0.011275328195446JJ
potential0.0454743001434393NN
development0.0330049940546426NN
opportunity0.0135141354781442NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.302922132804584
WordScorePoS
lead0.0504071033101074NN
waste0NN
human0.0150723186962745JJ
potential0NN
development0.0055149369084567NN
opportunity0.0361300980868102NN

That is why World Development Report analyzes the relationship between equity and development

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

By equity we mean that individuals should have equal opportunities to pursue life of their choosing and be spared from extreme deprivation in outcomes

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.723846659356383
WordScorePoS
individual0JJ
equal0.0376648791150643JJ
opportunity0NN
pursue0VB
life0.0184786920895884NN
extreme0.294526332970048JJ
outcome0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.403025332600989
WordScorePoS
individual0JJ
equal0.114211783066808JJ
opportunity0.02046578088155NN
pursue0VB
life0.0140083044329373NN
extreme0JJ
outcome0.0465610847355851NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.30353320024452
WordScorePoS
individual0.064698038783335JJ
equal0.0202620733250388JJ
opportunity0.029046330719385NN
pursue0VB
life0NN
extreme0JJ
outcome0.0330412182586772NN

The main message is that equity is complementary in some fundamental respects to the pursuit of long term prosperity

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.716594383438686
WordScorePoS
fundamental0JJ
term0.149793392961411NN
prosperity0NN

Institutions and policies that promote level playing field where all members of society have similar chances to become socially active politically influential and economically productive contribute to sustainable growth and development

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.574489177785467
WordScorePoS
institution0.274477239401321NN
policy0.0201317944152378NN
promote0.0220985725470694VB
level0.0610668815653026NN
field0NN
society0.118536858482514NN
chance0NN
socially0RB
active0JJ
economically0RB
productive0JJ
contribute0VB
sustainable0.00920028227269801JJ
growth0NN
development0.0368309542451156NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.52983307977458
WordScorePoS
institution0.0410992516792148NN
policy0.0452169560888236NN
promote0.0275746845422835VB
level0.00761994916892276NN
field0NN
society0.0591643007226199NN
chance0NN
socially0RB
active0JJ
economically0RB
productive0.0985415302158139JJ
contribute0VB
sustainable0.00688808874408283JJ
growth0.208565600657229NN
development0.0055149369084567NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.368092322683959
WordScorePoS
institution0.0991236547760315NN
policy0.0848203862485078NN
promote0.00886732612541978VB
level0NN
field0NN
society0.0237821918091848NN
chance0NN
socially0RB
active0JJ
economically0RB
productive0JJ
contribute0VB
sustainable0.00138439773401932JJ
growth0.11178243319132NN
development0.0177346522508396NN

Greater equity is thus doubly good for poverty reduction through potential beneficial effects on aggregate long run development and through greater opportunities for poorer groups within any society

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.580101062509837
WordScorePoS
poverty0.269969049497485NN
reduction0NN
potential0NN
effect0NN
development0.0164833460638534NN
opportunity0NN
society0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.356867452836538
WordScorePoS
poverty0.05809266143877NN
reduction0.0475643836183697NN
potential0NN
effect0NN
development0.0177346522508396NN
opportunity0.029046330719385NN
society0.0237821918091848NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.350486925206549
WordScorePoS
poverty0.0722601961736204NN
reduction0NN
potential0NN
effect0NN
development0.0055149369084567NN
opportunity0.0361300980868102NN
society0.0591643007226199NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.323204618607094
WordScorePoS
poverty0NN
reduction0NN
potential0.0454743001434393NN
effect0.0454743001434393NN
development0.0330049940546426NN
opportunity0.0135141354781442NN
society0.0221298700466866NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.314638783405907
WordScorePoS
poverty0NN
reduction0NN
potential0NN
effect0NN
development0.0368309542451156NN
opportunity0NN
society0.118536858482514NN

The complementarities between equity and prosperity arise for two broad sets of reasons

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.72155545486792
WordScorePoS
prosperity0NN
arise0VB
set0.0978661089756501NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.539242226844429
WordScorePoS
prosperity0.0731385760866977NN
arise0VB
set0NN

First there are many market failures in developing countries notably in the markets for credit insurance land and human capital

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.604295549103426
WordScorePoS
market0.0913569596328122NN
develop0VB
country0NN
notably0RB
credit0NN
insurance0NN
land0.0465651203624806NN
human0JJ

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.384686287937078
WordScorePoS
market0.0252035516550537NN
develop0VB
country0NN
notably0RB
credit0NN
insurance0.0804764811724088NN
land0NN
human0.0150723186962745JJ

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.377559939052978
WordScorePoS
market0NN
develop0VB
country0NN
notably0RB
credit0NN
insurance0NN
land0.123873694868802NN
human0.0193783617722719JJ

As result resources may not flow where returns are highest

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.759680578515903
WordScorePoS
result0NN
resource0NN
flow0.0811931365363091NN
return0.107490825192354NN

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.317393354955023
WordScorePoS
result0.0683326727248364NN
resource0.0104991907358033NN
flow0NN
return0NN

For example some highly capable children like Nthabiseng may fail to complete primary schooling while others who are less able may finish university

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.822828901738873
WordScorePoS
highly0RB
child0.076326555629389NN
complete0.0815069365350084JJ
primary0.108423939529757JJ
schooling0NN
university0.0815069365350084NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.374792189350807
WordScorePoS
highly0RB
child0.10682408961305NN
complete0JJ
primary0.0108390366114755JJ
schooling0.0407408489778079NN
university0NN

Farmers may work harder on plots they own than on those they sharecrop

Label: 2, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
farmer0.175025014152344NN

Some efficient developingcountry producers of agricultural commodities and textiles are shut out of some OECD markets and poor unskilled workers have highly restricted opportunities to migrate to work in richer countries

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.763193790958398
WordScorePoS
efficient0JJ
producer0.0440683498519077NN
agricultural0.250032943963815JJ
commodity0.0440683498519077NN
textile0NN
oecd0NN
market0.0913569596328122NN
poor0.0548141757796873JJ
worker0NN
highly0RB
opportunity0.0261926252110933NN
migrate0.0583416713841148VB
country0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.202122420945867
WordScorePoS
efficient0JJ
producer0NN
agricultural0JJ
commodity0NN
textile0NN
oecd0NN
market0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
worker0NN
highly0RB
opportunity0NN
migrate0VB
country0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.414494245222899
WordScorePoS
efficient0.108503934593034JJ
producer0.0409791940864438NN
agricultural0JJ
commodity0NN
textile0NN
oecd0.108503934593034NN
market0.0169905820958638NN
poor0.0339811641917276JJ
worker0NN
highly0RB
opportunity0NN
migrate0VB
country0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.320951118442146
WordScorePoS
efficient0JJ
producer0NN
agricultural0.0368585655748969JJ
commodity0.0454743001434393NN
textile0.0602029956716497NN
oecd0NN
market0.0377086395700813NN
poor0JJ
worker0.0454743001434393NN
highly0RB
opportunity0.0135141354781442NN
migrate0VB
country0NN

When markets are missing or imperfect the distributions of wealth and power affect the allocation of investment opportunities

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.469217473093621
WordScorePoS
market0.030649619577211NN
power0.036961556179878NN
affect0VB
investment0.0766240489430275NN
opportunity0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.467332508152759
WordScorePoS
market0.0377086395700813NN
power0.0454743001434393NN
affect0.00925008066007716VB
investment0.0377086395700813NN
opportunity0.0135141354781442NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.441844741087681
WordScorePoS
market0.0913569596328122NN
power0NN
affect0VB
investment0.0182713919265625NN
opportunity0.0261926252110933NN

Correcting the market failures is the ideal response where this is not feasible or far too costly some forms of redistribution of access to services assets or political influence can increase economic efficiency

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.360681583581229
WordScorePoS
correct0JJ
market0.0252035516550537NN
response0NN
feasible0JJ
form0.0591643007226199NN
access0.00344404437204141NN
service0.0197870712294258NN
asset0NN
political0JJ
influence0NN
increase0.00711043475673939NN
economic0.128463821595706JJ
efficiency0.0295821503613099NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.325489696472738
WordScorePoS
correct0JJ
market0NN
response0NN
feasible0JJ
form0.158049144643351NN
access0.00690021170452351NN
service0NN
asset0.0811931365363091NN
political0JJ
influence0NN
increase0NN
economic0JJ
efficiency0NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.280445417524949
WordScorePoS
correct0JJ
market0NN
response0NN
feasible0JJ
form0NN
access0.0157161992303584NN
service0.0451471467893167NN
asset0NN
political0JJ
influence0NN
increase0.0162235147372888NN
economic0JJ
efficiency0.134992154141495NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.42208912780392
WordScorePoS
correct0JJ
market0NN
response0NN
feasible0JJ
form0.100540298425703NN
access0.00780347258345989NN
service0.022416649027415NN
asset0NN
political0.111637082206855JJ
influence0NN
increase0.00402768349408688NN
economic0.0727679293221751JJ
efficiency0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.348873848549278
WordScorePoS
correct0JJ
market0.0202620733250388NN
response0NN
feasible0JJ
form0NN
access0.00138439773401932NN
service0.00795378154685591NN
asset0.0488696285210061NN
political0.0792212041430275JJ
influence0NN
increase0.00285817158600878NN
economic0.103276847978089JJ
efficiency0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.309312674515095
WordScorePoS
correct0JJ
market0NN
response0NN
feasible0JJ
form0.0884167543187491NN
access0.00514687440545096NN
service0.0443555132287109NN
asset0NN
political0JJ
influence0NN
increase0NN
economic0.0959899298575892JJ
efficiency0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.300588700294539
WordScorePoS
correct0.0583416713841148JJ
market0.0913569596328122NN
response0NN
feasible0JJ
form0.0428913409252473NN
access0.00749031153171887NN
service0.0143446978608332NN
asset0NN
political0JJ
influence0NN
increase0.0128868286091919NN
economic0JJ
efficiency0NN

The second set of reasons why equity and long term prosperity can be complementary arises from the fact that high levels of economic and political inequality tend to lead to economic institutions and social arrangements that systematically favor the interests of those with more influence

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.81680109552674
WordScorePoS
set0NN
term0.0396106020715138NN
prosperity0NN
arise0VB
level0NN
economic0.103276847978089JJ
political0.0792212041430275JJ
inequality0.635305170773079NN
lead0NN
institution0.0991236547760315NN
social0.101310366625194JJ
influence0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.285927801798343
WordScorePoS
set0NN
term0NN
prosperity0NN
arise0VB
level0.00761994916892276NN
economic0.128463821595706JJ
political0JJ
inequality0NN
lead0.0504071033101074NN
institution0.0410992516792148NN
social0.0504071033101074JJ
influence0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.236040803315871
WordScorePoS
set0NN
term0NN
prosperity0NN
arise0VB
level0.0610668815653026NN
economic0JJ
political0JJ
inequality0NN
lead0NN
institution0.274477239401321NN
social0JJ
influence0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.201575061781389
WordScorePoS
set0.0978661089756501NN
term0.149793392961411NN
prosperity0NN
arise0VB
level0.0138997399903163NN
economic0JJ
political0JJ
inequality0NN
lead0NN
institution0.0249900578719309NN
social0JJ
influence0NN

Such inequitable institutions can generate economic costs

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.675551435768595
WordScorePoS
institution0.274477239401321NN
generate0VB
economic0JJ
cost0.0548954478802642NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.34777800961462
WordScorePoS
institution0.0410992516792148NN
generate0VB
economic0.128463821595706JJ
cost0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.55066507366216
WordScorePoS
institution0.0991236547760315NN
generate0VB
economic0.103276847978089JJ
cost0.0660824365173543NN

When personal and property rights are enforced only selectively when budgetary allocations benefit mainly the politically influential and when the distribution of public services favors the wealthy both middle and poorer groups end up with unexploited talent

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.656138154842672
WordScorePoS
personal0JJ
property0.0558185411034276NN
rights0.078760887431929NNS
enforce0VB
benefit0.0393804437159645NN
public0.0727679293221751NN
service0.022416649027415NN
middle0JJ

Society as whole is then likely to be more inefficient and to miss out on opportunities for innovation and investment

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.529256593278138
WordScorePoS
society0.0591643007226199NN
inefficient0JJ
opportunity0.0361300980868102NN
innovation0.0821985033584295NN
investment0.0252035516550537NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.512646496368344
WordScorePoS
society0.0221298700466866NN
inefficient0JJ
opportunity0.0135141354781442NN
innovation0.122982418460916NN
investment0.0377086395700813NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.424505484896718
WordScorePoS
society0.0359743605686701NN
inefficient0JJ
opportunity0NN
innovation0.0499801157438617NN
investment0.0766240489430275NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.309509183387874
WordScorePoS
society0.118536858482514NN
inefficient0JJ
opportunity0NN
innovation0NN
investment0NN

At the global level when developing countries have little or no voice in global governance the rules can be inappropriate and costly for poorer countries

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.833470587594891
WordScorePoS
global0.00736619084902312JJ
level0.0610668815653026NN
develop0VB
country0NN
voice0NN
governance0.107490825192354NN
rule0.162386273072618NN

These adverse effects of unequal opportunities and political power on development are all the more damaging because economic political and social inequalities tend to reproduce themselves over time and across generations

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.84658181591426
WordScorePoS
adverse0JJ
effect0NN
opportunity0.029046330719385NN
political0.0792212041430275JJ
power0NN
development0.0177346522508396NN
economic0.103276847978089JJ
social0.101310366625194JJ
inequality0.635305170773079NN
time0.0607862199751165NN
generation0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.168807726492736
WordScorePoS
adverse0JJ
effect0NN
opportunity0.0361300980868102NN
political0JJ
power0NN
development0.0055149369084567NN
economic0.128463821595706JJ
social0.0504071033101074JJ
inequality0NN
time0NN
generation0NN

We call such phenomena inequality traps

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.998828889740146
WordScorePoS
inequality0.635305170773079NN

Disadvantaged children from families at the bottom of the wealth distribution do not have the same opportunities as children from wealthier families to receive quality education

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.564050992690808
WordScorePoS
disadvantaged0JJ
child0.076326555629389NN
family0NN
bottom0NN
opportunity0NN
wealthier0JJR
receive0VB
quality0.076326555629389NN
education0.244244978014045NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.585511817525507
WordScorePoS
disadvantaged0JJ
child0.10682408961305NN
family0.0624189222007589NN
bottom0NN
opportunity0NN
wealthier0.0407408489778079JJR
receive0.0814816979556159VB
quality0.0152605842304358NN
education0.0152605842304358NN

So these disadvantaged children can expect to earn less as adults

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.770797697290265
WordScorePoS
disadvantaged0JJ
child0.076326555629389NN
expect0VB
adult0.163013873070017JJ

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.34402780481471
WordScorePoS
disadvantaged0JJ
child0.10682408961305NN
expect0VB
adult0JJ

Because the poor have less voice in the political process they like their parents will be less able to influence spending decisions to improve public schools for their children

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.426880182488891
WordScorePoS
poor0JJ
voice0NN
political0JJ
process0NN
influence0NN
spending0NN
decision0NN
improve0.0305306222517556VB
public0NN
school0.208127520578185NN
child0.076326555629389NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.335633815985623
WordScorePoS
poor0.150659516460257JJ
voice0NN
political0JJ
process0NN
influence0NN
spending0NN
decision0.0519476926891779NN
improve0VB
public0NN
school0NN
child0.0450489732120807NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.528274982238723
WordScorePoS
poor0JJ
voice0NN
political0.111637082206855JJ
process0.0558185411034276NN
influence0NN
spending0NN
decision0.0393804437159645NN
improve0VB
public0.0727679293221751NN
school0.0931221694711702NN
child0.0170753354211044NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.305510970117833
WordScorePoS
poor0JJ
voice0.064698038783335NN
political0.0792212041430275JJ
process0NN
influence0NN
spending0NN
decision0.02794560829783NN
improve0.0121171980355011VB
public0.0172128079963482NN
school0NN
child0.0242343960710022NN

And the cycle of underachievement continues

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.83650511422036
WordScorePoS
cycle0.108503934593034NN
continue0.0199423462679015VB

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.350174344837129
WordScorePoS
cycle0NN
continue0.0537696560159885VB

The distribution of wealth is closely correlated with social distinctions that stratify people communities and nations into groups that dominate and those that are dominated

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.577730814429411
WordScorePoS
social0.101310366625194JJ
people0.00571634317201755NNS
community0.0202620733250388NN
nation0.0396106020715138NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.519875664605175
WordScorePoS
social0.112994637345193JJ
people0.0371911007748996NNS
community0NN
nation0NN

These patterns of domination persist because economic and social differences are reinforced by the overt and covert use of power

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.394107514178099
WordScorePoS
pattern0NN
persist0VB
economic0.128463821595706JJ
social0.0504071033101074JJ
reinforce0VB
power0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.558443170390827
WordScorePoS
pattern0NN
persist0.0488696285210061VB
economic0.103276847978089JJ
social0.101310366625194JJ
reinforce0VB
power0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.460457105173705
WordScorePoS
pattern0NN
persist0VB
economic0.0959899298575892JJ
social0.112994637345193JJ
reinforce0VB
power0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.3134201924627
WordScorePoS
pattern0.0819583881728876NN
persist0VB
economic0.0433009429988926JJ
social0.0169905820958638JJ
reinforce0VB
power0NN

Elites protect their interests in subtle ways by exclusionary practices in marriage and kinship systems for instance and in ways that are less subtle such as aggressive political manipulation or the explicit use of violence

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.425730215662063
WordScorePoS
protect0.0241291244414115VB
practice0NN
marriage0NN
system0NN
political0JJ
violence0.164686343640793NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.756039875318992
WordScorePoS
protect0VB
practice0.0393804437159645NN
marriage0.0911713013253052NN
system0NN
political0.111637082206855JJ
violence0.0931221694711702NN

Such overlapping political social cultural and economic inequalities stifle mobility

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.9276411347341
WordScorePoS
political0.0792212041430275JJ
social0.101310366625194JJ
cultural0JJ
economic0.103276847978089JJ
inequality0.635305170773079NN
mobility0.064698038783335NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.168658331510908
WordScorePoS
political0JJ
social0.0504071033101074JJ
cultural0JJ
economic0.128463821595706JJ
inequality0NN
mobility0NN

They are hard to break because they are so Overview closely tied to the ordinary business of life

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.748067736501745
WordScorePoS
business0.0909486002868787NN
life0NN

They are perpetuated by the elite and often internalized by the marginalized or oppressed groups making it difficult for the poor to find their way out of poverty

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.913553351471412
WordScorePoS
marginalize0VB
poor0.150659516460257JJ
poverty0.269969049497485NN

Inequality traps can thus be rather stable tending to persist over generations

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.976588544821226
WordScorePoS
inequality0.635305170773079NN
stable0JJ
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The report documents the persistence of these inequality traps by highlighting the interaction between different forms of inequality

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.974534878483843
WordScorePoS
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.121220801478805
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It presents evidence that the inequality of opportunity that arises is wasteful and inimical to sustainable development and poverty reduction

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WordScorePoS
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It also derives policy implications that center on the broad concept of leveling the playing field both politically and economically and in the domestic and the global arenas

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.452314685586341
WordScorePoS
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If the opportunities faced by children like Nthabiseng are so much more limited than those faced by children like Pieter or Sven and if this hurts development progress in the aggregate then public action has legitimate role in seeking to broaden the opportunities of those who face the most limited choices

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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.318033804590584
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Three considerations are important at the outset

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First while more even playing fields are likely to lead to lower observed inequalities in educational attainment health status and incomes the policy aim is not equality in outcomes

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.87129467088941
WordScorePoS
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.270952579616599
WordScorePoS
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WordScorePoS
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Indeed even with genuine equality of opportunities one would always expect to observe some differences in outcomes owing to differences in preferences talents effort and luck

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This is consistent with the important role of income differences in providing incentives to invest in education and physical capital to work and to take risks

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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.384677257951906
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.364867994234463
WordScorePoS
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.319323242402016
WordScorePoS
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.302846225351193
WordScorePoS
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Of course outcomes matter but we are concerned with them mainly for their influence on absolute deprivation and their role in shaping opportunities

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Second concern with equality of opportunity implies that public action should focus on the distributions of assets economic opportunities and political voice rather than directly on inequality in incomes

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.851513852444159
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.366410785443586
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Policies can contribute to the move from an inequality trap to virtuous circle of equity and growth by leveling the playing field through greater investment in the human resources of the poorest greater and more equal access to public services and information guarantees on property rights for all and greater fairness in markets

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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.36148743364101
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.320850223285319
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But policies to level the economic playing field face big challenges

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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.44545964017493
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Label: 11, with a score of: 0.365453229786682
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There is unequal capacity to influence the policy agenda the interests of the disenfranchised may never be voiced or represented

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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.388495603130924
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And when policies challenge privileges powerful groups may seek to block reforms

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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.449011523077182
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Label: 11, with a score of: 0.388641199952665
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.303899868145467
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Thus equitable policies are more likely to be successful when leveling the economic playing field is accompanied by similar efforts to level the domestic political playing field and introduce greater fairness in global governance

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.382224253195365
WordScorePoS
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.398527185289582
WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.382383869034161
WordScorePoS
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.350366064673362
WordScorePoS
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.330304543595516
WordScorePoS
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Third there may be various short run policy level tradeoffs between equity and efficiency

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.509484601786029
WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.320127351000427
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.311064298504647
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.306458366862833
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These are well recognized and extensively documented

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WordScorePoS
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The point is that the often implicit cost benefit calculus that policymakers use to assess the merits of various policies too often ignores the long term hard to measure but real benefits of greater equity

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.451753977305245
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Greater equity implies more efficient economic functioning reduced conflict greater trust and better institutions with dynamic benefits for investment and growth

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.503479762212764
WordScorePoS
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WordScorePoS
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WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.45007554898834
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To the extent that such benefits are ignored policymakers may end up choosing too little equity

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WordScorePoS
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By the same token however those interested in greater equity must not ignore the short term tradeoffs

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 7, with a score of: 0.435437237204259
WordScorePoS
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If individual incentives are blunted by income redistribution schemes that tax investment and production too steeply the result will be less innovation less investment and less growth

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.491891773305831
WordScorePoS
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.444570420744604
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The history of the twentieth century is littered with examples of ill designed policies pursued in the name of equity that seriously harmed rather than spurred growth processes by ignoring individual incentives

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.542498943025594
WordScorePoS
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balance must be sought taking into account both the immediate costs to individual incentives and the long term benefits of cohesive societies with inclusive institutions and broad opportunities

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.327702536474325
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.448396844806037
WordScorePoS
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While careful assessment of policy design in local contexts is always important equity considerations need to be brought squarely into the center of both diagnosis and policy

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

This is not intended as new framework

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.435111236119743
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Label: 13, with a score of: 0.39669042038544
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.392556320467174
WordScorePoS
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It means integrating and extending existing frameworks equity is central both to the WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT investment environment and to the agenda of empowerment working through the impact on institutions and specific policy designs

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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.342452796094772
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.410611060812464
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Some may value equity for its own sake others primarily for its instrumental role in reducing absolute poverty the World Bank mission

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This report recognizes the intrinsic value of equity but aims primarily to document how focus on equity matters for long run development

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Part considers the evidence on inequality of opportunity within and across countries

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Some attempts to quantify inequality of opportunity are reviewed but more generally we rely on evidence of highly unequal outcomes across groups defined by predetermined circumstances such as gender race family background or country of birth as markers for unequal opportunities

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Part II asks why equity matters

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It discusses the two channels of impact the effects of unequal opportunities when markets are imperfect and the consequences of inequity for the quality of institutions society develops as well as intrinsic motives

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Part III asks how public action can level the political and economic playing fields

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In the domestic arena it makes the case for investing in people expanding access to justice land and infrastructure and promoting fairness in markets

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In the international arena it considers leveling the playing field in the functioning of global markets and the rules that govern them and the complementary provision of aid to help poor countries and poor people build greater endowments

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The remainder of this overview provides summary of the principal findings

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Inequity within and across nations From an equity perspective the distribution of opportunities matters more than the distribution of outcomes

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But opportunities which are potentials rather than actuals are harder to observe and measure than outcomes

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Within country inequities have many dimensions Direct quantification of inequality of opportunity is difficult but one analysis of Brazil provides an illustration chapter

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Earnings inequality in was divided into one share attributable to four predetermined circumstances that lie beyond the control of individuals race region of birth parental education and paternal occupation at birth and residual share

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These four circumstances account for around one quarter of overall differences in earnings between workers

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Arguably other determinants of opportunity are equally predetermined at birth but not included in this set for example gender family wealth or the quality of primary schools

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Because such variables are not included in the inequality decomposition the results here can be seen as lower bound estimates of inequality of opportunity in Brazil

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Unfortunately predetermined and thus morally irrelevant circumstances determine much more than just future earnings

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Education and health are of intrinsic value and affect the capacity of individuals to engage in economic social and political life

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Yet children face substantially different opportunities to learn and to lead healthy lives in almost all populations depending on asset ownership geographic location or parental education among others

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Consider how access to basic package of immunization services differs for the rich and the poor across countries figure

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There is substantial inequality in access between for example Egypt where almost everyone is covered on the left and Chad where more than percent of children are excluded on the right

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Yet the disparities can be as large within some countries as they are across all nations in the sample

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In Eritrea for instance the richest fifth enjoys almost complete coverage but almost half of all children in the poorest fifth are excluded

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Significant gender differences also persist in many parts of the world

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In parts of East and South Asia notably in certain areas in rural China and northwest India the opportunity to life itself can depend on one single predetermined characteristic sex

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These regions have significantly more boy Overview Figure Wealth matters for the immunization of children Percentage not covered Poorest Wealthiest Jor gypt dan Co lom Rw ia and So uth Peru Afr ic Ke nya Ma law Zam razil bia Vie tna Gu urkey ate Tan ala zan Tur Indo ia km eni esia sta Mo roc Gh ana Ph Benin ilip Ba pine ngl ad Co esh mo ro Bo Pa livia Ka zak agua hst an Bu rkin men aF Ca aso me ro Ug on and Ma India uri tan ia Ha iti Ce ntr Tog al fric Ethi opi an Ma epub dag lic Mo asc zam ar biq Gu ine Ca Mali mb Pa dia kis ta Eri tre Nig er Ch ad Source Authors own calculations from Demographic Health Survey DHS data Note indicates that the poorest quintile have higher access to childhood immunization services than the wealthiest quintile

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The continuous orange line represents the overall percentage of children without access to basic immunization package in each country while the endpoints indicate the percentages for the top and the bottom quintile of the asset ownership distribution

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infants than girls in part because of sexselective abortion and differential care after birth

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And in many though not all parts of the world more boys than girls attend school

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The hundreds of millions of disabled children across the developing world also face very different opportunities than their able bodied peers

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These inequities are usually associated with differences in an individual agency the socioeconomically culturally and politically determined ability to shape the world around oneself

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Such differences create biases in the institutions and rules in favor of more powerful and privileged groups

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This is seen in realities as diverse as the low chances for mobility of scheduled castes in village in rural India and the frequent episodes of discrimination against the Quichua people in Ecuador

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Persistent differences in power and status between groups can become internalized into behaviors aspirations and preferences that also perpetuate inequalities

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Inequalities of opportunity are also transmitted across generations

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.973196102203352
WordScorePoS
inequality0.635305170773079NN
opportunity0.029046330719385NN
generation0NN

The children of poorer and lower status parents face inferior chances in education health incomes and status

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.526816028491894
WordScorePoS
child0.0242343960710022NN
status0.0488696285210061NN
chance0NN
education0.0121171980355011NN
health0.0405241466500776NN
income0.166475342664294NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.495124611187765
WordScorePoS
child0.076326555629389NN
status0NN
chance0NN
education0.244244978014045NN
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income0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.484159969877187
WordScorePoS
child0.10682408961305NN
status0NN
chance0NN
education0.0152605842304358NN
health0.191387734041787NN
income0NN

This starts early

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

In Ecuador three year old children from all socioeconomic groups have similar test scores for vocabulary recognition and are close to standard international reference population

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

But by the time they are five all have faltered relative to the international reference group except for those in the richest groups and with the highest levels of parental education figure

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.73170236490146
WordScorePoS
time0NN
relative0JJ
international0.00360073990568919JJ
richest0JJS
level0.0231525547935232NN
education0.244244978014045NN
figure0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.386961776979786
WordScorePoS
time0.0607862199751165NN
relative0JJ
international0.00571634317201755JJ
richest0.064698038783335JJS
level0NN
education0.0121171980355011NN
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Such pronounced differences in vocabulary recognition between children whose parents had to years of schooling and those whose parents had or more years are likely to WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT Figure Opportunities are determined early Cognitive development for children ages three to five in Ecuador differs markedly across family backgrounds Wealthiest and poorest quartiles Median score Maternal education Median score Wealthiest Poorest th or more years years Age in months Age in months Source Paxson and Schady

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.639329359825859
WordScorePoS
child0.10682408961305NN
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figure0NN
opportunity0NN
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age0.0893142758861673NN
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poorest0JJS
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education0.0152605842304358NN
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Label: 4, with a score of: 0.393058191847897
WordScorePoS
child0.076326555629389NN
schooling0NN
world0.0017440716962658NN
development0.0279277626235394NN
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opportunity0NN
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age0.0255262687343935NN
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education0.244244978014045NN
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Note Median values of the test of vocabulary recognition TVIP score measure of vocabulary recognition in Spanish standardized against an international norm are plotted against the child age in months

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.631824730042342
WordScorePoS
value0NN
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international0.00531301439641424JJ
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age0.112994637345193NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.463701169837864
WordScorePoS
value0NN
measure0NN
international0JJ
child0.10682408961305NN
age0.0893142758861673NN

The medians by exact month of age were smoothed by estimating fan regressions of the median score on age in months using bandwidth of

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.670321028918726
WordScorePoS
age0.0893142758861673NN
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carry over to their performance once they enter primary school and will likely persist thereafter

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.726654033931951
WordScorePoS
performance0NN
enter0VB
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school0.208127520578185NN
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.564619669121794
WordScorePoS
performance0NN
enter0.0558185411034276VB
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Intergenerational immobility is also observed in rich countries new evidence from the United States where the myth of equal opportunity is strong finds high levels of persistence of socioeconomic status across generations recent estimates suggest that it would take five generations for family that earned half the national average income to reach the average

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.67640941487719
WordScorePoS
country0NN
evidence0.12939607756667NN
unite0VB
equal0.0202620733250388JJ
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strong0.0488696285210061JJ
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generation0NN
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national0.00886732612541978JJ
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Label: 13, with a score of: 0.42391673149167
WordScorePoS
country0NN
evidence0NN
unite0.0828215106044499VB
equal0JJ
opportunity0NN
strong0JJ
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national0.0112708859309299JJ
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.397666106602963
WordScorePoS
country0NN
evidence0NN
unite0VB
equal0JJ
opportunity0.0135141354781442NN
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level0NN
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generation0.0909486002868787NN
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suggest0.0602029956716497VB
family0NN
national0.00412562425683033JJ
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Immobility is particularly pronounced for low income African Americans

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.756711939782219
WordScorePoS
income0.166475342664294NN
african0IN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.502955471427553
WordScorePoS
income0.110649350233433NN
african0IN

Global inequities are massive Figure Life expectancy improved and became more equal until the onset of the AIDS crisis Population weighted international distribution of life expectancy

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.541493525875828
WordScorePoS
global0.013959557403375JJ
figure0NN
life0.0250390290383647NN
expectancy0.0407408489778079NN
improve0VB
equal0JJ
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international0JJ

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.442352483194812
WordScorePoS
global0.0220597476338268JJ
figure0NN
life0.0123650647908625NN
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international0.00355521737836969JJ

Years Source Schady

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.73415387760794
WordScorePoS
source0.0613562156822703NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.32879500351909
WordScorePoS
source0.0274787313211514NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.323029740864511
WordScorePoS
source0.0269969049497485NN

If unequal opportunities are large within many countries they are truly staggering on global scale

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.492275479782042
WordScorePoS
opportunity0.0549574626423028NN
country0NN
global0.0251662980592747JJ
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.45407288437677
WordScorePoS
opportunity0.0261926252110933NN
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global0.0119942111830662JJ
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Chapter shows that crosscountry differences begin with the opportunity for life itself while of every American babies die in the first year of their lives of every Malian babies do

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Babies who survive not only in Mali but in much of Africa and in the poorer countries of Asia and Latin America are at much greater nutritional risk than their counterparts in rich countries

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.787056838354834
WordScorePoS
survive0.0814816979556159VB
africa0IN
country0NN
asia0IN
nutritional0JJ
risk0.0703902516159815NN

And if they go to school more than million adults in developing countries never did their schools are substantially worse than those attended by children in Europe Japan or the United States

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.879546037826008
WordScorePoS
school0.208127520578185NN
adult0.163013873070017JJ
develop0VB
country0NN
substantially0RB
attend0VB
child0.076326555629389NN
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Given lower school qual ity undernutrition and the earnings child can generate by working instead of studying many children leave school early

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.730772895697671
WordScorePoS
school0.208127520578185NN
child0.076326555629389NN
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.434260274802865
WordScorePoS
school0.0548954478802642NN
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The average person born between and in Sub Saharan Africa has only

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.549395349674129
WordScorePoS
average0.146608885563018NN
person0.0237821918091848NN
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Label: 13, with a score of: 0.534086097474189
WordScorePoS
average0.1656430212089NN
person0NN
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africa0IN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.359296784408995
WordScorePoS
average0NN
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bear0.0814816979556159NN
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africa0IN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.346741148942119
WordScorePoS
average0NN
person0.107539312031977NN
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years of schooling

Label: 3, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
schooling0.0407408489778079NN

In South Asia the figure rises to

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.784129933641914
WordScorePoS
south0RB
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rise0.120914181920259NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.533929630974503
WordScorePoS
south0RB
asia0IN
figure0.0602029956716497NN
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years in OECD countries it is

Label: 12, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
oecd0.108503934593034NN
country0NN

With such differences in education and health compounded by large disparities in access to infrastructure and other public services it is not surprising that opportunities for the consumption of private goods differ vastly between rich and poor countries

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.50680888204511
WordScorePoS
education0.0101607690729067NN
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disparity0NN
access0.00232174891244877NN
infrastructure0.028867295332595NN
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opportunity0NN
consumption0.332151194779746NN
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poor0.0339811641917276JJ
country0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.368192031955033
WordScorePoS
education0.022550656390892NN
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opportunity0.0135141354781442NN
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private0.0368585655748969JJ
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Label: 4, with a score of: 0.332334187773135
WordScorePoS
education0.244244978014045NN
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private0JJ
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Label: 3, with a score of: 0.259721767195385
WordScorePoS
education0.0152605842304358NN
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access0.00610236075888593NN
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opportunity0NN
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private0JJ
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.236602499464221
WordScorePoS
education0.0225244866060403NN
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access0.00514687440545096NN
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private0JJ
poor0.150659516460257JJ
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.236134404827657
WordScorePoS
education0.0150723186962745NN
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access0.00344404437204141NN
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service0.0197870712294258NN
opportunity0.0361300980868102NN
consumption0.147812295323721NN
private0JJ
poor0JJ
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.331349004887175
WordScorePoS
education0.0512260062633133NN
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access0.00780347258345989NN
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private0.0558185411034276JJ
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Mean annual consumption expenditures range from Purchasing Power Parity PPP in Nigeria to PPP in Luxembourg

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.823750523516704
WordScorePoS
consumption0.332151194779746NN
expenditure0NN
range0NN
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.36658141704371
WordScorePoS
consumption0.147812295323721NN
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This means that the average citizen in Luxembourg enjoys monetary resources times higher than the average Nigerian

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.654051832975297
WordScorePoS
means0NNS
average0.146608885563018NN
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time0.0607862199751165NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.612078532246208
WordScorePoS
means0NNS
average0.1656430212089NN
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time0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.358765612037037
WordScorePoS
means0.120266261535276NNS
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While the average Nigerian may find it difficult to afford adequately nutritious meals every day the average citizen of Luxembourg need not worry too much about buying the latest generation cell phone on the market

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.523231016937629
WordScorePoS
average0.1656430212089NN
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phone0NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.495108023883271
WordScorePoS
average0.146608885563018NN
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market0.0202620733250388NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.420721953814411
WordScorePoS
average0NN
nutritious0.175025014152344JJ
day0NN
generation0NN
phone0NN
market0.0913569596328122NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.410229236869619
WordScorePoS
average0NN
nutritious0JJ
day0.25973846344589NN
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phone0NN
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Because of the much greater restrictions on the movement of people between countries than within countries these inequalities in outcomes among countries are likely to be much more closely associated with inequalities in opportunities than within countries

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.989256412852051
WordScorePoS
restriction0NN
people0.00571634317201755NNS
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inequality0.635305170773079NN
outcome0.0330412182586772NN
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Global inequality trends have varied

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.992802445089403
WordScorePoS
global0.0133009891881297JJ
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Between and there was pronounced decline in the inequality in life expectancy across countries driven by major increases in the poorest countries in the world figure

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.924746720925112
WordScorePoS
decline0.02794560829783NN
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life0NN
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increase0.00285817158600878NN
poorest0.0330412182586772JJS
world0.00276879546803864NN
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This welcome development was due to the global spread of health technology and to major public health efforts in some of the world highest mortality areas

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.788760637248415
WordScorePoS
development0.00837573444202498NN
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Since however HIV AIDS predominantly in many African countries and rise in mortality rates in transition economies largely in Eastern Europe and Central Asia have set back some of the earlier gains

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.925055194864714
WordScorePoS
hiv0.448149338755887NN
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eastern0.0407408489778079JJ
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Because of the AIDS crisis life expectancy at birth has fallen dramatically in some of the world poorest countries sharply increasing the differences between them and richer societies

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.798927917597054
WordScorePoS
aid0.123094312756122NN
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birth0.0748292956291867NN
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increase0.0143984997539974NN
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.366305719258817
WordScorePoS
aid0NN
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Inequality in access to schooling has also been falling around the world within most Overview Figure long run diverging trend in income inequality begins to reverse because of growth in China and India Why does equity matter for development

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.95670027113623
WordScorePoS
inequality0.635305170773079NN
access0.00138439773401932NN
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world0.00276879546803864NN
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income0.166475342664294NN
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growth0.11178243319132NN
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.133536520357806
WordScorePoS
inequality0NN
access0.00344404437204141NN
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world0.00172202218602071NN
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growth0.208565600657229NN
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Mean log deviation

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Global inequality

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.992802445089403
WordScorePoS
global0.0133009891881297JJ
inequality0.635305170773079NN

Within country inequality

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.998828889740146
WordScorePoS
country0NN
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Between country inequality Source Authors manipulation of data from Bourguignon and Morrisson

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.978052644762191
WordScorePoS
country0NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
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countries as well as across them as average schooling levels rise in the vast majority of countries

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.731648280694075
WordScorePoS
country0NN
average0.1656430212089NN
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level0.0415277415054218NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.55664973232513
WordScorePoS
country0NN
average0.146608885563018NN
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rise0.0237821918091848NN
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This too is welcome development although concerns over the quality of schooling provide reasons for guarding against complacency

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.530464836789015
WordScorePoS
development0.0279277626235394NN
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While our primary concern is with inequality of opportunities the large differences in income or consumption across countries surely affect the life chances faced by children born today in those different nations

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.771960999285827
WordScorePoS
primary0JJ
inequality0.635305170773079NN
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income0.166475342664294NN
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face0NN
child0.0242343960710022NN
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nation0.0396106020715138NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.322556263432138
WordScorePoS
primary0JJ
inequality0NN
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income0NN
consumption0.332151194779746NN
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affect0.0166714319731757VB
life0.0250071479597636NN
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face0NN
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.208397559185765
WordScorePoS
primary0JJ
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income0NN
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life0.0123650647908625NN
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child0.0452169560888236NN
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Trends in life expectancy at birth and years of schooling were converging at least until but different picture emerges for income and consumption

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.669293716449239
WordScorePoS
life0.0250071479597636NN
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birth0NN
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consumption0.332151194779746NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.386192932810142
WordScorePoS
life0NN
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birth0.0396106020715138NN
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income0.166475342664294NN
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.30016294683142
WordScorePoS
life0.0123650647908625NN
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birth0NN
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income0NN
consumption0.147812295323721NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.41618522390692
WordScorePoS
life0.0250390290383647NN
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birth0.0748292956291867NN
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emerge0.0407408489778079VB
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While the recent trends depend greatly on the specific concept chosen discussed in great detail in chapter global income inequality has steadily increased over the long run until the onset of rapid economic growth in China and India in the figure

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.870640194902425
WordScorePoS
depend0VB
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global0.0133009891881297JJ
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increase0.00285817158600878NN
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economic0.103276847978089JJ
growth0.11178243319132NN
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.308643192230955
WordScorePoS
depend0VB
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global0.0220597476338268JJ
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It is possible to decompose total inequality across individuals in the world into differences among countries and differences within countries

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.989773498853945
WordScorePoS
total0NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
individual0.064698038783335JJ
world0.00276879546803864NN
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Between country differences were relatively small early in the nineteenth century but they came to account for larger part of total inequality toward the end of the twentieth century

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.816231843787928
WordScorePoS
country0NN
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account0.0172128079963482NN
total0NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.548625852443527
WordScorePoS
country0NN
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total0NN
inequality0NN

If China and India are excluded global inequalities have continued to rise owing to the continuing divergence between most other low income countries and rich countries

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.925947762499642
WordScorePoS
global0.0133009891881297JJ
inequality0.635305170773079NN
continue0.0237821918091848VB
rise0.0237821918091848NN
income0.166475342664294NN
country0NN

Why do these persistent inequalities both within and across countries matter

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.993479939509703
WordScorePoS
persistent0JJ
inequality0.635305170773079NN
country0NN

The first reason is that the interconnections and resilience of these inequalities imply that some groups have consistently inferior opportunities economic social and political than their fellow citizens

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.89856908454282
WordScorePoS
resilience0NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
opportunity0.029046330719385NN
economic0.103276847978089JJ
social0.101310366625194JJ
political0.0792212041430275JJ

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.203755999681573
WordScorePoS
resilience0NN
inequality0NN
opportunity0.0361300980868102NN
economic0.128463821595706JJ
social0.0504071033101074JJ
political0JJ

Most people feel that such egregious disparities violate sense of fairness particularly when the individuals affected can do little about them chapter

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.780813438540229
WordScorePoS
people0.00571634317201755NNS
disparity0.0488696285210061NN
sense0.064698038783335NN
individual0.064698038783335JJ
affect0VB

This is consistent with the teachings of much political philosophy and with the international system of human rights

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.681000595115917
WordScorePoS
consistent0JJ
political0.111637082206855JJ
international0.00402768349408688JJ
system0NN
human0.0170753354211044JJ
rights0.078760887431929NNS

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.351634220467465
WordScorePoS
consistent0JJ
political0JJ
international0.00531301439641424JJ
system0.0519476926891779NN
human0JJ
rights0.0519476926891779NNS

The core moral and ethical teachings of the world leading religions include concern for equity although many have also been sources of inequities and historically have been linked to unequal power structures

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

There is also experimental evidence suggesting that many but not all people behave in ways consistent with concern for fairness in addition to caring about how they fare individually

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.491841107503736
WordScorePoS
evidence0.12939607756667NN
suggest0VB
people0.00571634317201755NNS
consistent0JJ
addition0NN
care0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.533019095767789
WordScorePoS
evidence0NN
suggest0.0602029956716497VB
people0.0186171553883251NNS
consistent0JJ
addition0.0368585655748969NN
care0.030745604615229NN

Important as these intrinsic reasons are for caring about inequality of opportunities and unfair processes the primary focus of this report is on the instrumental relationship between equity and development with particular emphasis on two channels the effects of unequal opportunities when markets are imperfect and the consequences of inequity for the quality of institutions society develops

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.711055011417058
WordScorePoS
care0NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
opportunity0.029046330719385NN
process0NN
primary0JJ
focus0NN
report0NN
development0.0177346522508396NN
effect0NN
market0.0202620733250388NN
quality0.0121171980355011NN
institution0.0991236547760315NN
society0.0237821918091848NN
develop0VB

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.376236652573367
WordScorePoS
care0NN
inequality0NN
opportunity0NN
process0NN
primary0.0285977592242194JJ
focus0NN
report0NN
development0.0368309542451156NN
effect0NN
market0NN
quality0NN
institution0.274477239401321NN
society0.118536858482514NN
develop0VB

With imperfect markets inequalities in power and wealth translate into unequal opportunities leading to wasted productive potential and to an inefficient allocation of resources

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.780348022342702
WordScorePoS
market0.0202620733250388NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
power0NN
opportunity0.029046330719385NN
lead0NN
waste0NN
productive0JJ
potential0NN
inefficient0JJ
resource0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.30598224820165
WordScorePoS
market0.0169905820958638NN
inequality0NN
power0NN
opportunity0NN
lead0.0169905820958638NN
waste0.138532104381853NN
productive0JJ
potential0NN
inefficient0.0542519672965169JJ
resource0.0416785799329393NN

Markets often work imperfectly in many countries whether because of intrinsic failures such as those associated with asymmetric information or because of policy imposed distortions

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.500106863201195
WordScorePoS
market0.0913569596328122NN
country0NN
information0.0130963126055467NN
policy0NN
distortion0.0440683498519077NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.393193144849786
WordScorePoS
market0.030649619577211NN
country0NN
information0.0219686053934784NN
policy0.0641521854453136NN
distortion0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.392466613010684
WordScorePoS
market0.0377086395700813NN
country0NN
information0.0675706773907211NN
policy0.011275328195446NN
distortion0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.386646297911197
WordScorePoS
market0.0169905820958638NN
country0NN
information0.0365348149782971NN
policy0.0203215381458133NN
distortion0.0409791940864438NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.353837094526567
WordScorePoS
market0.0202620733250388NN
country0NN
information0NN
policy0.0848203862485078NN
distortion0NN

Microeconomic case studies suggest that an inefficient allocation of resources across productive alternatives is often associated with differences in wealth or status chapter

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.480203390111364
WordScorePoS
study0NN
suggest0.0602029956716497VB
inefficient0JJ
resource0.0185001613201543NN
productive0JJ
alternative0.0602029956716497NN
status0NN

If capital markets worked perfectly there would be no relation between investment WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT and the distribution of wealth anyone with profitable investment opportunity would be able to either borrow money to finance it or to sell equity in firm set up to undertake it

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.631947172461073
WordScorePoS
market0.030649619577211NN
relation0NN
investment0.0766240489430275NN
world0.00418824502414673NN
development0.0469463607292177NN
report0NN
opportunity0NN
money0NN
finance0.036961556179878NN
firm0NN
set0.0978661089756501NN
undertake0VB

But capital markets in just about every country developed and developing are very far from perfect credit is rationed across prospective clients and interest rates differ considerably across borrowers and between lenders and borrowers in ways that cannot be linked to default risk or other economic factors affecting expected returns to lenders

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.310579361488003
WordScorePoS
market0.0252035516550537NN
country0NN
develop0VB
credit0NN
rate0NN
risk0NN
economic0.128463821595706JJ
affect0VB
expect0VB
return0NN

For example interest rates decline with loan size in Kerala and Tamil Nadu in India and across trading groups in Kenya and Zimbabwe in ways not explained by risk differences

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.576062092104824
WordScorePoS
rate0.0433561464459019NN
decline0.0351951258079907NN
size0NN
trading0NN
risk0.0703902516159815NN

In Mexico returns to capital are much higher for the smallest informal sector firms than for larger ones

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.649914308892411
WordScorePoS
return0NN
sector0.0565629593551219NN
firm0.0602029956716497NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.598289333146348
WordScorePoS
return0.107490825192354NN
sector0NN
firm0NN

Land markets also have imperfections associated with lack of clear titling histories of concentrated land ownership and imperfect rental markets

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.527544203015001
WordScorePoS
land0.0465651203624806NN
market0.0913569596328122NN
lack0NN
history0NN
ownership0NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.473809919603269
WordScorePoS
land0.123873694868802NN
market0NN
lack0NN
history0NN
ownership0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.407269740761797
WordScorePoS
land0.0319966432858631NN
market0NN
lack0.0753297582301286NN
history0NN
ownership0.0736315832425121NN

In Ghana lower security of tenure among women leads to an inefficiently low frequency of land fallowing and hence to progressive declines in land productivity

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.441491740578641
WordScorePoS
security0NN
woman0.221979360474357NN
lead0NN
land0.024255976440725NN
decline0NN
productivity0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.484332809355321
WordScorePoS
security0.0893850849591018NN
woman0.0546336178945768NN
lead0NN
land0.0465651203624806NN
decline0NN
productivity0.0595900566394012NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.4739372403868
WordScorePoS
security0.0264204925485796NN
woman0NN
lead0.016202004209163NN
land0.123873694868802NN
decline0NN
productivity0NN

The market for human capital is also imperfect because parents make decisions on Figure Children performance differs when their caste is made salient Average number of mazes solved by caste in five experimental treatments Piece rate Tournament High caste Low caste Caste Caste Caste Caste Caste announced not announced announced not and announced announced segregated Source Hoff and Pandey

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.546916898675066
WordScorePoS
market0.0202620733250388NN
human0JJ
decision0.02794560829783NN
figure0NN
child0.0242343960710022NN
performance0.064698038783335NN
average0.146608885563018NN
treatment0.0330412182586772NN
rate0.0172128079963482NN
source0NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.325011580121911
WordScorePoS
market0NN
human0.0205355488872215JJ
decision0NN
figure0NN
child0NN
performance0NN
average0.1656430212089NN
treatment0NN
rate0NN
source0.0123065238088614NN

Note The figure depicts the number of mazes correctly completed by low caste and high caste children from set of Indian villages in number of different experiments

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.631253407434137
WordScorePoS
figure0NN
complete0.0815069365350084JJ
child0.076326555629389NN
set0NN

The difference between the first two and the last three columns refers to payouts whether children are paid per correct maze completed piece rate or only if they complete the most mazes tournament

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.637121950889112
WordScorePoS
child0.076326555629389NN
pay0NN
correct0JJ
complete0.0815069365350084JJ
rate0.0216847879059514NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.366566595470084
WordScorePoS
child0.10682408961305NN
pay0NN
correct0JJ
complete0JJ
rate0.0433561464459019NN

behalf of their children and because the expected returns to investment are influenced by location contacts and discrimination on grounds of gender caste religion or race

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.574216066091382
WordScorePoS
child0.0170753354211044NN
expect0VB
return0NN
investment0NN
influence0NN
location0NN
discrimination0.111637082206855NN
gender0.196902218579822NN
religion0NN
race0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.367321512618779
WordScorePoS
child0.0450489732120807NN
expect0VB
return0NN
investment0.0376648791150643NN
influence0NN
location0NN
discrimination0.0736315832425121NN
gender0.0519476926891779NN
religion0NN
race0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.323872147288244
WordScorePoS
child0NN
expect0VB
return0NN
investment0.0766240489430275NN
influence0NN
location0.048933054487825NN
discrimination0NN
gender0.0211360962287062NN
religion0NN
race0.036961556179878NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.320856381907671
WordScorePoS
child0.076326555629389NN
expect0VB
return0NN
investment0NN
influence0NN
location0NN
discrimination0NN
gender0.10561808200669NN
religion0NN
race0NN

Discrimination and stereotyping mechanisms for the reproduction of inequality between groups have been found to lower the self esteem effort and performance of individuals in the groups discriminated against

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.959261775612017
WordScorePoS
discrimination0NN
mechanism0NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
effort0NN
performance0.064698038783335NN
individual0.064698038783335JJ

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.185462273469392
WordScorePoS
discrimination0NN
mechanism0.147846224719512NN
inequality0NN
effort0NN
performance0NN
individual0JJ

This reduces their potential for individual growth and their ability to contribute to the economy

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.753183717930007
WordScorePoS
reduce0.0055149369084567VB
potential0NN
individual0JJ
growth0.208565600657229NN
ability0.0607878664258118NN
contribute0VB
economy0.0821985033584295NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.437726808656861
WordScorePoS
reduce0.0310356414389692VB
potential0NN
individual0.064698038783335JJ
growth0.11178243319132NN
ability0NN
contribute0VB
economy0NN

Striking evidence of the impact of stereotyping on performance comes from recent experiment in India

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.860620905749805
WordScorePoS
evidence0.12939607756667NN
impact0NN
performance0.064698038783335NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.383996150777979
WordScorePoS
evidence0NN
impact0.0866018859977851NN
performance0NN

Children from different castes were asked to complete simple exercises such as solving maze with real monetary incentives contingent on performance

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.616516549496329
WordScorePoS
child0.076326555629389NN
complete0.0815069365350084JJ
simple0JJ
incentive0NN
performance0NN

The key result of the experiment is that low caste children perform on par with high caste children when their caste is not publicly announced by the experimenter but significantly worse when it is made public figure

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

If similar inhibition of talent occurs in the real world this implies loss of potential output owing to social stereotyping

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Economic and political inequalities are associated with impaired institutional development

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.932511002471331
WordScorePoS
economic0.103276847978089JJ
political0.0792212041430275JJ
inequality0.635305170773079NN
institutional0JJ
development0.0177346522508396NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.149528429672796
WordScorePoS
economic0.128463821595706JJ
political0JJ
inequality0NN
institutional0JJ
development0.0055149369084567NN

The second channel through which inequity affects long run processes of development is the shaping of economic and political institutions chapter

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.558091682623891
WordScorePoS
affect0.033031539117106VB
process0NN
development0.0368309542451156NN
economic0JJ
political0JJ
institution0.274477239401321NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.283759241228142
WordScorePoS
affect0VB
process0NN
development0.0055149369084567NN
economic0.128463821595706JJ
political0JJ
institution0.0410992516792148NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.485184479990835
WordScorePoS
affect0VB
process0NN
development0.0177346522508396NN
economic0.103276847978089JJ
political0.0792212041430275JJ
institution0.0991236547760315NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.409596934450289
WordScorePoS
affect0VB
process0.0558185411034276NN
development0.0124956749436837NN
economic0.0727679293221751JJ
political0.111637082206855JJ
institution0NN

Institutions determine the incentives and constraints people face and provide the context in which markets function

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.618003001218275
WordScorePoS
institution0.274477239401321NN
determine0VB
incentive0NN
constraint0NN
people0NNS
provide0.013214597504793VB
context0NN
market0NN
function0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.392499995566435
WordScorePoS
institution0NN
determine0VB
incentive0NN
constraint0NN
people0.0257736572183839NNS
provide0.0215170467912497VB
context0NN
market0.0913569596328122NN
function0.0440683498519077NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.379927896444991
WordScorePoS
institution0.0249900578719309NN
determine0VB
incentive0.036961556179878NN
constraint0NN
people0.00432344066632653NNS
provide0.00601568197638796VB
context0.036961556179878NN
market0.030649619577211NN
function0.036961556179878NN

Different sets of institutions are the outcome of complex historical processes that reflect the interests and structure of political influence of different individuals and groups in society

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.617593341509416
WordScorePoS
set0NN
institution0.274477239401321NN
outcome0NN
historical0JJ
process0NN
reflect0VB
structure0NN
political0JJ
influence0NN
individual0JJ
society0.118536858482514NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.471218299850055
WordScorePoS
set0NN
institution0.0991236547760315NN
outcome0.0330412182586772NN
historical0JJ
process0NN
reflect0VB
structure0NN
political0.0792212041430275JJ
influence0NN
individual0.064698038783335JJ
society0.0237821918091848NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.388975783916466
WordScorePoS
set0NN
institution0NN
outcome0.0465610847355851NN
historical0JJ
process0.0558185411034276NN
reflect0VB
structure0NN
political0.111637082206855JJ
influence0NN
individual0JJ
society0.0335134328085675NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.326485501367511
WordScorePoS
set0.0978661089756501NN
institution0.0249900578719309NN
outcome0NN
historical0JJ
process0NN
reflect0VB
structure0.048933054487825NN
political0JJ
influence0NN
individual0JJ
society0.0359743605686701NN

From this perspective market imperfections may arise not by accident but because they distribute income or power in particular ways

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.628140075584684
WordScorePoS
perspective0NN
market0.0202620733250388NN
arise0VB
accident0NN
distribute0.064698038783335VB
income0.166475342664294NN
power0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.499049425807236
WordScorePoS
perspective0NN
market0.0913569596328122NN
arise0.0440683498519077VB
accident0NN
distribute0VB
income0.0643370113878709NN
power0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.484234927680005
WordScorePoS
perspective0NN
market0.0377086395700813NN
arise0VB
accident0NN
distribute0VB
income0.110649350233433NN
power0.0454743001434393NN

In this view there will be social conflict over the institutions of society and incentives for people who control power to shape institutions in ways that benefit them

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.760730555669192
WordScorePoS
view0NN
social0JJ
conflict0.0658099748168827NN
institution0.274477239401321NN
society0.118536858482514NN
incentive0NN
people0NNS
control0NN
power0NN
benefit0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.372292292564523
WordScorePoS
view0NN
social0.112994637345193JJ
conflict0.147263166485024NN
institution0NN
society0NN
incentive0NN
people0.0371911007748996NNS
control0.0614198493690006NN
power0NN
benefit0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.341364607194569
WordScorePoS
view0NN
social0.101310366625194JJ
conflict0NN
institution0.0991236547760315NN
society0.0237821918091848NN
incentive0NN
people0.00571634317201755NNS
control0NN
power0NN
benefit0NN

The central argument here is that unequal power leads to the formation of institutions that perpetuate inequalities in power status and wealth and that typi Overview cally are also bad for the investment innovation and risk taking that underpin long term growth

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.770332657663192
WordScorePoS
central0JJ
power0NN
lead0NN
institution0.0991236547760315NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
status0.0488696285210061NN
bad0JJ
investment0.0202620733250388NN
innovation0NN
risk0NN
term0.0396106020715138NN
growth0.11178243319132NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.332567798769972
WordScorePoS
central0JJ
power0.036961556179878NN
lead0NN
institution0.0249900578719309NN
inequality0NN
status0.036961556179878NN
bad0JJ
investment0.0766240489430275NN
innovation0.0499801157438617NN
risk0NN
term0.149793392961411NN
growth0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.328697174223583
WordScorePoS
central0JJ
power0NN
lead0.0504071033101074NN
institution0.0410992516792148NN
inequality0NN
status0NN
bad0JJ
investment0.0252035516550537NN
innovation0.0821985033584295NN
risk0NN
term0NN
growth0.208565600657229NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.221412631528975
WordScorePoS
central0JJ
power0NN
lead0NN
institution0.274477239401321NN
inequality0NN
status0NN
bad0JJ
investment0NN
innovation0NN
risk0NN
term0NN
growth0NN

Good economic institutions are equitable in fundamental way to prosper society must create incentives for the vast majority of the population to invest and innovate

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.556344404147816
WordScorePoS
economic0JJ
institution0.274477239401321NN
equitable0JJ
fundamental0.0658099748168827JJ
society0.118536858482514NN
create0VB
incentive0NN
vast0JJ
majority0NN
population0NN
invest0VB

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.413563026855233
WordScorePoS
economic0.128463821595706JJ
institution0.0410992516792148NN
equitable0JJ
fundamental0JJ
society0.0591643007226199NN
create0.0695218668857431VB
incentive0NN
vast0JJ
majority0NN
population0.0428212738652355NN
invest0VB

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.474672123915459
WordScorePoS
economic0.103276847978089JJ
institution0.0991236547760315NN
equitable0JJ
fundamental0JJ
society0.0237821918091848NN
create0VB
incentive0NN
vast0JJ
majority0.0792212041430275NN
population0.0860640399817412NN
invest0VB

But such an equitable set of economic institutions can emerge only when the distribution of power is not highly unequal and in situations in which there are constraints on the exercise of power by officeholders

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.511618863226399
WordScorePoS
equitable0JJ
set0NN
economic0JJ
institution0.274477239401321NN
emerge0VB
power0NN
highly0RB
situation0NN
constraint0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.316061422736942
WordScorePoS
equitable0JJ
set0NN
economic0.128463821595706JJ
institution0.0410992516792148NN
emerge0VB
power0NN
highly0RB
situation0NN
constraint0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.400319429414076
WordScorePoS
equitable0.017987180284335JJ
set0.0978661089756501NN
economic0JJ
institution0.0249900578719309NN
emerge0VB
power0.036961556179878NN
highly0RB
situation0NN
constraint0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.382702669714655
WordScorePoS
equitable0.0221298700466866JJ
set0NN
economic0.0320338181740375JJ
institution0NN
emerge0VB
power0.0454743001434393NN
highly0RB
situation0NN
constraint0.0602029956716497NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.377269588405138
WordScorePoS
equitable0JJ
set0NN
economic0.103276847978089JJ
institution0.0991236547760315NN
emerge0VB
power0NN
highly0RB
situation0NN
constraint0NN

Basic patterns in cross country data and historical narratives support the view that countries moving onto institutional paths that promoted sustained prosperity did so because the balance of political influence and power became more equitable

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.589819978682427
WordScorePoS
basic0.0480507272610562JJ
pattern0NN
country0NN
datum0.0454743001434393NN
historical0JJ
support0.0277502419802315NN
view0NN
move0NN
institutional0JJ
promote0.00825124851366066VB
sustained0.120405991343299JJ
prosperity0NN
political0.0368585655748969JJ
influence0NN
power0.0454743001434393NN
equitable0.0221298700466866JJ

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.449256531262305
WordScorePoS
basic0JJ
pattern0NN
country0NN
datum0.0739231123597559NN
historical0JJ
support0.0451108483130998NN
view0.048933054487825NN
move0NN
institutional0.036961556179878JJ
promote0.0100599344419752VB
sustained0JJ
prosperity0NN
political0JJ
influence0NN
power0.036961556179878NN
equitable0.017987180284335JJ

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.357541799847757
WordScorePoS
basic0.0144336476662975JJ
pattern0.0819583881728876NN
country0NN
datum0NN
historical0JJ
support0.00833571598658786NN
view0NN
move0.0409791940864438NN
institutional0JJ
promote0.0148712355431627VB
sustained0JJ
prosperity0NN
political0JJ
influence0.0542519672965169NN
power0NN
equitable0JJ

One example comes from comparison of the early institutions and of the longterm development paths of European colonies in North and South America

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.893973738004525
WordScorePoS
institution0.274477239401321NN
development0.0368309542451156NN
north0RB
south0RB

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.335578245872772
WordScorePoS
institution0.0991236547760315NN
development0.0177346522508396NN
north0RB
south0RB

The abundance of unskilled labor prevalent in the South American colonies where either native Americans or imported African slaves were available in large numbers combined with the technology of mining and large plantation agriculture to provide the economic base for hierarchical and extractive societies in which land ownership and political power were highly concentrated

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.274667410260309
WordScorePoS
south0RB
native0JJ
import0NN
african0IN
technology0.0130963126055467NN
agriculture0.148975141598503NN
provide0.0215170467912497VB
economic0JJ
base0NN
society0NN
land0.0465651203624806NN
ownership0NN
political0JJ
power0NN
highly0RB

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.223917095656149
WordScorePoS
south0RB
native0JJ
import0NN
african0IN
technology0NN
agriculture0NN
provide0VB
economic0.128463821595706JJ
base0NN
society0.0591643007226199NN
land0NN
ownership0NN
political0JJ
power0NN
highly0RB

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.473418122083908
WordScorePoS
south0RB
native0JJ
import0NN
african0IN
technology0.0409315617631NN
agriculture0.0465610847355851NN
provide0.0112083245137075VB
economic0.0727679293221751JJ
base0NN
society0.0335134328085675NN
land0.024255976440725NN
ownership0.0558185411034276NN
political0.111637082206855JJ
power0NN
highly0RB

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.421966722141995
WordScorePoS
south0RB
native0.048933054487825JJ
import0.0978661089756501NN
african0IN
technology0.109843026967392NN
agriculture0NN
provide0.00601568197638796VB
economic0JJ
base0.017987180284335NN
society0.0359743605686701NN
land0NN
ownership0NN
political0JJ
power0.036961556179878NN
highly0RB

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.360879468762189
WordScorePoS
south0RB
native0JJ
import0NN
african0IN
technology0.0269969049497485NN
agriculture0NN
provide0.0295703421524739VB
economic0.0959899298575892JJ
base0.0442083771593746NN
society0NN
land0.0319966432858631NN
ownership0.0736315832425121NN
political0JJ
power0NN
highly0RB

In North America by contrast similar attempts to introduce hierarchical structures were foiled by the scarcity of labor except where agro climatic conditions made slavery economically feasible such as in the southern region of the United States

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.550613489306621
WordScorePoS
north0RB
introduce0VB
structure0NN
scarcity0.273330690899345NN
agro0IN
condition0NN
slavery0NN
economically0RB
feasible0JJ
southern0JJ
region0NN
unite0VB

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.494911090481329
WordScorePoS
north0RB
introduce0VB
structure0NN
scarcity0NN
agro0IN
condition0NN
slavery0NN
economically0RB
feasible0JJ
southern0.0614198493690006JJ
region0.184259548107002NN
unite0VB

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.40702591509151
WordScorePoS
north0RB
introduce0VB
structure0NN
scarcity0NN
agro0IN
condition0.121575732851624NN
slavery0.0804764811724088NN
economically0RB
feasible0JJ
southern0JJ
region0NN
unite0VB

Competition for free labor in the northern areas of North America led to the development of less unequal land ownership patterns faster expansion of the franchise and rapid increases in literacy and basic education

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.753563696569874
WordScorePoS
free0.0499016491051341JJ
northern0JJ
north0RB
lead0.0255262687343935NN
development0.0279277626235394NN
land0NN
ownership0NN
pattern0NN
faster0RBR
expansion0NN
rapid0JJ
increase0.0144029596227568NN
literacy0.244520809605025NN
basic0.0433695758119029JJ
education0.244244978014045NN

The resulting economic and political institutions persisted over time with positive consequences for longrun economic development

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.383092971107789
WordScorePoS
result0NN
economic0JJ
political0JJ
institution0.274477239401321NN
persist0VB
time0NN
positive0JJ
development0.0368309542451156NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.37353575834184
WordScorePoS
result0NN
economic0.128463821595706JJ
political0JJ
institution0.0410992516792148NN
persist0VB
time0NN
positive0JJ
development0.0055149369084567NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.630418152781435
WordScorePoS
result0NN
economic0.103276847978089JJ
political0.0792212041430275JJ
institution0.0991236547760315NN
persist0.0488696285210061VB
time0.0607862199751165NN
positive0JJ
development0.0177346522508396NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.33185169342738
WordScorePoS
result0NN
economic0.0727679293221751JJ
political0.111637082206855JJ
institution0NN
persist0VB
time0NN
positive0JJ
development0.0124956749436837NN

Leveling the economic and political playing fields inequality is objectionable on both intrinsic and instrumental grounds

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.937728619106839
WordScorePoS
level0NN
economic0.103276847978089JJ
political0.0792212041430275JJ
field0NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.156039549453423
WordScorePoS
level0.00761994916892276NN
economic0.128463821595706JJ
political0JJ
field0NN
inequality0NN

It contributes to economic inefficiency political conflict and institutional frailty

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.563201100393877
WordScorePoS
contribute0VB
economic0.0959899298575892JJ
political0JJ
conflict0.147263166485024NN
institutional0JJ

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.297430810835809
WordScorePoS
contribute0VB
economic0.128463821595706JJ
political0JJ
conflict0NN
institutional0JJ

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.426950805448398
WordScorePoS
contribute0VB
economic0.0727679293221751JJ
political0.111637082206855JJ
conflict0NN
institutional0JJ

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.422535644231167
WordScorePoS
contribute0VB
economic0.103276847978089JJ
political0.0792212041430275JJ
conflict0NN
institutional0JJ

What are the implications for policy and do they give rise to an agenda that is different from the poverty reduction agenda already embraced by the World Bank other multilateral institutions and many governments

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.564488754198166
WordScorePoS
policy0.0201317944152378NN
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agenda0.0811931365363091NN
poverty0NN
reduction0NN
world0NN
bank0NN
multilateral0JJ
institution0.274477239401321NN
government0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.392294635956384
WordScorePoS
policy0.0450489732120807NN
rise0NN
agenda0NN
poverty0.269969049497485NN
reduction0NN
world0.00257343720272548NN
bank0NN
multilateral0JJ
institution0NN
government0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.478015321129856
WordScorePoS
policy0.0641521854453136NN
rise0NN
agenda0.0739231123597559NN
poverty0.0109843026967392NN
reduction0NN
world0.00418824502414673NN
bank0.036961556179878NN
multilateral0.048933054487825JJ
institution0.0249900578719309NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.390516680012236
WordScorePoS
policy0.0848203862485078NN
rise0.0237821918091848NN
agenda0NN
poverty0.05809266143877NN
reduction0.0475643836183697NN
world0.00276879546803864NN
bank0NN
multilateral0JJ
institution0.0991236547760315NN
government0NN

We argue that an equity lens enhances the poverty reduction agenda

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.756811503407773
WordScorePoS
enhance0.0184786920895884VB
poverty0.269969049497485NN
reduction0NN
agenda0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.380586975920851
WordScorePoS
enhance0.0601477977507998VB
poverty0.0109843026967392NN
reduction0NN
agenda0.0739231123597559NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.30329837174968
WordScorePoS
enhance0.00994073584907126VB
poverty0.05809266143877NN
reduction0.0475643836183697NN
agenda0NN

The poor generally have less voice less income and less access to services than most other people

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.584805265901515
WordScorePoS
poor0.150659516460257JJ
voice0NN
income0.0442083771593746NN
access0.00514687440545096NN
service0.0443555132287109NN
people0.0371911007748996NNS

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.511417346283103
WordScorePoS
poor0JJ
voice0.064698038783335NN
income0.166475342664294NN
access0.00138439773401932NN
service0.00795378154685591NN
people0.00571634317201755NNS

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.346361563961537
WordScorePoS
poor0.0548141757796873JJ
voice0NN
income0.0643370113878709NN
access0.00749031153171887NN
service0.0143446978608332NN
people0.0257736572183839NNS

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.32598847513623
WordScorePoS
poor0JJ
voice0NN
income0.110649350233433NN
access0.0128821355880844NN
service0.0148023490369527NN
people0.0186171553883251NNS

When societies become more equitable in ways that lead to greater opportunities for all the poor stand to benefit from double dividend

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.381639655266635
WordScorePoS
society0NN
equitable0JJ
lead0NN
opportunity0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
stand0VB
benefit0NN
double0RB

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.369080376382328
WordScorePoS
society0.0591643007226199NN
equitable0JJ
lead0.0504071033101074NN
opportunity0.0361300980868102NN
poor0JJ
stand0VB
benefit0NN
double0RB

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.328740640722023
WordScorePoS
society0NN
equitable0.0502364757923669JJ
lead0NN
opportunity0.0153390539205676NN
poor0.0642010940957526JJ
stand0VB
benefit0NN
double0RB

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.323360007785872
WordScorePoS
society0NN
equitable0.0214456704626236JJ
lead0NN
opportunity0.0261926252110933NN
poor0.0548141757796873JJ
stand0VB
benefit0.0252000451111224NN
double0RB

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.300268890213716
WordScorePoS
society0.118536858482514NN
equitable0JJ
lead0NN
opportunity0NN
poor0JJ
stand0VB
benefit0NN
double0RB

First expanded opportunities benefit the poor directly through greater participation in the development process

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.517850215538232
WordScorePoS
expand0VB
opportunity0NN
benefit0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
participation0.0614198493690006NN
development0.0164833460638534NN
process0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.395863257081165
WordScorePoS
expand0VB
opportunity0.02046578088155NN
benefit0.0393804437159645NN
poor0JJ
participation0.0465610847355851NN
development0.0124956749436837NN
process0.0558185411034276NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.331333847821853
WordScorePoS
expand0VB
opportunity0.0135141354781442NN
benefit0.0260040237236563NN
poor0JJ
participation0NN
development0.0330049940546426NN
process0.0737171311497939NN

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.316188955504301
WordScorePoS
expand0.0251182378961834VB
opportunity0.0153390539205676NN
benefit0NN
poor0.0642010940957526JJ
participation0.0348974218717993NN
development0NN
process0NN

Second the development process itself may become more successful and resilient as greater equity leads to better institutions more effective conflict management and better use of all potential resources in society including those of the poor

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.584125627720419
WordScorePoS
development0.0368309542451156NN
process0NN
successful0JJ
resilient0JJ
lead0NN
institution0.274477239401321NN
effective0.0482582488828229JJ
conflict0.0658099748168827NN
management0NN
potential0NN
resource0NN
society0.118536858482514NN
include0VB
poor0JJ

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.417029956059821
WordScorePoS
development0.0164833460638534NN
process0NN
successful0JJ
resilient0JJ
lead0NN
institution0NN
effective0JJ
conflict0.147263166485024NN
management0NN
potential0NN
resource0.0739147683583536NN
society0NN
include0VB
poor0.150659516460257JJ

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.326386689064259
WordScorePoS
development0.0330049940546426NN
process0.0737171311497939NN
successful0JJ
resilient0.0922368138456871JJ
lead0.0188543197850406NN
institution0NN
effective0JJ
conflict0NN
management0NN
potential0.0454743001434393NN
resource0.0185001613201543NN
society0.0221298700466866NN
include0VB
poor0JJ

Resulting increases in economic growth rates in poor countries will in turn contribute to reduction in global inequities

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.516556554695521
WordScorePoS
result0NN
increase0.00711043475673939NN
economic0.128463821595706JJ
growth0.208565600657229NN
rate0NN
poor0JJ
country0NN
contribute0VB
reduction0NN
global0.0220597476338268JJ

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.511465492118372
WordScorePoS
result0NN
increase0NN
economic0.0959899298575892JJ
growth0.0519476926891779NN
rate0.0639932865717261NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
country0NN
contribute0VB
reduction0NN
global0JJ

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.417527716406531
WordScorePoS
result0NN
increase0.00285817158600878NN
economic0.103276847978089JJ
growth0.11178243319132NN
rate0.0172128079963482NN
poor0JJ
country0NN
contribute0VB
reduction0.0475643836183697NN
global0.0133009891881297JJ

One manifestation of the greater participation of the poor in economic growth is the fact that the growth elasticity of poverty reduction falls with greater income inequality

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.736569699278432
WordScorePoS
manifestation0NN
participation0NN
poor0JJ
economic0.103276847978089JJ
growth0.11178243319132NN
poverty0.05809266143877NN
reduction0.0475643836183697NN
fall0NN
income0.166475342664294NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.505103481620032
WordScorePoS
manifestation0.120266261535276NN
participation0.0614198493690006NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
economic0.0959899298575892JJ
growth0.0519476926891779NN
poverty0.269969049497485NN
reduction0NN
fall0NN
income0.0442083771593746NN
inequality0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.368711881441055
WordScorePoS
manifestation0NN
participation0NN
poor0JJ
economic0.128463821595706JJ
growth0.208565600657229NN
poverty0.0722601961736204NN
reduction0NN
fall0NN
income0NN
inequality0NN

In other words the impact of the same amount of growth on poverty reduction is significantly greater when initial income inequality is lower

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.864927990443829
WordScorePoS
impact0NN
amount0NN
growth0.11178243319132NN
poverty0.05809266143877NN
reduction0.0475643836183697NN
significantly0RB
income0.166475342664294NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.362822171495488
WordScorePoS
impact0NN
amount0.0614198493690006NN
growth0.0519476926891779NN
poverty0.269969049497485NN
reduction0NN
significantly0RB
income0.0442083771593746NN
inequality0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.238313704694839
WordScorePoS
impact0NN
amount0NN
growth0.208565600657229NN
poverty0.0722601961736204NN
reduction0NN
significantly0RB
income0NN
inequality0NN

On average for countries with low levels of income inequality percentage point growth in mean incomes leads to about percentage point reduction in the incidence of per day poverty

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.815817750267798
WordScorePoS
average0.146608885563018NN
country0NN
level0NN
income0.166475342664294NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
percentage0NN
growth0.11178243319132NN
lead0NN
reduction0.0475643836183697NN
incidence0NN
day0NN
poverty0.05809266143877NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.417282091792383
WordScorePoS
average0NN
country0NN
level0.0113874611101829NN
income0.0442083771593746NN
inequality0NN
percentage0NN
growth0.0519476926891779NN
lead0NN
reduction0NN
incidence0NN
day0.25973846344589NN
poverty0.269969049497485NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.228777145008414
WordScorePoS
average0NN
country0NN
level0.00761994916892276NN
income0NN
inequality0NN
percentage0NN
growth0.208565600657229NN
lead0.0504071033101074NN
reduction0NN
incidence0NN
day0.0347609334428716NN
poverty0.0722601961736204NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.15153813558331
WordScorePoS
average0.1656430212089NN
country0NN
level0.0415277415054218NN
income0NN
inequality0NN
percentage0NN
growth0NN
lead0NN
reduction0.0403047273067529NN
incidence0NN
day0NN
poverty0NN

That power falls to close to zero in countries with high income inequality

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.951771589669978
WordScorePoS
power0NN
fall0NN
country0NN
income0.166475342664294NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN

Policies that lead to greater equity thus lead to lower poverty directly through expanding the opportunities of the poor and indirectly through higher levels of sustained development

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.645261721084875
WordScorePoS
policy0.0450489732120807NN
lead0NN
poverty0.269969049497485NN
expand0VB
opportunity0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
indirectly0RB
level0.0113874611101829NN
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development0.0164833460638534NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.388476827199283
WordScorePoS
policy0.0452169560888236NN
lead0.0504071033101074NN
poverty0.0722601961736204NN
expand0.0295821503613099VB
opportunity0.0361300980868102NN
poor0JJ
indirectly0RB
level0.00761994916892276NN
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development0.0055149369084567NN

An equity lens adds three new or at least often neglected perspectives to development policymaking So portion of the economic and political inequalities we observe around the world is attributable to unequal opportunities

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.901575182253807
WordScorePoS
add0VB
neglect0NN
perspective0NN
development0.0177346522508396NN
economic0.103276847978089JJ
political0.0792212041430275JJ
inequality0.635305170773079NN
world0.00276879546803864NN
opportunity0.029046330719385NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.262262370316245
WordScorePoS
add0.0804764811724088VB
neglect0NN
perspective0NN
development0.0055149369084567NN
economic0.128463821595706JJ
political0JJ
inequality0NN
world0.00172202218602071NN
opportunity0.0361300980868102NN

This First the best policies for poverty reduction could involve redistributions WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT of influence advantage or subsidies away from dominant groups

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.533278575955787
WordScorePoS
policy0.0450489732120807NN
poverty0.269969049497485NN
reduction0NN
involve0VB
world0.00257343720272548NN
development0.0164833460638534NN
report0NN
influence0NN
subsidy0NN
dominant0JJ

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.273043060575613
WordScorePoS
policy0NN
poverty0NN
reduction0NN
involve0VB
world0.0045533140757086NN
development0.0036456034155327NN
report0NN
influence0NN
subsidy0.162850158165781NN
dominant0JJ

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.515619657629967
WordScorePoS
policy0.0203215381458133NN
poverty0.0121782716594324NN
reduction0.0199423462679015NN
involve0.0819583881728876VB
world0.00464349782489754NN
development0.022306853314744NN
report0.0409791940864438NN
influence0.0542519672965169NN
subsidy0.0664302389559493NN
dominant0JJ

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.414795447445879
WordScorePoS
policy0.0848203862485078NN
poverty0.05809266143877NN
reduction0.0475643836183697NN
involve0.0488696285210061VB
world0.00276879546803864NN
development0.0177346522508396NN
report0NN
influence0NN
subsidy0NN
dominant0JJ

Highly unequally distributed wealth associated with unduly concentrated political power can prevent institutions from enforcing broad based personal and property rights and lead to skewed provisioning of services and functioning of markets

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.621347118229639
WordScorePoS
highly0RB
unequally0RB
distribute0VB
political0JJ
power0NN
prevent0.0548954478802642VB
institution0.274477239401321NN
enforce0.107490825192354VB
base0NN
personal0JJ
property0NN
rights0NNS
lead0NN
provision0.0658099748168827NN
service0NN
function0NN
market0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.401049855302082
WordScorePoS
highly0RB
unequally0RB
distribute0VB
political0.111637082206855JJ
power0NN
prevent0VB
institution0NN
enforce0VB
base0NN
personal0JJ
property0.0558185411034276NN
rights0.078760887431929NNS
lead0NN
provision0.0558185411034276NN
service0.022416649027415NN
function0NN
market0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.335298853963803
WordScorePoS
highly0RB
unequally0RB
distribute0.064698038783335VB
political0.0792212041430275JJ
power0NN
prevent0VB
institution0.0991236547760315NN
enforce0VB
base0NN
personal0JJ
property0NN
rights0NNS
lead0NN
provision0NN
service0.00795378154685591NN
function0NN
market0.0202620733250388NN

This is unlikely to change unless voice and influence and public resources shift away from the dominant group toward those with fewer opportunities

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.67504191736893
WordScorePoS
change0.402565546215053NN
voice0NN
influence0NN
public0NN
resource0NN
dominant0JJ
opportunity0NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.474749398624541
WordScorePoS
change0.105749654845006NN
voice0NN
influence0NN
public0NN
resource0NN
dominant0.122412709674631JJ
opportunity0.0549574626423028NN

Second while such equity enhancing redistributions of power or access to government spending and markets can often be efficiency increasing possible tradeoffs need to be assessed in the design of policy

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.378612974595456
WordScorePoS
enhance0.0188084899376888VB
power0NN
access0.0157161992303584NN
government0NN
spending0NN
market0NN
efficiency0.134992154141495NN
increase0.0162235147372888NN
policy0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.506152506191823
WordScorePoS
enhance0.0601477977507998VB
power0.036961556179878NN
access0.00314118376811005NN
government0.048933054487825NN
spending0NN
market0.030649619577211NN
efficiency0NN
increase0.00432344066632653NN
policy0.0641521854453136NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.501977914755946
WordScorePoS
enhance0.0185001613201543VB
power0.0454743001434393NN
access0.0128821355880844NN
government0NN
spending0.0602029956716497NN
market0.0377086395700813NN
efficiency0.0442597400933733NN
increase0.0159575617614215NN
policy0.011275328195446NN

At some point higher tax rates to finance spending on more schools for the poorest will create so much disincentive to effort or investment depending on how the taxes are raised that one should stop raising them

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.414879801984782
WordScorePoS
tax0NN
rate0.0216847879059514NN
finance0NN
spending0NN
school0.208127520578185NN
poorest0JJS
create0VB
effort0.0255262687343935NN
investment0NN
depend0VB
raise0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.445976726167352
WordScorePoS
tax0.0811931365363091NN
rate0.0571955184484387NN
finance0NN
spending0NN
school0.0548954478802642NN
poorest0JJS
create0VB
effort0NN
investment0NN
depend0VB
raise0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.394004989754595
WordScorePoS
tax0NN
rate0NN
finance0NN
spending0.0602029956716497NN
school0NN
poorest0JJS
create0.0520080474473126VB
effort0.0188543197850406NN
investment0.0377086395700813NN
depend0VB
raise0.0368585655748969NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.304668336555536
WordScorePoS
tax0.036961556179878NN
rate0NN
finance0.036961556179878NN
spending0NN
school0NN
poorest0JJS
create0VB
effort0NN
investment0.0766240489430275NN
depend0VB
raise0NN

When making policy choice along such tradeoffs the full value of the benefits from equity enhancement should be considered

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.534123119596775
WordScorePoS
policy0.0341506708422088NN
choice0NN
full0.0465610847355851JJ
benefit0.0393804437159645NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.38390072324393
WordScorePoS
policy0.0452169560888236NN
choice0NN
full0.0410992516792148JJ
benefit0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.377247894325231
WordScorePoS
policy0.0848203862485078NN
choice0NN
full0JJ
benefit0NN

If greater spending on schools for lower caste children means that over the long term stereotyping will decline in society with attendant increases in performance that are additional to the specific gains from greater schooling today these gains should not be ignored

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.443287137460963
WordScorePoS
spending0NN
school0.208127520578185NN
child0.076326555629389NN
means0NNS
term0NN
decline0NN
society0NN
increase0.0144029596227568NN
performance0NN
additional0JJ
specific0JJ
gain0NN
schooling0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.336781643729089
WordScorePoS
spending0NN
school0NN
child0NN
means0NNS
term0.149793392961411NN
decline0NN
society0.0359743605686701NN
increase0.00432344066632653NN
performance0NN
additional0.036961556179878JJ
specific0JJ
gain0NN
schooling0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.346830740985148
WordScorePoS
spending0NN
school0.0548954478802642NN
child0.0603953832457135NN
means0NNS
term0NN
decline0NN
society0.118536858482514NN
increase0NN
performance0NN
additional0JJ
specific0JJ
gain0NN
schooling0NN

Third the dichotomy between policies for growth and policies specifically aimed at equity is false

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.674690281858178
WordScorePoS
policy0.0452169560888236NN
growth0.208565600657229NN
aim0.0410992516792148NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.55828930234008
WordScorePoS
policy0.0848203862485078NN
growth0.11178243319132NN
aim0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.304106548275371
WordScorePoS
policy0.0641521854453136NN
growth0NN
aim0.0249900578719309NN

The distribution of opportunities and the growth process are jointly determined

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.732311357608309
WordScorePoS
opportunity0.0361300980868102NN
growth0.208565600657229NN
process0NN
jointly0RB
determine0VB

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.421464307787555
WordScorePoS
opportunity0.029046330719385NN
growth0.11178243319132NN
process0NN
jointly0RB
determine0VB

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.338884130911055
WordScorePoS
opportunity0.0135141354781442NN
growth0.0260040237236563NN
process0.0737171311497939NN
jointly0RB
determine0VB

Policies that affect one will affect the other

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.389729862610096
WordScorePoS
policy0.0201317944152378NN
affect0.033031539117106VB

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.383515126399775
WordScorePoS
policy0.0848203862485078NN
affect0VB

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.370791503216557
WordScorePoS
policy0.0450489732120807NN
affect0.0184786920895884VB

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.359406265352608
WordScorePoS
policy0NN
affect0.0397441667210336VB

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.351120402557133
WordScorePoS
policy0.0102677744436108NN
affect0.0336940052321454VB

This does not mean that each policy needs to take equity into account individually for example the best way to deal with inequitable effects of particular trade reform is not always through fine tuning trade policy itself which might make it more susceptible to capture but through complementary policies for safety nets labor mobility and education

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.329739431304827
WordScorePoS
policy0NN
account0NN
effect0NN
trade0NN
reform0NN
capture0NN
safety0NN
mobility0NN
education0.244244978014045NN

The overall package and the fairness of the underlying process are what matter

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.589519354214233
WordScorePoS
underlie0VB
process0.0737171311497939NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.486123417996114
WordScorePoS
underlie0.0607878664258118VB
process0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.446383490393946
WordScorePoS
underlie0VB
process0.0558185411034276NN

The analysis of development experience clearly shows the centrality of overall political conditions supporting the emphasis on governance and empowerment in recent years

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.797729452886034
WordScorePoS
development0.0124956749436837NN
experience0NN
political0.111637082206855JJ
condition0NN
support0NN
governance0NN
empowerment0.273513903975916NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.304571709096142
WordScorePoS
development0.0055149369084567NN
experience0NN
political0JJ
condition0.121575732851624NN
support0.024730129581725NN
governance0NN
empowerment0NN

However it is neither the mandate nor the comparative advantage of the World Bank to engage in advice on issues of political design

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.610929768066575
WordScorePoS
mandate0.0583416713841148NN
world0.0124838525528648NN
bank0.0881366997038154NN
engage0VB
issue0NN
political0JJ

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.451540909330158
WordScorePoS
mandate0NN
world0.00585260443759492NN
bank0NN
engage0VB
issue0NN
political0.111637082206855JJ

In turning to policy implications we focus instead on the core areas of development policy while recognizing that policy design needs to take account of the broader social and political context and that accountability mechanisms influence development effectiveness

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.535536475421914
WordScorePoS
policy0.0641521854453136NN
focus0NN
development0.0469463607292177NN
recognize0VB
account0NN
social0JJ
political0JJ
context0.036961556179878NN
accountability0.048933054487825NN
mechanism0.147846224719512NN
influence0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.50215849027635
WordScorePoS
policy0.0848203862485078NN
focus0NN
development0.0177346522508396NN
recognize0VB
account0.0172128079963482NN
social0.101310366625194JJ
political0.0792212041430275JJ
context0NN
accountability0NN
mechanism0NN
influence0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.33305825849954
WordScorePoS
policy0.0341506708422088NN
focus0NN
development0.0124956749436837NN
recognize0.0558185411034276VB
account0NN
social0.0285529457667019JJ
political0.111637082206855JJ
context0NN
accountability0NN
mechanism0NN
influence0NN

Because economic policies are determined within sociopolitical reality how policies are designed introduced or reformed matters as much as which specific policies are proposed

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.411959364892314
WordScorePoS
economic0.128463821595706JJ
policy0.0452169560888236NN
determine0VB
introduce0VB
reform0NN
specific0JJ

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.557990629467091
WordScorePoS
economic0.103276847978089JJ
policy0.0848203862485078NN
determine0VB
introduce0VB
reform0NN
specific0JJ

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.415510274752781
WordScorePoS
economic0.0727679293221751JJ
policy0.0341506708422088NN
determine0VB
introduce0VB
reform0.0911713013253052NN
specific0JJ

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.36052136960037
WordScorePoS
economic0.0959899298575892JJ
policy0.0450489732120807NN
determine0VB
introduce0VB
reform0NN
specific0JJ

Policy reforms that result in losses for particular group will be resisted by that group

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.565965960405248
WordScorePoS
policy0.0341506708422088NN
reform0.0911713013253052NN
result0NN
loss0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.383056941530679
WordScorePoS
policy0.0848203862485078NN
reform0NN
result0NN
loss0NN

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.308596857174217
WordScorePoS
policy0NN
reform0NN
result0.0683326727248364NN
loss0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.303430218370212
WordScorePoS
policy0.0203215381458133NN
reform0NN
result0NN
loss0.0468670845659596NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.302749037524656
WordScorePoS
policy0NN
reform0NN
result0NN
loss0.0670377886812128NN

If the group is powerful it will usually subvert the reform

Label: 5, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
reform0.0911713013253052NN

The sustainability of reforms therefore may depend on making information about its distributional consequences publicly available and perhaps forming coalitions of middle and poorer groups that stand to gain from them to empower directly or indirectly relatively disadvantaged members of society

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.530114856739508
WordScorePoS
sustainability0NN
reform0NN
depend0VB
information0.0241291244414115NN
form0.158049144643351NN
middle0JJ
stand0VB
gain0NN
empower0VB
indirectly0RB
disadvantaged0JJ
society0.118536858482514NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.531514957637936
WordScorePoS
sustainability0NN
reform0.0911713013253052NN
depend0VB
information0.02046578088155NN
form0.100540298425703NN
middle0JJ
stand0VB
gain0NN
empower0.0558185411034276VB
indirectly0RB
disadvantaged0JJ
society0.0335134328085675NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.329233082786011
WordScorePoS
sustainability0NN
reform0NN
depend0VB
information0.0675706773907211NN
form0NN
middle0.0602029956716497JJ
stand0VB
gain0NN
empower0.0368585655748969VB
indirectly0RB
disadvantaged0JJ
society0.0221298700466866NN

How policies are implemented has technical aspect as well

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.454852201432882
WordScorePoS
policy0NN
implement0VB
technical0.124876512346911JJ
aspect0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.424198840970733
WordScorePoS
policy0.0452169560888236NN
implement0.030144637392549VB
technical0.0410992516792148JJ
aspect0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.400575332654148
WordScorePoS
policy0.0641521854453136NN
implement0.0458229896037954VB
technical0JJ
aspect0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.353087003989006
WordScorePoS
policy0.0848203862485078NN
implement0.0121171980355011VB
technical0JJ
aspect0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.328174197896914
WordScorePoS
policy0.0450489732120807NN
implement0.0450489732120807VB
technical0JJ
aspect0NN

Just as we emphasize that the full long term benefits of redistributions need to be taken into account when making policy choices so must all their costs

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.517261619799952
WordScorePoS
full0JJ
term0.149793392961411NN
benefit0NN
account0NN
policy0.0641521854453136NN
choice0NN
cost0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.502224951180094
WordScorePoS
full0JJ
term0.0396106020715138NN
benefit0NN
account0.0172128079963482NN
policy0.0848203862485078NN
choice0NN
cost0.0660824365173543NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.354781214185303
WordScorePoS
full0JJ
term0NN
benefit0NN
account0.0577345906651901NN
policy0.0203215381458133NN
choice0.0409791940864438NN
cost0.0277064208763707NN

A focus on equity does not change the facts that asset expropriations even in instances of historical grievances may have adverse consequences for subsequent investment that high marginal tax rates create disincentives to work or that inflationary financing of budget deficits tends to lead to regressive implicit taxation economic disorganization and reduced investment and growth

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.518334924277188
WordScorePoS
focus0.0410992516792148NN
change0NN
asset0NN
historical0JJ
adverse0JJ
investment0.0252035516550537NN
tax0NN
rate0NN
create0.0695218668857431VB
financing0NN
lead0.0504071033101074NN
taxation0NN
economic0.128463821595706JJ
reduce0.0055149369084567VB
growth0.208565600657229NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.406375178669863
WordScorePoS
focus0.0279982034978914NN
change0.402565546215053NN
asset0NN
historical0JJ
adverse0JJ
investment0NN
tax0NN
rate0NN
create0VB
financing0NN
lead0NN
taxation0NN
economic0JJ
reduce0.00375696197697663VB
growth0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.332805405609216
WordScorePoS
focus0NN
change0NN
asset0NN
historical0JJ
adverse0JJ
investment0.0376648791150643NN
tax0NN
rate0.0639932865717261NN
create0.0519476926891779VB
financing0NN
lead0NN
taxation0NN
economic0.0959899298575892JJ
reduce0.0164833460638534VB
growth0.0519476926891779NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.330007603987128
WordScorePoS
focus0NN
change0NN
asset0.0488696285210061NN
historical0JJ
adverse0JJ
investment0.0202620733250388NN
tax0NN
rate0.0172128079963482NN
create0VB
financing0NN
lead0NN
taxation0NN
economic0.103276847978089JJ
reduce0.0310356414389692VB
growth0.11178243319132NN

In short focus on equity must not be an excuse for poor economic policy

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.619714558626077
WordScorePoS
focus0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
economic0.0959899298575892JJ
policy0.0450489732120807NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.45630110479633
WordScorePoS
focus0.0410992516792148NN
poor0JJ
economic0.128463821595706JJ
policy0.0452169560888236NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.399613390690869
WordScorePoS
focus0NN
poor0JJ
economic0.103276847978089JJ
policy0.0848203862485078NN

The report discusses the role of public action in leveling the economic and political playing field under four main headings

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.27365616888849
WordScorePoS
report0NN
public0NN
action0NN
level0.00761994916892276NN
economic0.128463821595706JJ
political0JJ
field0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.634189221140525
WordScorePoS
report0NN
public0.0727679293221751NN
action0.0409315617631NN
level0.0172651853471334NN
economic0.0727679293221751JJ
political0.111637082206855JJ
field0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.430811567964549
WordScorePoS
report0NN
public0.0172128079963482NN
action0.0145231653596925NN
level0NN
economic0.103276847978089JJ
political0.0792212041430275JJ
field0NN

Three of the headings concern domestic policies investing in human capacities expanding access to justice land and infra Overview structure and promoting fairness in markets

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.443052284241933
WordScorePoS
domestic0JJ
policy0.0201317944152378NN
invest0VB
human0JJ
capacity0.016515769558553NN
expand0VB
access0.00690021170452351NN
justice0.214981650384708NN
land0NN
structure0NN
promote0.0220985725470694VB
market0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.419097508170082
WordScorePoS
domestic0.0634082886861185JJ
policy0.0641521854453136NN
invest0VB
human0JJ
capacity0.0451108483130998NN
expand0VB
access0.00314118376811005NN
justice0NN
land0NN
structure0.048933054487825NN
promote0.0100599344419752VB
market0.030649619577211NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.362613618158966
WordScorePoS
domestic0JJ
policy0NN
invest0.0583416713841148VB
human0JJ
capacity0.0179281831452421NN
expand0VB
access0.00749031153171887NN
justice0NN
land0.0465651203624806NN
structure0NN
promote0.00799614078871077VB
market0.0913569596328122NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.359933230682275
WordScorePoS
domestic0.0695218668857431JJ
policy0.0452169560888236NN
invest0VB
human0.0150723186962745JJ
capacity0.0123650647908625NN
expand0.0295821503613099VB
access0.00344404437204141NN
justice0NN
land0NN
structure0NN
promote0.0275746845422835VB
market0.0252035516550537NN

The fourth turns to policies for greater global equity in terms of access to markets resource flows and governance

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.564800469086808
WordScorePoS
policy0.0641521854453136NN
global0.0201198688839505JJ
term0.149793392961411NN
access0.00314118376811005NN
market0.030649619577211NN
resource0.0375923735942499NN
flow0NN
governance0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.412497873233962
WordScorePoS
policy0.0201317944152378NN
global0.00736619084902312JJ
term0NN
access0.00690021170452351NN
market0NN
resource0NN
flow0.0811931365363091NN
governance0.107490825192354NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.385068395453598
WordScorePoS
policy0.0848203862485078NN
global0.0133009891881297JJ
term0.0396106020715138NN
access0.00138439773401932NN
market0.0202620733250388NN
resource0NN
flow0.0488696285210061NN
governance0NN

Throughout the discussion the report weighs desire to be specific and practical against the fact that the best specific policy mix is function of country context

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.483366756830774
WordScorePoS
report0NN
specific0JJ
policy0.0641521854453136NN
mix0NN
function0.036961556179878NN
country0NN
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Label: 7, with a score of: 0.428535990223453
WordScorePoS
report0NN
specific0JJ
policy0NN
mix0.122412709674631NN
function0NN
country0NN
context0NN

The educational challenges facing Sudan are different from those facing Egypt

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.86948717918831
WordScorePoS
educational0JJ
challenge0NN
face0.120405991343299NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.342196289704404
WordScorePoS
educational0JJ
challenge0.0947742174515357NN
face0NN

The optimal sequencing of reform in the public sectors of Latvia and Bolivia are unlikely to be the same

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.836185475819683
WordScorePoS
reform0.0911713013253052NN
public0.0727679293221751NN
sector0.0571058915334038NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.32165804277328
WordScorePoS
reform0NN
public0.0390556786919513NN
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The capacity for implementing health finance reform in China and Lesotho are also different

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.621652958859467
WordScorePoS
capacity0.00625975725959118NN
implement0VB
health0.191387734041787NN
finance0NN
reform0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.466370481431704
WordScorePoS
capacity0NN
implement0VB
health0.0571058915334038NN
finance0NN
reform0.0911713013253052NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.402264403364083
WordScorePoS
capacity0.0451108483130998NN
implement0.0458229896037954VB
health0NN
finance0.036961556179878NN
reform0NN

So the detailed specific policy advice always needs to be developed at the country or even subnational level

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.430482159694206
WordScorePoS
specific0JJ
policy0.0848203862485078NN
develop0VB
country0NN
level0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.412101181642851
WordScorePoS
specific0JJ
policy0.0201317944152378NN
develop0VB
country0NN
level0.0610668815653026NN

Everything that is said below therefore retains some level of generality and should be interpreted accordingly and cautiously

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.732984739262465
WordScorePoS
level0.0610668815653026NN

Human capacities Early childhood development

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.604658296802401
WordScorePoS
human0.0152653111258778JJ
capacity0NN
childhood0.0815069365350084NN
development0.0279277626235394NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.446376508718399
WordScorePoS
human0JJ
capacity0.0451108483130998NN
childhood0NN
development0.0469463607292177NN

In many developing countries the actions of the state in providing services magnify rather than attenuate inequalities at birth

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.947120055459353
WordScorePoS
develop0VB
country0NN
action0.0145231653596925NN
provide0VB
service0.00795378154685591NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
birth0.0396106020715138NN

A guiding principle is to shape public action so that the acquisition of human capacities is not driven by circumstances of their birth although it can reflect people preferences tastes and talents

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.400514371477226
WordScorePoS
principle0.0977392570420122NN
public0.0172128079963482NN
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human0JJ
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drive0NN
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Because differences in cognitive development start to widen from very early age see figure early childhood development initiatives can be central to more equal opportunities

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.452009640528364
WordScorePoS
development0NN
age0NN
figure0NN
childhood0NN
initiative0.0924643738905717NN
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Label: 4, with a score of: 0.403122444868767
WordScorePoS
development0.0279277626235394NN
age0.0255262687343935NN
figure0NN
childhood0.0815069365350084NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.346000782574868
WordScorePoS
development0.0164833460638534NN
age0.112994637345193NN
figure0NN
childhood0NN
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.300858845612855
WordScorePoS
development0.0124956749436837NN
age0NN
figure0NN
childhood0NN
initiative0NN
central0JJ
equal0.114211783066808JJ
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Evidence supports the view that investing in early childhood has large impacts on children health and readiness to learn and can bring important economic returns later in life often greater than investments in formal education and training

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.689589307856694
WordScorePoS
evidence0NN
support0NN
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invest0VB
childhood0.0815069365350084NN
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child0.076326555629389NN
health0NN
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training0.124876512346911NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.321554334832718
WordScorePoS
evidence0NN
support0.00625975725959118NN
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childhood0NN
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child0.10682408961305NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.290094638050447
WordScorePoS
evidence0.12939607756667NN
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childhood0NN
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child0.0242343960710022NN
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.256970000405115
WordScorePoS
evidence0NN
support0.024730129581725NN
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childhood0NN
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child0.0452169560888236NN
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economic0.128463821595706JJ
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An experiment in Jamaica focused on undersized children ages to months and found that they suffered from lower levels of cognitive development than those of normal height

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.595889720697983
WordScorePoS
focus0NN
child0.0450489732120807NN
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suffer0VB
level0.0113874611101829NN
development0.0164833460638534NN
height0.120266261535276NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.398025930913422
WordScorePoS
focus0NN
child0.10682408961305NN
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.30807071928146
WordScorePoS
focus0NN
child0.0603953832457135NN
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suffer0VB
level0.0610668815653026NN
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Nutritional supplements and program of regular exposure to mental stimulation helped offset this disadvantage

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.73661574900751
WordScorePoS
nutritional0JJ
regular0JJ
exposure0.120266261535276NN
mental0JJ
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After months kids who received both better nutrition and more stimulation had virtually caught up developmentally Figure Catching up through early interventions Development quotient Children of normal height Stimulation and nutritional supplement Stimulation Nutritional supplement Control group Baseline Months Source Grantham McGregor and others

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.64328878948542
WordScorePoS
receive0VB
nutrition0.175025014152344NN
figure0NN
intervention0NN
development0.0159922815774215NN
child0.0546336178945768NN
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nutritional0.0583416713841148JJ
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source0.0130963126055467NN

Note The development quotient is an index of progress on four behavioral and cognitive indicators of childhood development

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.623019120591363
WordScorePoS
development0.0279277626235394NN
progress0.0299609328954485NN
childhood0.0815069365350084NN

Number of months refers to the time after entry into the program generally at an age of nine months

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.599999783086239
WordScorePoS
time0NN
age0.112994637345193NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.542008489882018
WordScorePoS
time0.0127591822694525NN
age0.0893142758861673NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.430365188491593
WordScorePoS
time0.0607862199751165NN
age0.0202620733250388NN

with children who started life at normal height figure

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.660138289826916
WordScorePoS
child0.0450489732120807NN
life0.0184786920895884NN
height0.120266261535276NN
figure0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.473616811697019
WordScorePoS
child0.10682408961305NN
life0.0250390290383647NN
height0NN
figure0NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.319125086123165
WordScorePoS
child0.076326555629389NN
life0.0125233923809486NN
height0NN
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This illustrates how decisive and well designed public action can substantially reduce the opportunity gaps between those least privileged and the societal norm

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.506844923037364
WordScorePoS
public0.0727679293221751NN
action0.0409315617631NN
substantially0RB
reduce0VB
opportunity0.02046578088155NN
gap0NN

Investing in the neediest people early in their childhoods can help level the playing field

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.679982681346376
WordScorePoS
invest0.0583416713841148VB
people0.0257736572183839NNS
childhood0NN
level0.00552410547653725NN
field0.0583416713841148NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.514008344887425
WordScorePoS
invest0VB
people0.00720147981137839NNS
childhood0.0815069365350084NN
level0.0231525547935232NN
field0NN

Schooling

Label: 3, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
schooling0.0407408489778079NN

The process continues throughout the school system

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.623045991091643
WordScorePoS
process0NN
continue0VB
school0.208127520578185NN
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.546190730938136
WordScorePoS
process0.0558185411034276NN
continue0.0335134328085675VB
school0.0931221694711702NN
system0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.315508655520755
WordScorePoS
process0NN
continue0VB
school0.0297950283197006NN
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Actions to equalize opportunities in formal education need to ensure that all children acquire at least basic level of skills necessary to participate in society and in today global economy

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.802316410953005
WordScorePoS
action0NN
opportunity0NN
education0.244244978014045NN
ensure0.0390988676729552VB
child0.076326555629389NN
acquire0.0615662203253227NN
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level0.0231525547935232NN
skill0.407534682675042NN
society0NN
global0.00558555252470789JJ
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Even in such middle income countries as Colombia Morocco and the Philippines most children completing basic education lack an adequate level of achievement as measured by internationally comparable test scores chapters and

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.549158694030474
WordScorePoS
middle0JJ
income0NN
country0NN
child0.076326555629389NN
complete0.0815069365350084JJ
basic0.0433695758119029JJ
education0.244244978014045NN
lack0.0255262687343935NN
adequate0JJ
level0.0231525547935232NN
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internationally0RB

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.225416148326125
WordScorePoS
middle0JJ
income0.166475342664294NN
country0NN
child0.0242343960710022NN
complete0JJ
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education0.0121171980355011NN
lack0NN
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internationally0RB

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.54675828051148
WordScorePoS
middle0JJ
income0.0442083771593746NN
country0NN
child0.0450489732120807NN
complete0JJ
basic0.0639932865717261JJ
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measure0.103895385378356NN
internationally0RB

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.372170931721482
WordScorePoS
middle0.0602029956716497JJ
income0.110649350233433NN
country0NN
child0NN
complete0JJ
basic0.0480507272610562JJ
education0.022550656390892NN
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adequate0JJ
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achievement0.0368585655748969NN
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internationally0RB

Access to schooling matters especially in very poor countries but in many countries it is only small part of the problem

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.79037576121127
WordScorePoS
access0.00514687440545096NN
schooling0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
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Label: 6, with a score of: 0.362766321473422
WordScorePoS
access0.00731085509381114NN
schooling0NN
poor0.0642010940957526JJ
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.316058643756627
WordScorePoS
access0.00749031153171887NN
schooling0NN
poor0.0548141757796873JJ
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Greater access needs to be complemented by supply side policies to raise quality and demand side policies to correct for the possibility that parents may underinvest in the education of their children for various reasons

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.598685516305163
WordScorePoS
access0.00697628678506322NN
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supply0.0352060273355634NN
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quality0.076326555629389NN
demand0NN
correct0JJ
education0.244244978014045NN
child0.076326555629389NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.325162049301784
WordScorePoS
access0.00314118376811005NN
complement0.0978661089756501NN
supply0NN
policy0.0641521854453136NN
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quality0.00916459792075908NN
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correct0JJ
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There are no magic bullets for this but increasing teachers incentives enhancing the basic quality of the school physical infrastructure and researching and implementing teaching methods to increase the learning performance of students who do WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT not do well when left to their own devices are some of the suggestions on the supply side

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.742591769550581
WordScorePoS
increase0.0144029596227568NN
teacher0.163013873070017NN
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school0.208127520578185NN
infrastructure0NN
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world0.0017440716962658NN
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supply0.0352060273355634NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.405598510013183
WordScorePoS
increase0.0159575617614215NN
teacher0NN
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enhance0.0185001613201543VB
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school0NN
infrastructure0.192202909044225NN
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world0.00257642711761688NN
development0.0330049940546426NN
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On the demand side there is now considerable body of evidence showing that scholarships conditional on attendance have significant impacts

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.651208223893784
WordScorePoS
demand0NN
evidence0.12939607756667NN
scholarship0NN
significant0.0405241466500776JJ
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Such transfers work in countries from Bangladesh to Brazil with the impacts often greater for girls

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.863224682255635
WordScorePoS
transfer0NN
country0NN
impact0NN
girl0.393804437159645NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.308688362979565
WordScorePoS
transfer0NN
country0NN
impact0NN
girl0.140824109342254NN

There are also promising approaches to bring in excluded groups as in the Vidin model of reaching Roma in Bulgaria and to bring up those left behind through remedial education as in the Balsakhi program using young women as para teachers in cities in India

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.783778972777692
WordScorePoS
approach0NN
bring0.0731385760866977VB
reach0NN
education0NN
woman0.0273960270556257NN
teacher0NN
city0.607697021770652NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.519819294627136
WordScorePoS
approach0NN
bring0VB
reach0.0499016491051341NN
education0.244244978014045NN
woman0.0610612445035112NN
teacher0.163013873070017NN
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.274047591557813
WordScorePoS
approach0NN
bring0VB
reach0NN
education0.0512260062633133NN
woman0.221979360474357NN
teacher0NN
city0NN

As argued in World Development Report developing the accountability of schools and teachers to students parents and the broader community can help ensure effective service provider behavior

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.780756624613114
WordScorePoS
world0.0017440716962658NN
development0.0279277626235394NN
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Health

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.903099404075318
WordScorePoS
health0.191387734041787NN

Two areas stand out in reducing inequity and tackling economic distortions in the provision of health services

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.465935065571816
WordScorePoS
stand0VB
reduce0.01675146888405VB
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provision0.0249430985430622NN
health0.191387734041787NN
service0.0100171139310145NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.294714373713175
WordScorePoS
stand0VB
reduce0.0055149369084567VB
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economic0.128463821595706JJ
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provision0NN
health0NN
service0.0197870712294258NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.474347295200436
WordScorePoS
stand0VB
reduce0.0310356414389692VB
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provision0NN
health0.0405241466500776NN
service0.00795378154685591NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.398870912628605
WordScorePoS
stand0VB
reduce0VB
tackle0VB
economic0.0727679293221751JJ
distortion0NN
provision0.0558185411034276NN
health0.0571058915334038NN
service0.022416649027415NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.300584976874655
WordScorePoS
stand0VB
reduce0.0164833460638534VB
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economic0.0959899298575892JJ
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provision0NN
health0NN
service0.0443555132287109NN

First there are many cases when the benefits spill over beyond the direct beneficiary in range of areas of service provision for immunization for water and sanitation and for information on hygiene and child care

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.853030305854943
WordScorePoS
benefit0NN
direct0JJ
range0NN
service0.0084006124696649NN
provision0NN
water0.556409482163189NN
sanitation0.334686906581616NN
information0NN
hygiene0.136665345449673NN
child0.0255958462813622NN
care0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.184865960541334
WordScorePoS
benefit0NN
direct0JJ
range0NN
service0.00666957305782837NN
provision0NN
water0.186896403054502NN
sanitation0NN
information0.0365348149782971NN
hygiene0NN
child0NN
care0NN

Public assurance of provisioning makes sense in these areas

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.640113315808245
WordScorePoS
public0.0727679293221751NN
provision0.0558185411034276NN
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.469968943660812
WordScorePoS
public0.0285977592242194NN
provision0.0658099748168827NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.407758480027184
WordScorePoS
public0.0172128079963482NN
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sense0.064698038783335NN

Demand side subsidies to provide incentives for maternal and child health increase use offsetting possible information problems as in Mexico Oportunidades program

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.763399217725239
WordScorePoS
demand0.020806307400253NN
subsidy0NN
provide0.0100171139310145VB
incentive0NN
maternal0.184641469134183JJ
child0.10682408961305NN
health0.191387734041787NN
increase0.0143984997539974NN
information0.00914534810831654NN

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.288029849254908
WordScorePoS
demand0NN
subsidy0.162850158165781NN
provide0.00654003986398914VB
incentive0NN
maternal0JJ
child0NN
health0.0166605993001162NN
increase0.00470029406779661NN
information0.0119417512090511NN

Second insurance markets for catastrophic health problems are beset with failures

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.647381870503014
WordScorePoS
insurance0NN
market0NN
catastrophic0JJ
health0.191387734041787NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.424458937039265
WordScorePoS
insurance0NN
market0.0202620733250388NN
catastrophic0.064698038783335JJ
health0.0405241466500776NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.357469812102613
WordScorePoS
insurance0.0804764811724088NN
market0.0252035516550537NN
catastrophic0JJ
health0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.309021054597183
WordScorePoS
insurance0NN
market0.0913569596328122NN
catastrophic0JJ
health0NN

Here catastrophic is in relation to the capacity of the household to deal with the direct costs and the loss in earnings

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.749580156552879
WordScorePoS
catastrophic0.064698038783335JJ
relation0.064698038783335NN
capacity0NN
household0.0330412182586772NN
direct0.0396106020715138JJ
cost0.0660824365173543NN
loss0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.386690577181216
WordScorePoS
catastrophic0JJ
relation0NN
capacity0.00833571598658786NN
household0.0554128417527413NN
direct0JJ
cost0.0277064208763707NN
loss0.0468670845659596NN

The traditional supply side model of relying on public hospitals works badly especially for poor and excluded groups

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.432112293131834
WordScorePoS
traditional0JJ
supply0NN
rely0VB
public0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.477155510481131
WordScorePoS
traditional0JJ
supply0.0703006268489394NN
rely0.0332151194779746VB
public0.028867295332595NN
poor0.0339811641917276JJ

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.36660697823107
WordScorePoS
traditional0JJ
supply0.0528748274225028NN
rely0.0749457204978913VB
public0NN
poor0JJ

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.35344693777886
WordScorePoS
traditional0JJ
supply0.0590310971343993NN
rely0VB
public0NN
poor0.0642010940957526JJ

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.313483740805735
WordScorePoS
traditional0.0390772412228479JJ
supply0.0223459295604043NN
rely0.0316735178673487VB
public0NN
poor0.016202004209163JJ

What can work better is public provisioning or regulation that provides some insurance for all

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.535835470887746
WordScorePoS
public0.0727679293221751NN
provision0.0558185411034276NN
regulation0NN
insurance0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.479019244368998
WordScorePoS
public0.0172128079963482NN
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regulation0.0977392570420122NN
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.39340851691413
WordScorePoS
public0.0285977592242194NN
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regulation0NN
insurance0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.335355290814643
WordScorePoS
public0NN
provision0NN
regulation0NN
insurance0.0804764811724088NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.316773068801963
WordScorePoS
public0.0390556786919513NN
provision0NN
regulation0.036961556179878NN
insurance0NN

Examples include risk pooling in Colombia health cards in Indonesia and Vietnam and Thailand baht universal coverage scheme

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.814995735725492
WordScorePoS
include0VB
risk0.0703902516159815NN
health0.191387734041787NN
universal0.0182906962166331JJ
coverage0.0307735781890304NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.37438233402523
WordScorePoS
include0VB
risk0.0519476926891779NN
health0NN
universal0JJ
coverage0.0908430554521382NN

As with education these interventions need to be combined with incentives for providers to be responsive to all groups

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.804348005461086
WordScorePoS
education0.244244978014045NN
intervention0NN
incentive0NN
provider0NN
responsive0JJ

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.420287042819699
WordScorePoS
education0.0201317944152378NN
intervention0NN
incentive0NN
provider0NN
responsive0.107490825192354JJ

Risk management

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.672582333227779
WordScorePoS
risk0.0631828116343571NN
management0.0687164195125178NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.423996711451332
WordScorePoS
risk0.0703902516159815NN
management0.0127591822694525NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.361799097756957
WordScorePoS
risk0.0223459295604043NN
management0.0486060126274891NN

Social protection systems shape opportunities by providing peo ple with safety net

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.671730762350262
WordScorePoS
social0.112994637345193JJ
protection0.122839698738001NN
system0.0519476926891779NN
opportunity0NN
provide0.0295703421524739VB
safety0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.415797142967464
WordScorePoS
social0.101310366625194JJ
protection0.0660824365173543NN
system0NN
opportunity0.029046330719385NN
provide0VB
safety0NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.410492691979866
WordScorePoS
social0.0458109463416786JJ
protection0NN
system0.0315914058171786NN
opportunity0.0164178645080222NN
provide0.0269743071558856VB
safety0.0731385760866977NN

In addition to ill health macroeconomic crises industrial restructuring weather and natural disasters can constrain investment and innovation

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.742672519871848
WordScorePoS
addition0.0368585655748969NN
health0.0377086395700813NN
macroeconomic0JJ
industrial0.318320101004075JJ
restructuring0NN
weather0NN
natural0JJ
disaster0NN
investment0.0377086395700813NN
innovation0.122982418460916NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.323482701796281
WordScorePoS
addition0NN
health0.0229054731708393NN
macroeconomic0JJ
industrial0JJ
restructuring0NN
weather0NN
natural0.0229054731708393JJ
disaster0.157957029085893NN
investment0NN
innovation0.0373517915079663NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.256762944346479
WordScorePoS
addition0NN
health0.191387734041787NN
macroeconomic0JJ
industrial0JJ
restructuring0NN
weather0NN
natural0JJ
disaster0NN
investment0NN
innovation0NN

The poor with the lowest capacity to manage shocks generally are the least well covered by riskmanagement structures although in most countries many among the non poor risk falling into poverty

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.837426554980431
WordScorePoS
poor0.150659516460257JJ
capacity0NN
manage0VB
shock0.120266261535276NN
cover0NN
structure0NN
country0NN
risk0.0519476926891779NN
fall0NN
poverty0.269969049497485NN

Broader social protection systems can help prevent today inequalities sometimes generated by bad luck from becoming entrenched and leading to tomorrow inequities

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.890991286677791
WordScorePoS
social0.101310366625194JJ
protection0.0660824365173543NN
system0NN
prevent0VB
inequality0.635305170773079NN
generate0VB
bad0JJ
lead0NN
tomorrow0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.319436809897308
WordScorePoS
social0.112994637345193JJ
protection0.122839698738001NN
system0.0519476926891779NN
prevent0VB
inequality0NN
generate0VB
bad0JJ
lead0NN
tomorrow0NN

Just as safety nets can spur households to engage in riskier activities that can yield higher returns they can also help complement reforms that produce losers

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.540130509114674
WordScorePoS
safety0NN
household0.0554128417527413NN
engage0.0819583881728876VB
activity0.0199423462679015NN
yield0NN
return0NN
complement0NN
reform0NN
produce0.0332151194779746VB

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.409454928100847
WordScorePoS
safety0NN
household0NN
engage0VB
activity0.0391100714971453NN
yield0.0401833161726777NN
return0NN
complement0NN
reform0NN
produce0.0651400632663124VB

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.390458054323277
WordScorePoS
safety0NN
household0.0465610847355851NN
engage0VB
activity0NN
yield0NN
return0NN
complement0NN
reform0.0911713013253052NN
produce0VB

Safety nets typically target three groups the working poor people viewed as unable to work or for whom work is undesirable and special vulnerable groups

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.627616684596683
WordScorePoS
safety0NN
typically0RB
target0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
people0.0371911007748996NNS
view0NN
special0JJ
vulnerable0.112994637345193JJ

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.485482418083475
WordScorePoS
safety0.0731385760866977NN
typically0RB
target0NN
poor0.0229054731708393JJ
people0.0161552501392041NNS
view0NN
special0.0747035830159326JJ
vulnerable0.0458109463416786JJ

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.330570182904059
WordScorePoS
safety0NN
typically0RB
target0.0898760357768464NN
poor0.0153248097886055JJ
people0.00432344066632653NNS
view0.048933054487825NN
special0JJ
vulnerable0JJ

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.301763099569079
WordScorePoS
safety0NN
typically0RB
target0NN
poor0.0642010940957526JJ
people0.024149913320522NNS
view0NN
special0.0348974218717993JJ
vulnerable0.0214003646985842JJ

If safety nets are designed in manner appropriate to the local realities on the ground in each country individual targeted interventions in these three categories can be combined to provide an effectively universal public insurance system

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.526144491506242
WordScorePoS
safety0.0731385760866977NN
manner0NN
local0.0194583992186006JJ
country0NN
individual0JJ
target0NN
intervention0NN
provide0.0269743071558856VB
effectively0RB
universal0.0164178645080222JJ
public0.0583751976558017NN
insurance0NN
system0.0315914058171786NN

In such system each household that suffers negative shock and falls below some predetermined threshold of living standards would qualify for some form of state support

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.28814234469786
WordScorePoS
system0NN
household0NN
suffer0VB
shock0NN
fall0NN
threshold0NN
live0.013214597504793VB
standard0NN
qualify0VB
form0.158049144643351NN
support0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.593963469167246
WordScorePoS
system0.0519476926891779NN
household0NN
suffer0VB
shock0.120266261535276NN
fall0NN
threshold0NN
live0.0739258553811849VB
standard0NN
qualify0VB
form0.0884167543187491NN
support0.0184786920895884NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.422938219170424
WordScorePoS
system0.0756001353333673NN
household0.0297950283197006NN
suffer0.0357189919948307VB
shock0NN
fall0.0440683498519077NN
threshold0NN
live0.0143446978608332VB
standard0NN
qualify0VB
form0.0428913409252473NN
support0.00896409157262106NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.341402225772753
WordScorePoS
system0NN
household0.0465610847355851NN
suffer0.0558185411034276VB
shock0NN
fall0NN
threshold0NN
live0VB
standard0NN
qualify0VB
form0.100540298425703NN
support0NN

Taxes for equity

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.910131609690197
WordScorePoS
tax0.0811931365363091NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.414319264629018
WordScorePoS
tax0.036961556179878NN

Successful interventions to level the playing field require adequate resources

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.406520359221896
WordScorePoS
successful0JJ
intervention0NN
level0.0113874611101829NN
field0NN
require0VB
adequate0.0519476926891779JJ
resource0.0739147683583536NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.368068671442965
WordScorePoS
successful0JJ
intervention0NN
level0.00761994916892276NN
field0NN
require0.104282800328615VB
adequate0JJ
resource0.0123650647908625NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.360052144688028
WordScorePoS
successful0.048933054487825JJ
intervention0NN
level0.0138997399903163NN
field0NN
require0.0211360962287062VB
adequate0JJ
resource0.0375923735942499NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.346885950188491
WordScorePoS
successful0JJ
intervention0NN
level0.00513687014008325NN
field0NN
require0.0468670845659596VB
adequate0.0234335422829798JJ
resource0.0416785799329393NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.340791332562396
WordScorePoS
successful0JJ
intervention0NN
level0.00692515656684925NN
field0NN
require0VB
adequate0.0631828116343571JJ
resource0.0449504361447405NN

The main aim of good tax policy is to mobilize sufficient funding while distorting incentives and compromising growth as little as possible

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.608787272225689
WordScorePoS
aim0.0410992516792148NN
tax0NN
policy0.0452169560888236NN
mobilize0VB
sufficient0JJ
incentive0NN
growth0.208565600657229NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.522200743947156
WordScorePoS
aim0.0249900578719309NN
tax0.036961556179878NN
policy0.0641521854453136NN
mobilize0.0898760357768464VB
sufficient0JJ
incentive0.036961556179878NN
growth0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.405889040079546
WordScorePoS
aim0NN
tax0NN
policy0.0848203862485078NN
mobilize0VB
sufficient0JJ
incentive0NN
growth0.11178243319132NN

Because taxes impose efficiency costs by altering individual choices between labor and leisure and consumption and savings most developing countries are likely to be best served by avoiding high marginal taxes on income and relying on broad base especially for taxes on consumption

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.759304299477797
WordScorePoS
tax0NN
efficiency0.039884692535803NN
cost0.0277064208763707NN
individual0JJ
choice0.0409791940864438NN
consumption0.332151194779746NN
develop0VB
country0NN
serve0VB
avoid0VB
income0NN
rely0.0332151194779746VB
base0.0199423462679015NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.298936876383415
WordScorePoS
tax0NN
efficiency0.0295821503613099NN
cost0NN
individual0JJ
choice0NN
consumption0.147812295323721NN
develop0VB
country0NN
serve0VB
avoid0VB
income0NN
rely0VB
base0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.273243800031986
WordScorePoS
tax0NN
efficiency0NN
cost0.0660824365173543NN
individual0.064698038783335JJ
choice0NN
consumption0NN
develop0VB
country0NN
serve0VB
avoid0VB
income0.166475342664294NN
rely0VB
base0NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.234341852431024
WordScorePoS
tax0NN
efficiency0.134992154141495NN
cost0NN
individual0JJ
choice0NN
consumption0NN
develop0VB
country0NN
serve0VB
avoid0VB
income0.0449973847138318NN
rely0.0749457204978913VB
base0NN

Public spending should play the primary role in actively furthering equity

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.692376891603336
WordScorePoS
public0.0727679293221751NN
spending0NN
primary0.0970239057629001JJ

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.442130978732794
WordScorePoS
public0NN
spending0NN
primary0.108423939529757JJ

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.376123141786374
WordScorePoS
public0.0160169090870187NN
spending0.0602029956716497NN
primary0.0160169090870187JJ

Nevertheless there is some scope for making the overall tax system moderately progressive without large efficiency costs

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.505111042153335
WordScorePoS
tax0NN
system0NN
moderately0RB
efficiency0.134992154141495NN
cost0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.509213643837227
WordScorePoS
tax0.0811931365363091NN
system0NN
moderately0RB
efficiency0NN
cost0.0548954478802642NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.319402376946088
WordScorePoS
tax0NN
system0.0315914058171786NN
moderately0RB
efficiency0.0537696560159885NN
cost0NN

Societies that desire such an outcome can consider simple exemptions for basic foodstuffs and an expanded role for property taxation for example

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.406654034154512
WordScorePoS
society0NN
outcome0NN
simple0JJ
basic0.0639932865717261JJ
expand0VB
property0.0736315832425121NN
taxation0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.401536877653177
WordScorePoS
society0.0335134328085675NN
outcome0.0465610847355851NN
simple0JJ
basic0JJ
expand0VB
property0.0558185411034276NN
taxation0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.35025276872545
WordScorePoS
society0.118536858482514NN
outcome0NN
simple0JJ
basic0JJ
expand0VB
property0NN
taxation0NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.339672084179873
WordScorePoS
society0NN
outcome0.0416255041156371NN
simple0JJ
basic0.0433695758119029JJ
expand0.0299609328954485VB
property0NN
taxation0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.325492218761817
WordScorePoS
society0.0591643007226199NN
outcome0NN
simple0JJ
basic0.0214106369326177JJ
expand0.0295821503613099VB
property0NN
taxation0NN

While the capacity of the tax administration and the structure of the economy influ Overview ence the ability to raise revenues the quality of institutions and the nature of the social compact are also critical

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.519750928038393
WordScorePoS
capacity0.016515769558553NN
tax0.0811931365363091NN
structure0NN
economy0NN
ability0NN
raise0NN
revenue0NN
quality0NN
institution0.274477239401321NN
nature0NN
social0JJ
critical0JJ

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.394642845793918
WordScorePoS
capacity0.00833571598658786NN
tax0NN
structure0NN
economy0NN
ability0.0409791940864438NN
raise0.0332151194779746NN
revenue0NN
quality0.0203215381458133NN
institution0NN
nature0.162755901889551NN
social0.0169905820958638JJ
critical0JJ

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.418927273099919
WordScorePoS
capacity0.0451108483130998NN
tax0.036961556179878NN
structure0.048933054487825NN
economy0NN
ability0NN
raise0NN
revenue0.0978661089756501NN
quality0.00916459792075908NN
institution0.0249900578719309NN
nature0NN
social0JJ
critical0.036961556179878JJ

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.386828661469483
WordScorePoS
capacity0.0123650647908625NN
tax0NN
structure0NN
economy0.0821985033584295NN
ability0.0607878664258118NN
raise0NN
revenue0NN
quality0.030144637392549NN
institution0.0410992516792148NN
nature0NN
social0.0504071033101074JJ
critical0JJ

When citizens can rely on services actually being provided they likely are more willing to be taxed

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.691165856549126
WordScorePoS
rely0.0749457204978913VB
service0.0451471467893167NN
tax0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.46728773346563
WordScorePoS
rely0VB
service0NN
tax0.0811931365363091NN

Conversely corrupt or kleptocratic state engenders little citizen trust in authority and little incentive to cooperate

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

As general rule more legitimate and representative state may be prerequisite to an adequate tax system even as the notion of adequacy varies from country to country

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.844531364006754
WordScorePoS
rule0.162386273072618NN
legitimate0JJ
representative0.107490825192354NN
adequate0JJ
tax0.0811931365363091NN
system0NN
country0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.31758795105524
WordScorePoS
rule0.0739231123597559NN
legitimate0JJ
representative0NN
adequate0JJ
tax0.036961556179878NN
system0.0211360962287062NN
country0NN

Justice land and infrastructure The development of human capacities will not broaden opportunities if some people face unfair returns on those capacities and unequal protection of their rights and have unequal access to complementary factors of production

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.56298789604195
WordScorePoS
justice0.214981650384708NN
land0NN
infrastructure0NN
development0.0368309542451156NN
human0JJ
capacity0.016515769558553NN
broaden0.107490825192354VB
opportunity0NN
people0NNS
return0.107490825192354NN
protection0NN
rights0NNS
access0.00690021170452351NN
production0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.333699006896107
WordScorePoS
justice0NN
land0NN
infrastructure0.192202909044225NN
development0.0330049940546426NN
human0.011275328195446JJ
capacity0NN
broaden0VB
opportunity0.0135141354781442NN
people0.0186171553883251NNS
return0NN
protection0NN
rights0NNS
access0.0128821355880844NN
production0.0188543197850406NN

Building equitable justice systems

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.778220057448885
WordScorePoS
building0.109790895760528NN
equitable0JJ
justice0.214981650384708NN
system0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.453034303171182
WordScorePoS
building0.149940347231585NN
equitable0.017987180284335JJ
justice0NN
system0.0211360962287062NN

Justice systems can do much to level the playing field in the political economic and sociocultural domains but they can also reinforce existing inequalities

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.839180471316172
WordScorePoS
justice0NN
system0NN
level0NN
field0NN
political0.0792212041430275JJ
economic0.103276847978089JJ
reinforce0VB
exist0VB
inequality0.635305170773079NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.366579909862878
WordScorePoS
justice0.214981650384708NN
system0NN
level0.0610668815653026NN
field0NN
political0JJ
economic0JJ
reinforce0.0811931365363091VB
exist0VB
inequality0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.139640979262218
WordScorePoS
justice0NN
system0NN
level0.00761994916892276NN
field0NN
political0JJ
economic0.128463821595706JJ
reinforce0VB
exist0VB
inequality0NN

The report pays attention to both codified law and the ways in which the law is applied and enforced in practice

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.77531956348161
WordScorePoS
report0NN
pay0NN
attention0NN
law0.164686343640793NN
enforce0.107490825192354VB
practice0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.374937984982988
WordScorePoS
report0NN
pay0.078760887431929NN
attention0NN
law0.0465610847355851NN
enforce0VB
practice0.0393804437159645NN

Legal institutions can uphold the political rights of citizens and curb the capture of the state by the elite

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.774595514709188
WordScorePoS
legal0.0811931365363091JJ
institution0.274477239401321NN
political0JJ
rights0NNS
capture0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.414657568551058
WordScorePoS
legal0JJ
institution0NN
political0.111637082206855JJ
rights0.078760887431929NNS
capture0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.388407742494615
WordScorePoS
legal0JJ
institution0.0991236547760315NN
political0.0792212041430275JJ
rights0NNS
capture0NN

They can equalize economic opportunities by protecting property rights for all and ensuring nondiscrimination in the market

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.462019067642373
WordScorePoS
economic0.128463821595706JJ
opportunity0.0361300980868102NN
protect0.0180650490434051VB
property0NN
rights0.0347609334428716NNS
ensure0VB
market0.0252035516550537NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.469009184205717
WordScorePoS
economic0.0959899298575892JJ
opportunity0NN
protect0VB
property0.0736315832425121NN
rights0.0519476926891779NNS
ensure0.0247250190957801VB
market0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.457611382140185
WordScorePoS
economic0.0727679293221751JJ
opportunity0.02046578088155NN
protect0VB
property0.0558185411034276NN
rights0.078760887431929NNS
ensure0.0124956749436837VB
market0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.307448304971057
WordScorePoS
economic0.103276847978089JJ
opportunity0.029046330719385NN
protect0VB
property0NN
rights0NNS
ensure0.00886732612541978VB
market0.0202620733250388NN

They underpin and reflect the rules of the game in society and thus are central to fair process and to the broad based property rights and unbiased dispute resolution mechanisms so important for investment

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.566806370146717
WordScorePoS
reflect0VB
rule0.0739231123597559NN
society0.0359743605686701NN
central0JJ
fair0JJ
process0NN
base0.017987180284335NN
property0NN
rights0NNS
mechanism0.147846224719512NN
investment0.0766240489430275NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.451899514784887
WordScorePoS
reflect0VB
rule0.162386273072618NN
society0.118536858482514NN
central0JJ
fair0JJ
process0NN
base0NN
property0NN
rights0NNS
mechanism0NN
investment0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.360189114939095
WordScorePoS
reflect0VB
rule0NN
society0.0335134328085675NN
central0JJ
fair0JJ
process0.0558185411034276NN
base0NN
property0.0558185411034276NN
rights0.078760887431929NNS
mechanism0NN
investment0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.333712991614034
WordScorePoS
reflect0VB
rule0NN
society0NN
central0JJ
fair0JJ
process0NN
base0.0442083771593746NN
property0.0736315832425121NN
rights0.0519476926891779NNS
mechanism0NN
investment0.0376648791150643NN

The law can also accelerate shifts in norms and justice systems can serve as progressive force for change in the social domain by challenging inequitable practices

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.54067554464627
WordScorePoS
law0NN
accelerate0VB
justice0NN
system0NN
serve0VB
force0NN
change0.402565546215053NN
social0JJ
challenge0.0236803262479443NN
practice0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.481593401170858
WordScorePoS
law0.164686343640793NN
accelerate0VB
justice0.214981650384708NN
system0NN
serve0VB
force0NN
change0NN
social0JJ
challenge0NN
practice0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.361775492847972
WordScorePoS
law0NN
accelerate0.120266261535276VB
justice0NN
system0.0519476926891779NN
serve0VB
force0NN
change0NN
social0.112994637345193JJ
challenge0NN
practice0NN

Civil Rights Act of and Medicare in enforced the desegregation of hospitals and led to large reductions in infant mortality for African Americans

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.806207707367822
WordScorePoS
civil0JJ
rights0.0175975629039954NNS
enforce0VB
lead0.025518364538905NN
reduction0.0149758277542848NN
infant0NN
mortality0.276962203701274NN
african0IN

Affirmative action programs have also been shown to reduce groupbased differences in earnings and education

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.82833171721575
WordScorePoS
action0NN
reduce0VB
education0.244244978014045NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.312542911622758
WordScorePoS
action0.0409315617631NN
reduce0VB
education0.0512260062633133NN

But they can become politically entrenched and limited to helping the better off among disadvantaged groups

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.818439262861775
WordScorePoS
limited0.120266261535276JJ
help0NN
disadvantaged0JJ

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.440284868711113
WordScorePoS
limited0JJ
help0NN
disadvantaged0.064698038783335JJ

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.369196976410036
WordScorePoS
limited0JJ
help0.0542519672965169NN
disadvantaged0JJ

Equity in laws and fairness in their implementation involve striking balance between strengthening the independence of justice systems and increasing accountability especially to counter the risk that the powerful and wealthy might corrupt influence or ignore the law

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.822925702140028
WordScorePoS
law0.164686343640793NN
implementation0NN
involve0VB
strengthen0.0396437925143789VB
justice0.214981650384708NN
system0NN
increase0NN
accountability0NN
risk0NN
influence0NN

Measures to make the legal system more accessible mobile courts legal aid and working with customary institutions all help reduce the barriers that excluded groups face

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.743305492596476
WordScorePoS
measure0NN
legal0.0811931365363091JJ
system0NN
accessible0JJ
aid0NN
institution0.274477239401321NN
reduce0.0220985725470694VB
barrier0NN

Customary institutions raise complex issues and may incorporate inequities for example with respect to gender but they are too important to be ignored

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.654699720131486
WordScorePoS
institution0.274477239401321NN
raise0NN
issue0NN
respect0NN
gender0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.469663086377056
WordScorePoS
institution0NN
raise0NN
issue0NN
respect0NN
gender0.196902218579822NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.320244269496889
WordScorePoS
institution0NN
raise0.0671298309154199NN
issue0.0335649154577099NN
respect0.0335649154577099NN
gender0NN

South Africa is an example of country that is pursuing policy that balances recognition of customary practices with the rights and responsibilities in state law

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.436929966542179
WordScorePoS
south0RB
africa0IN
country0NN
pursue0VB
policy0.0201317944152378NN
practice0NN
rights0NNS
responsibility0NN
law0.164686343640793NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.685648862716704
WordScorePoS
south0RB
africa0IN
country0NN
pursue0VB
policy0.0341506708422088NN
practice0.0393804437159645NN
rights0.078760887431929NNS
responsibility0.0911713013253052NN
law0.0465610847355851NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.344703941304666
WordScorePoS
south0RB
africa0IN
country0NN
pursue0VB
policy0.0848203862485078NN
practice0.02794560829783NN
rights0NNS
responsibility0NN
law0.0330412182586772NN

Toward greater equity in access to land

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.771941294489978
WordScorePoS
access0.00110699520004297NN
land0.123873694868802NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.333872537010621
WordScorePoS
access0.00749031153171887NN
land0.0465651203624806NN

Broader access to land does not necessarily have to come through ownership chapter

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.582626953195544
WordScorePoS
access0.00110699520004297NN
land0.123873694868802NN
ownership0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.516404250220193
WordScorePoS
access0.00514687440545096NN
land0.0319966432858631NN
ownership0.0736315832425121NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.40966396979242
WordScorePoS
access0.00780347258345989NN
land0.024255976440725NN
ownership0.0558185411034276NN

Instead improving the functioning of land markets and providing greater security of tenure for poorer groups may be more fruitful area for policy as in rural Thailand and in urban Peru

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.616691032718489
WordScorePoS
improve0.0218534471578307VB
function0.0440683498519077NN
land0.0465651203624806NN
market0.0913569596328122NN
provide0.0215170467912497VB
security0.0893850849591018NN
policy0NN
rural0.148975141598503JJ
urban0JJ

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.559295909202423
WordScorePoS
improve0.0273960270556257VB
function0NN
land0.0389167984372011NN
market0NN
provide0.0269743071558856VB
security0NN
policy0.0136980135278128NN
rural0.0373517915079663JJ
urban0.27622591898666JJ

Redistributive land reform can make sense in some circumstances in which land inequalities are extreme and the institutional context allows for designs that effectively redistribute land to smaller farms and support this with complementary services without large transitional costs

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.651910830085738
WordScorePoS
land0NN
reform0NN
sense0.064698038783335NN
circumstance0NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
extreme0JJ
institutional0JJ
context0NN
effectively0RB
farm0NN
support0NN
service0.00795378154685591NN
cost0.0660824365173543NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.443134020541137
WordScorePoS
land0.0465651203624806NN
reform0NN
sense0NN
circumstance0NN
inequality0NN
extreme0.0714379839896614JJ
institutional0JJ
context0NN
effectively0RB
farm0.291708356920574NN
support0.00896409157262106NN
service0.0143446978608332NN
cost0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.381820446688704
WordScorePoS
land0.0319966432858631NN
reform0NN
sense0NN
circumstance0NN
inequality0NN
extreme0.294526332970048JJ
institutional0JJ
context0NN
effectively0RB
farm0NN
support0.0184786920895884NN
service0.0443555132287109NN
cost0NN

But this can be difficult and tradeoffs may be large when property rights have high degree of legitimacy

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.644165167309643
WordScorePoS
property0NN
rights0NNS
degree0.164469921319675NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.527095650094065
WordScorePoS
property0.0558185411034276NN
rights0.078760887431929NNS
degree0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.491845527997365
WordScorePoS
property0.0736315832425121NN
rights0.0519476926891779NNS
degree0NN

Expropriating land with compensation is probably the most disruptive redistribution instrument

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.833095789856162
WordScorePoS
land0.123873694868802NN

Divesting state lands and recuperating illegal settlements possibly in exchange for titling portion of the settlement may be two cost effective alternatives

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.780402621649832
WordScorePoS
land0.0389167984372011NN
illegal0JJ
settlement0.146277152173395NN
cost0NN
effective0JJ
alternative0NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.383645321290912
WordScorePoS
land0.123873694868802NN
illegal0.0390772412228479JJ
settlement0NN
cost0NN
effective0JJ
alternative0NN

Market or community based approaches that allow community members to obtain subsidized credit for land rentals or purchases according to the willing buyer willing seller principle as in Brazil and South Africa appear promising

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

A land tax can be useful complement generating revenues to purchase land to redistribute or encouraging redistribution by disproportionately taxing large or underused plots

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.613591297711565
WordScorePoS
land0NN
tax0.036961556179878NN
complement0.0978661089756501NN
generate0VB
revenue0.0978661089756501NN
encourage0.0211360962287062VB

WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT Providing infrastructure equitably

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.73310596147342
WordScorePoS
world0.00257642711761688NN
development0.0330049940546426NN
report0NN
provide0.00740117451847634VB
infrastructure0.192202909044225NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.36409919169717
WordScorePoS
world0.00464349782489754NN
development0.022306853314744NN
report0.0409791940864438NN
provide0.0200087191734851VB
infrastructure0.028867295332595NN

Access to infrastructure roads electricity water sanitation telecoms is typically highly unequal across groups

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.887612295324526
WordScorePoS
access0.00731085509381114NN
infrastructure0.0181797964452808NN
road0NN
electricity0.0348974218717993NN
water0.556409482163189NN
sanitation0.334686906581616NN
typically0RB
highly0RB

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.358329744253845
WordScorePoS
access0.0128821355880844NN
infrastructure0.192202909044225NN
road0.0368585655748969NN
electricity0.030745604615229NN
water0.0377086395700813NN
sanitation0.0737171311497939NN
typically0RB
highly0RB

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.203445597015698
WordScorePoS
access0.00232174891244877NN
infrastructure0.028867295332595NN
road0NN
electricity0NN
water0.186896403054502NN
sanitation0NN
typically0RB
highly0RB

For many people in developing countries lack of access to affordable infrastructure services means living in isolation from markets and services and having intermittent or no supply of power or water for productive activities and daily existence

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.641528619336503
WordScorePoS
people0.024149913320522NNS
develop0VB
country0NN
lack0.0214003646985842NN
access0.00731085509381114NN
affordable0.0214003646985842JJ
infrastructure0.0181797964452808NN
service0.0084006124696649NN
means0NNS
live0.0252018374089947VB
market0NN
supply0.0590310971343993NN
power0NN
water0.556409482163189NN
productive0JJ
activity0.0502364757923669NN
daily0RB

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.396665565529
WordScorePoS
people0.0186171553883251NNS
develop0VB
country0NN
lack0.0565629593551219NN
access0.0128821355880844NN
affordable0.0565629593551219JJ
infrastructure0.192202909044225NN
service0.0148023490369527NN
means0NNS
live0.00740117451847634VB
market0.0377086395700813NN
supply0NN
power0.0454743001434393NN
water0.0377086395700813NN
productive0JJ
activity0NN
daily0RB

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.281140626512515
WordScorePoS
people0.0119834723221875NNS
develop0VB
country0NN
lack0NN
access0.00232174891244877NN
affordable0JJ
infrastructure0.028867295332595NN
service0.00666957305782837NN
means0NNS
live0VB
market0.0169905820958638NN
supply0.0703006268489394NN
power0NN
water0.186896403054502NN
productive0JJ
activity0.0199423462679015NN
daily0RB

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.321173359159924
WordScorePoS
people0.0371911007748996NNS
develop0VB
country0NN
lack0.0753297582301286NN
access0.00514687440545096NN
affordable0JJ
infrastructure0NN
service0.0443555132287109NN
means0.120266261535276NNS
live0.0739258553811849VB
market0NN
supply0NN
power0NN
water0NN
productive0JJ
activity0NN
daily0RB

This often results in significant curtailment of economic opportunities

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.504110685001013
WordScorePoS
result0NN
significant0JJ
economic0.128463821595706JJ
opportunity0.0361300980868102NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.529388836170981
WordScorePoS
result0NN
significant0.0405241466500776JJ
economic0.103276847978089JJ
opportunity0.029046330719385NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.409351800083784
WordScorePoS
result0NN
significant0.0376648791150643JJ
economic0.0959899298575892JJ
opportunity0NN

While the public sector will in many cases remain the main source of funds for infrastructure investments aimed at broadening opportunities for those who have the fewest the efficiency of the private sector can also be harnessed

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.545095729444628
WordScorePoS
public0.0160169090870187NN
sector0.0565629593551219NN
remain0VB
source0.0135141354781442NN
fund0NN
infrastructure0.192202909044225NN
investment0.0377086395700813NN
aim0NN
broaden0VB
opportunity0.0135141354781442NN
efficiency0.0442597400933733NN
private0.0368585655748969JJ

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.37440352862211
WordScorePoS
public0NN
sector0NN
remain0VB
source0.0274787313211514NN
fund0NN
infrastructure0.0651354046449052NN
investment0.0383371018038178NN
aim0NN
broaden0VB
opportunity0.0549574626423028NN
efficiency0.134992154141495NN
private0JJ

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.40426786231997
WordScorePoS
public0.0390556786919513NN
sector0.0459744293658165NN
remain0VB
source0.0109843026967392NN
fund0NN
infrastructure0.0130185595639838NN
investment0.0766240489430275NN
aim0.0249900578719309NN
broaden0VB
opportunity0NN
efficiency0NN
private0.0898760357768464JJ

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.335457213874388
WordScorePoS
public0.0727679293221751NN
sector0.0571058915334038NN
remain0VB
source0NN
fund0NN
infrastructure0.024255976440725NN
investment0NN
aim0NN
broaden0VB
opportunity0.02046578088155NN
efficiency0NN
private0.0558185411034276JJ

Although utility privatizations have often been attacked for having unequal effects the evidence indicates more complex reality

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.898209775483893
WordScorePoS
effect0NN
evidence0.12939607756667NN

Privatizations in Latin America typically led to expansions in access to services particularly in electricity and telecommunications

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.649644812745713
WordScorePoS
typically0RB
lead0.0383371018038178NN
expansion0NN
access0.0157161992303584NN
service0.0451471467893167NN
electricity0.0625160381065121NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.427319511824081
WordScorePoS
typically0RB
lead0NN
expansion0.0731385760866977NN
access0.00626002771693937NN
service0.0269743071558856NN
electricity0NN

In some cases however postprivatization increases in prices more than outweighed gains from quality and coverage leading to widespread popular discontent

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.428681935310341
WordScorePoS
increase0.0144029596227568NN
price0NN
gain0NN
quality0.076326555629389NN
coverage0NN
lead0.0255262687343935NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.417890208418144
WordScorePoS
increase0.00958677785775002NN
price0NN
gain0.0664302389559493NN
quality0.0203215381458133NN
coverage0NN
lead0.0169905820958638NN

Privatizations are therefore classic case of policy that may or may not make sense depending on the local context

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.583304685858754
WordScorePoS
policy0.0848203862485078NN
sense0.064698038783335NN
depend0VB
local0JJ
context0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.445255533405401
WordScorePoS
policy0.0641521854453136NN
sense0NN
depend0VB
local0.0130185595639838JJ
context0.036961556179878NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.354521761192395
WordScorePoS
policy0NN
sense0NN
depend0.0633470357346975VB
local0.0275274877486226JJ
context0NN

If the public system is highly corrupt or inefficient and one expects postprivatization regulatory capacity to be adequate it can be useful tool

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.57728510845701
WordScorePoS
public0.028867295332595NN
system0NN
highly0RB
inefficient0.0542519672965169JJ
expect0.0332151194779746VB
capacity0.00833571598658786NN
adequate0.0234335422829798JJ
tool0.0542519672965169NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.468967389403365
WordScorePoS
public0.0583751976558017NN
system0.0315914058171786NN
highly0RB
inefficient0JJ
expect0VB
capacity0.0112376090361851NN
adequate0.0631828116343571JJ
tool0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.36871994061536
WordScorePoS
public0NN
system0.0756001353333673NN
highly0RB
inefficient0JJ
expect0.0357189919948307VB
capacity0.0179281831452421NN
adequate0JJ
tool0NN

In other cases poorly designed privatizations may be captured transferring public assets at excessively low prices into private hands

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.584618240511043
WordScorePoS
poorly0RB
capture0NN
transfer0.036961556179878NN
public0.0390556786919513NN
asset0NN
price0NN
private0.0898760357768464JJ

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.453146747904818
WordScorePoS
poorly0RB
capture0NN
transfer0NN
public0.0727679293221751NN
asset0NN
price0NN
private0.0558185411034276JJ

Experience suggests that whether infrastructure services are provided by private operators or public utilities seems less important for equity than the structure of incentives facing providers and how accountable these providers are to the general public

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.619133710544823
WordScorePoS
experience0NN
suggest0.0602029956716497VB
infrastructure0.192202909044225NN
service0.0148023490369527NN
private0.0368585655748969JJ
public0.0160169090870187NN
structure0NN
incentive0NN
face0.120405991343299NN
provider0NN
accountable0JJ

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.297806167013302
WordScorePoS
experience0NN
suggest0VB
infrastructure0NN
service0NN
private0JJ
public0.0285977592242194NN
structure0NN
incentive0NN
face0NN
provider0NN
accountable0.162386273072618JJ

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.535343313205525
WordScorePoS
experience0.0299586785922821NN
suggest0VB
infrastructure0.0130185595639838NN
service0NN
private0.0898760357768464JJ
public0.0390556786919513NN
structure0.048933054487825NN
incentive0.036961556179878NN
face0NN
provider0.048933054487825NN
accountable0JJ

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.336384803054951
WordScorePoS
experience0NN
suggest0VB
infrastructure0.024255976440725NN
service0.022416649027415NN
private0.0558185411034276JJ
public0.0727679293221751NN
structure0NN
incentive0NN
face0NN
provider0NN
accountable0JJ

We argue that policymakers can improve the equitable provision of infrastructure services by focusing on expanding affordable access for poor people and poor areas which often means working with informal providers and targeting subsidies and strengthening the governance of the sector through the greater accountability of providers and the stronger voice of beneficiaries

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.463690451824713
WordScorePoS
improve0VB
equitable0JJ
provision0NN
infrastructure0NN
service0.0443555132287109NN
focus0NN
expand0VB
affordable0JJ
access0.00514687440545096NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
people0.0371911007748996NNS
means0.120266261535276NNS
provider0NN
target0NN
subsidy0NN
strengthen0VB
governance0NN
sector0NN
accountability0NN
voice0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.369020997008453
WordScorePoS
improve0VB
equitable0.0221298700466866JJ
provision0NN
infrastructure0.192202909044225NN
service0.0148023490369527NN
focus0.030745604615229NN
expand0VB
affordable0.0565629593551219JJ
access0.0128821355880844NN
poor0JJ
people0.0186171553883251NNS
means0NNS
provider0NN
target0NN
subsidy0NN
strengthen0VB
governance0NN
sector0.0565629593551219NN
accountability0NN
voice0NN

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.171090399135355
WordScorePoS
improve0.00996343157341984VB
equitable0JJ
provision0NN
infrastructure0NN
service0NN
focus0NN
expand0VB
affordable0JJ
access0.00113832851892715NN
poor0JJ
people0.00705044110169491NNS
means0NNS
provider0NN
target0NN
subsidy0.162850158165781NN
strengthen0.00654003986398914VB
governance0NN
sector0NN
accountability0NN
voice0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.348608122559374
WordScorePoS
improve0.0183291958415182VB
equitable0.017987180284335JJ
provision0NN
infrastructure0.0130185595639838NN
service0NN
focus0NN
expand0VB
affordable0JJ
access0.00314118376811005NN
poor0.0153248097886055JJ
people0.00432344066632653NNS
means0NNS
provider0.048933054487825NN
target0.0898760357768464NN
subsidy0NN
strengthen0.0120313639527759VB
governance0NN
sector0.0459744293658165NN
accountability0.048933054487825NN
voice0NN

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.332242752849011
WordScorePoS
improve0.0511916925627245VB
equitable0.0502364757923669JJ
provision0NN
infrastructure0.0181797964452808NN
service0.0084006124696649NN
focus0NN
expand0.0251182378961834VB
affordable0.0214003646985842JJ
access0.00731085509381114NN
poor0.0642010940957526JJ
people0.024149913320522NNS
means0NNS
provider0NN
target0NN
subsidy0NN
strengthen0.0084006124696649VB
governance0NN
sector0.0214003646985842NN
accountability0NN
voice0NN

Markets and the macroeconomy Markets are central to shaping the potential for people to convert their assets into outcomes

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.647747549123978
WordScorePoS
market0.0913569596328122NN
central0.0440683498519077JJ
potential0NN
people0.0257736572183839NNS
asset0NN
outcome0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.436663010054634
WordScorePoS
market0.0377086395700813NN
central0JJ
potential0.0454743001434393NN
people0.0186171553883251NNS
asset0NN
outcome0.030745604615229NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.328678544214225
WordScorePoS
market0.0202620733250388NN
central0JJ
potential0NN
people0.00571634317201755NNS
asset0.0488696285210061NN
outcome0.0330412182586772NN

When market transactions are influenced by the wealth or status of participants they are both inequitable and inefficient and can also influence the incentives for different groups to expand their assets chapter

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.568429908576571
WordScorePoS
market0.0202620733250388NN
transaction0.064698038783335NN
influence0NN
status0.0488696285210061NN
inefficient0JJ
incentive0NN
expand0VB
asset0.0488696285210061NN

Financial markets

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.645706814431741
WordScorePoS
financial0.00896409157262106JJ
market0.0913569596328122NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.400979897611177
WordScorePoS
financial0.0370951943725875JJ
market0.0252035516550537NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.361782550419451
WordScorePoS
financial0.0185001613201543JJ
market0.0377086395700813NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.322362665328364
WordScorePoS
financial0.0298222075472138JJ
market0.0202620733250388NN

Captured banking systems exchange favors market power is protected for few large banks which then lend favorably to few selected enterprises which may not be those with the highest expected risk adjusted returns

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.640446432994313
WordScorePoS
capture0NN
banking0NN
system0.0756001353333673NN
market0.0913569596328122NN
power0NN
protect0.0130963126055467VB
bank0.0881366997038154NN
enterprise0NN
expect0.0357189919948307VB
risk0.0252000451111224NN
return0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.359101138707763
WordScorePoS
capture0NN
banking0.0804764811724088NN
system0NN
market0.0252035516550537NN
power0NN
protect0.0180650490434051VB
bank0NN
enterprise0.0607878664258118NN
expect0VB
risk0NN
return0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.33885999696134
WordScorePoS
capture0NN
banking0NN
system0NN
market0.0377086395700813NN
power0.0454743001434393NN
protect0VB
bank0NN
enterprise0.0909486002868787NN
expect0VB
risk0NN
return0NN

This may lie behind cross country association between greater financial depth and lower income inequality

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.975392741333469
WordScorePoS
lie0NN
country0NN
financial0.0298222075472138JJ
income0.166475342664294NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN

Achieving more equal access to finance by broadening financial systems thus can help productive firms that were previously beyond the reach of formal finance

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.469205736455361
WordScorePoS
achieve0VB
equal0.033663879505068JJ
access0.00690021170452351NN
finance0NN
broaden0.107490825192354VB
financial0.016515769558553JJ
system0NN
productive0JJ
firm0NN
reach0.0658099748168827NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.416959670386568
WordScorePoS
achieve0.0152398983378455VB
equal0.0504071033101074JJ
access0.00344404437204141NN
finance0NN
broaden0VB
financial0.0370951943725875JJ
system0NN
productive0.0985415302158139JJ
firm0NN
reach0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.392691621540306
WordScorePoS
achieve0.0110482109530745VB
equal0.0182713919265625JJ
access0.00749031153171887NN
finance0NN
broaden0VB
financial0.00896409157262106JJ
system0.0756001353333673NN
productive0.0714379839896614JJ
firm0NN
reach0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.329777770566841
WordScorePoS
achieve0.0258977780207001VB
equal0.114211783066808JJ
access0.00780347258345989NN
finance0NN
broaden0VB
financial0.0140083044329373JJ
system0NN
productive0JJ
firm0NN
reach0NN

These relations are only suggestive however so the report draws on case studies from middle income economies such as the Republic of Korea Malaysia Mexico and the Russian Federation and poorer economies including Indonesia and Pakistan to provide more concrete evidence

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.674332402239018
WordScorePoS
relation0.064698038783335NN
report0NN
study0NN
middle0JJ
income0.166475342664294NN
economy0NN
include0VB
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evidence0.12939607756667NN

These studies suggest an apparent paradox

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.758437912703176
WordScorePoS
study0NN
suggest0.0602029956716497VB

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.651745297316712
WordScorePoS
study0.0517339898971162NN
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Societies with extensive inequalities in power and wealth weak institutions and controlled financial systems typically suffer from narrow financial sectors that are oriented to the influential and hide weak asset quality

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.763121802564455
WordScorePoS
society0.0237821918091848NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
power0NN
institution0.0991236547760315NN
control0NN
financial0.0298222075472138JJ
system0NN
typically0RB
suffer0VB
sector0NN
orient0NN
asset0.0488696285210061NN
quality0.0121171980355011NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.440448741767052
WordScorePoS
society0.118536858482514NN
inequality0NN
power0NN
institution0.274477239401321NN
control0NN
financial0.016515769558553JJ
system0NN
typically0RB
suffer0VB
sector0NN
orient0NN
asset0.0811931365363091NN
quality0NN

Opening the financial system would seem to be an obvious solution

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.657113265326892
WordScorePoS
financial0.00896409157262106JJ
system0.0756001353333673NN
solution0.0357189919948307NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.384742876770719
WordScorePoS
financial0.0184786920895884JJ
system0.0519476926891779NN
solution0NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.366733637466476
WordScorePoS
financial0JJ
system0NN
solution0.0671298309154199NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.302427505073187
WordScorePoS
financial0.0185001613201543JJ
system0NN
solution0.0368585655748969NN

Liberalization however has also often been captured by the influential or wealthy in countries ranging from Mexico in the early to transition economies such as the Czech Republic and Russia

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Gradual deepening and broadening thus needs to be combined with stronger horizontal accountability in regulatory structures greater openness to societal accountability and where feasible external commitment devices such as the entry of Central European and Baltic states to the European Union

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.855704361197991
WordScorePoS
broaden0VB
accountability0.048933054487825NN
structure0.048933054487825NN
feasible0JJ
external0.048933054487825JJ
commitment0.0739231123597559NN
central0JJ

Programs targeted to the poor such as microcredit schemes can help but are no substitute for the overall broadening of access

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.588678893725628
WordScorePoS
target0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
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access0.00514687440545096NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.432200429510124
WordScorePoS
target0NN
poor0JJ
broaden0.107490825192354VB
access0.00690021170452351NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.409345634782354
WordScorePoS
target0.0898760357768464NN
poor0.0153248097886055JJ
broaden0VB
access0.00314118376811005NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.370359348140404
WordScorePoS
target0.0357189919948307NN
poor0.0548141757796873JJ
broaden0VB
access0.00749031153171887NN

Overview Labor markets

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.79660429075857
WordScorePoS
market0.0913569596328122NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.32880761576271
WordScorePoS
market0.0377086395700813NN

Leveling the playing field in labor markets consists of seeking the right country specific balance between flexibility and protection to provide more equal access to equal employment conditions to as many workers as possible

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.629869064590203
WordScorePoS
level0.00761994916892276NN
field0NN
market0.0252035516550537NN
seek0VB
country0NN
specific0JJ
flexibility0NN
protection0NN
provide0VB
equal0.0504071033101074JJ
access0.00344404437204141NN
employment0.173804667214358NN
condition0.121575732851624NN
worker0.121575732851624NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.414435049784006
WordScorePoS
level0.0113874611101829NN
field0NN
market0NN
seek0.120266261535276VB
country0NN
specific0JJ
flexibility0NN
protection0.122839698738001NN
provide0.0295703421524739VB
equal0.0376648791150643JJ
access0.00514687440545096NN
employment0NN
condition0NN
worker0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.398634467335419
WordScorePoS
level0.0172651853471334NN
field0NN
market0NN
seek0VB
country0NN
specific0JJ
flexibility0NN
protection0.0465610847355851NN
provide0.0112083245137075VB
equal0.114211783066808JJ
access0.00780347258345989NN
employment0.0393804437159645NN
condition0NN
worker0NN

Many countries have fairly extensive regulations and provisions for formal sector workers and far fewer for outsiders in the unregulated and often less safe informal sector

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.491288073399473
WordScorePoS
country0NN
regulation0NN
provision0NN
sector0.0252035516550537NN
worker0.121575732851624NN
unregulated0JJ
safe0.0252035516550537JJ

There is usually degree of voluntary movement between the sectors and great diversity within the informal sector itself ranging from microentrepreneurs and some of the self employed with incomes above formal sector workers to many with much worse employment conditions

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.579380766467597
WordScorePoS
degree0NN
sector0.0252035516550537NN
diversity0NN
range0NN
employ0VB
income0NN
worker0.121575732851624NN
employment0.173804667214358NN
condition0.121575732851624NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.232938107769205
WordScorePoS
degree0.164469921319675NN
sector0NN
diversity0NN
range0.0335649154577099NN
employ0VB
income0NN
worker0NN
employment0NN
condition0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.195816311622193
WordScorePoS
degree0NN
sector0NN
diversity0NN
range0NN
employ0VB
income0.166475342664294NN
worker0NN
employment0NN
condition0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.602428997211668
WordScorePoS
degree0NN
sector0.0565629593551219NN
diversity0NN
range0.0368585655748969NN
employ0.0454743001434393VB
income0.110649350233433NN
worker0.0454743001434393NN
employment0.104016094894625NN
condition0NN

This mix leads to inadequate protection for poorer workers while regulations for formal workers can reduce the flexibility of employment and often are poor deal for the workers themselves such as when job related social security systems are inefficient

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.644477803137167
WordScorePoS
mix0NN
lead0.0504071033101074NN
inadequate0JJ
protection0NN
worker0.121575732851624NN
regulation0NN
reduce0.0055149369084567VB
flexibility0NN
employment0.173804667214358NN
poor0JJ
job0.135650868266471NN
related0.0123650647908625JJ
social0.0504071033101074JJ
security0NN
system0NN
inefficient0JJ

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.462957786339256
WordScorePoS
mix0NN
lead0NN
inadequate0.0736315832425121JJ
protection0.122839698738001NN
worker0NN
regulation0NN
reduce0.0164833460638534VB
flexibility0NN
employment0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
job0.0225244866060403NN
related0.0184786920895884JJ
social0.112994637345193JJ
security0NN
system0.0519476926891779NN
inefficient0JJ

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.336886534855025
WordScorePoS
mix0NN
lead0.0188543197850406NN
inadequate0.0368585655748969JJ
protection0NN
worker0.0454743001434393NN
regulation0NN
reduce0VB
flexibility0NN
employment0.104016094894625NN
poor0JJ
job0.0902026255635679NN
related0.00925008066007716JJ
social0.0188543197850406JJ
security0NN
system0NN
inefficient0JJ

Two broad labor market approaches are relevant for equity

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.530765271028139
WordScorePoS
market0.0169905820958638NN
approach0.0542519672965169NN
relevant0.0277064208763707JJ

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.490041496218879
WordScorePoS
market0.0913569596328122NN
approach0NN
relevant0JJ

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.446560927589485
WordScorePoS
market0NN
approach0NN
relevant0.0832510082312742JJ

First interventions in the labor market should ensure effective application of the core labor standards across the whole market implying no slave or indentured work no dangerous forms of child labor and no discrimination

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.438794995296273
WordScorePoS
intervention0NN
market0NN
ensure0.0220985725470694VB
effective0.0482582488828229JJ
standard0NN
form0.158049144643351NN
child0.0603953832457135NN
discrimination0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.450083597661178
WordScorePoS
intervention0NN
market0.0913569596328122NN
ensure0.0159922815774215VB
effective0JJ
standard0NN
form0.0428913409252473NN
child0.0546336178945768NN
discrimination0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.398399337771598
WordScorePoS
intervention0NN
market0NN
ensure0.0124956749436837VB
effective0.02046578088155JJ
standard0NN
form0.100540298425703NN
child0.0170753354211044NN
discrimination0.111637082206855NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.352223001673543
WordScorePoS
intervention0NN
market0NN
ensure0.0247250190957801VB
effective0JJ
standard0NN
form0.0884167543187491NN
child0.0450489732120807NN
discrimination0.0736315832425121NN

Workers should be free to assemble and form associations and their unions should be free to have an active role in bargaining

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.412880686452336
WordScorePoS
worker0NN
free0JJ
form0.158049144643351NN
active0JJ

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.597407040920881
WordScorePoS
worker0NN
free0.0898760357768464JJ
form0NN
active0.048933054487825JJ

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.472157374213864
WordScorePoS
worker0.121575732851624NN
free0JJ
form0.0591643007226199NN
active0JJ

Second in all areas the policy mix needs to be assessed in ways that balance protection for all workers with allowances for the restructuring so central to dynamic growth and employment creation

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.824185242708905
WordScorePoS
policy0.0452169560888236NN
mix0NN
protection0NN
worker0.121575732851624NN
restructuring0NN
central0JJ
growth0.208565600657229NN
employment0.173804667214358NN
creation0.160952962344818NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.304881647624773
WordScorePoS
policy0.0848203862485078NN
mix0NN
protection0.0660824365173543NN
worker0NN
restructuring0NN
central0JJ
growth0.11178243319132NN
employment0NN
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Worker security is often provided by various excessively stringent forms of employment protection legislation which in general make it costly to hire and in some cases make it even costlier to hire unskilled young and female workers exactly those the laws seek to protect

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.560389563754102
WordScorePoS
worker0.121575732851624NN
security0NN
form0.0591643007226199NN
employment0.173804667214358NN
protection0NN
legislation0NN
female0NN
law0NN
seek0VB
protect0.0180650490434051VB

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.4679589753011
WordScorePoS
worker0NN
security0NN
form0.158049144643351NN
employment0NN
protection0NN
legislation0.0658099748168827NN
female0NN
law0.164686343640793NN
seek0VB
protect0.0241291244414115VB

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.430944244037948
WordScorePoS
worker0NN
security0NN
form0.100540298425703NN
employment0.0393804437159645NN
protection0.0465610847355851NN
legislation0.0558185411034276NN
female0.0911713013253052NN
law0.0465610847355851NN
seek0VB
protect0VB

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.375935505826536
WordScorePoS
worker0NN
security0NN
form0.0884167543187491NN
employment0NN
protection0.122839698738001NN
legislation0NN
female0NN
law0NN
seek0.120266261535276VB
protect0VB

For many countries less distortionary and more inclusive policy alternatives are available which may make the playing field more even in labor markets

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.461161358125997
WordScorePoS
country0NN
inclusive0JJ
policy0NN
alternative0NN
field0.0583416713841148NN
market0.0913569596328122NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.435044509098273
WordScorePoS
country0NN
inclusive0.0320338181740375JJ
policy0.011275328195446NN
alternative0.0602029956716497NN
field0NN
market0.0377086395700813NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.376742601463989
WordScorePoS
country0NN
inclusive0.0172128079963482JJ
policy0.0848203862485078NN
alternative0NN
field0NN
market0.0202620733250388NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.332151238983154
WordScorePoS
country0NN
inclusive0.0130185595639838JJ
policy0.0641521854453136NN
alternative0NN
field0NN
market0.030649619577211NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.326312604008548
WordScorePoS
country0NN
inclusive0.0857932776726581JJ
policy0.0201317944152378NN
alternative0NN
field0NN
market0NN

These alternatives include unemployment insurance schemes more likely in middle income countries and low wage employment schemes ideally with an employment guarantee which can be applied successfully even in poor countries or states

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.714164240734813
WordScorePoS
alternative0NN
include0VB
unemployment0.0804764811724088NN
insurance0.0804764811724088NN
middle0JJ
income0NN
country0NN
wage0NN
employment0.173804667214358NN
guarantee0.0804764811724088NN
poor0JJ

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.280279955447681
WordScorePoS
alternative0NN
include0VB
unemployment0NN
insurance0NN
middle0JJ
income0.166475342664294NN
country0NN
wage0.064698038783335NN
employment0NN
guarantee0NN
poor0JJ

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.236262342142826
WordScorePoS
alternative0NN
include0VB
unemployment0NN
insurance0NN
middle0JJ
income0.0442083771593746NN
country0NN
wage0NN
employment0NN
guarantee0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.532359880528763
WordScorePoS
alternative0.0602029956716497NN
include0VB
unemployment0NN
insurance0NN
middle0.0602029956716497JJ
income0.110649350233433NN
country0NN
wage0NN
employment0.104016094894625NN
guarantee0NN
poor0JJ

Figure Better to be close to economic opportunities Changes in household welfare in Mexico following trade liberalization in the Changes in household welfare > percent percent percent percent Source Nicita

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.427105572899533
WordScorePoS
figure0NN
economic0.128463821595706JJ
opportunity0.0361300980868102NN
household0NN
welfare0NN
trade0.0591643007226199NN
source0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.424107996740681
WordScorePoS
figure0NN
economic0.103276847978089JJ
opportunity0.029046330719385NN
household0.0330412182586772NN
welfare0NN
trade0.0237821918091848NN
source0NN

Product markets

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.540983878650807
WordScorePoS
product0NN
market0.0913569596328122NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.499596836367567
WordScorePoS
product0.0591643007226199NN
market0.0252035516550537NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.48538800038099
WordScorePoS
product0.0442597400933733NN
market0.0377086395700813NN

There is substantial heterogeneity in the effects of opening country product markets to trade at least in the short to medium term

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.576063344780658
WordScorePoS
substantial0JJ
effect0NN
country0NN
product0.017987180284335NN
market0.030649619577211NN
trade0.0539615408530051NN
medium0NN
term0.149793392961411NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.466343616486943
WordScorePoS
substantial0JJ
effect0NN
country0NN
product0.0591643007226199NN
market0.0252035516550537NN
trade0.0591643007226199NN
medium0.0607878664258118NN
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.394668765053322
WordScorePoS
substantial0JJ
effect0.0454743001434393NN
country0NN
product0.0442597400933733NN
market0.0377086395700813NN
trade0NN
medium0.0454743001434393NN
term0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.358045091617408
WordScorePoS
substantial0JJ
effect0.0440683498519077NN
country0NN
product0NN
market0.0913569596328122NN
trade0.0214456704626236NN
medium0NN
term0NN

This can be due to geographic location as illustrated by the varying impact of trade liberalization in Mexico figure

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.566475145335757
WordScorePoS
due0JJ
geographic0.048933054487825JJ
location0.048933054487825NN
impact0NN
trade0.0539615408530051NN
figure0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.410546664575086
WordScorePoS
due0.0234335422829798JJ
geographic0JJ
location0NN
impact0.0866018859977851NN
trade0NN
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This illustrates the importance of interactions between domestic product markets and patterns of infrastructure provision

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.707684821456766
WordScorePoS
domestic0.0520080474473126JJ
product0.0442597400933733NN
market0.0377086395700813NN
pattern0NN
infrastructure0.192202909044225NN
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.333882028778223
WordScorePoS
domestic0.0695218668857431JJ
product0.0591643007226199NN
market0.0252035516550537NN
pattern0NN
infrastructure0NN
provision0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.320579862881629
WordScorePoS
domestic0JJ
product0.0199423462679015NN
market0.0169905820958638NN
pattern0.0819583881728876NN
infrastructure0.028867295332595NN
provision0NN

There are also often strong interactions with skills in the labor market

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.937163980835383
WordScorePoS
strong0JJ
skill0.407534682675042NN
market0NN

In many countries opening to trade often coinciding with opening to foreign direct investment has been associated with rising inequality in earnings in the past two decades

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.905991957337323
WordScorePoS
country0NN
trade0.0237821918091848NN
foreign0.0488696285210061JJ
direct0.0396106020715138JJ
investment0.0202620733250388NN
rise0.0237821918091848NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
decade0NN

This is especially so for middle income countries notably in Latin America

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.651236533539157
WordScorePoS
middle0JJ
income0.166475342664294NN
country0NN
notably0RB

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.668358975651015
WordScorePoS
middle0.0602029956716497JJ
income0.110649350233433NN
country0NN
notably0RB

Opening to trade often boosts the premium on skills as firms modernize their production processes skill biased technical change in the jargon of economists

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.864545819613008
WordScorePoS
trade0NN
skill0.407534682675042NN
firm0NN
production0NN
process0NN
technical0.124876512346911JJ
change0NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.370272766080097
WordScorePoS
trade0NN
skill0NN
firm0NN
production0NN
process0NN
technical0JJ
change0.402565546215053NN

This is bad for equity if the institutional context restricts the capacity of workers to shift into new work or limits future cohorts access to education

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.583665932394735
WordScorePoS
bad0JJ
institutional0JJ
context0NN
capacity0NN
worker0NN
limit0NN
future0NN
access0.00697628678506322NN
education0.244244978014045NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.449179019378555
WordScorePoS
bad0JJ
institutional0.0828215106044499JJ
context0.0414107553022249NN
capacity0.025270503924109NN
worker0NN
limit0.0335649154577099NN
future0NN
access0NN
education0.0102677744436108NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.354205886701834
WordScorePoS
bad0JJ
institutional0JJ
context0NN
capacity0.0123650647908625NN
worker0.121575732851624NN
limit0NN
future0NN
access0.00344404437204141NN
education0.0150723186962745NN

Macroeconomic stability

Label: 17, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
macroeconomic0.048933054487825JJ
stability0.048933054487825NN

This report argues that there are two way relationships between inequitable institutions and macroeconomic crises with mostly bad effects for equity and WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT long run growth

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.586199965130512
WordScorePoS
report0NN
institution0.274477239401321NN
macroeconomic0JJ
bad0JJ
effect0NN
world0NN
development0.0368309542451156NN
growth0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.483751587578862
WordScorePoS
report0NN
institution0.0410992516792148NN
macroeconomic0JJ
bad0JJ
effect0NN
world0.00172202218602071NN
development0.0055149369084567NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.435749088905128
WordScorePoS
report0NN
institution0.0991236547760315NN
macroeconomic0JJ
bad0JJ
effect0NN
world0.00276879546803864NN
development0.0177346522508396NN
growth0.11178243319132NN

Weak and captured institutions are associated with greater propensity for countries to experience macroeconomic crises

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.859131049614976
WordScorePoS
capture0NN
institution0.274477239401321NN
country0NN
experience0NN
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.325156549560074
WordScorePoS
capture0NN
institution0.0249900578719309NN
country0NN
experience0.0299586785922821NN
macroeconomic0.048933054487825JJ

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.310263283597404
WordScorePoS
capture0NN
institution0.0991236547760315NN
country0NN
experience0NN
macroeconomic0JJ

When crises occur they can be costly for the poor who have weaker instruments to manage shocks

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.848805980030622
WordScorePoS
occur0VB
poor0.150659516460257JJ
manage0VB
shock0.120266261535276NN

In addition crisis resolution is often regressive through variety of mechanisms most of them not captured in traditional household survey instruments declines in the labor share at least for formal workers capital gains for those who get their money out and fiscal workouts that bail out the influential at substantial cost

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.392977227701904
WordScorePoS
addition0NN
variety0NN
mechanism0.147846224719512NN
capture0NN
traditional0JJ
household0NN
survey0NN
decline0NN
share0.0766240489430275NN
worker0NN
gain0NN
money0NN
fiscal0JJ
substantial0JJ
cost0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.448990580900067
WordScorePoS
addition0NN
variety0NN
mechanism0NN
capture0NN
traditional0JJ
household0.0330412182586772NN
survey0.064698038783335NN
decline0.02794560829783NN
share0NN
worker0NN
gain0NN
money0NN
fiscal0.064698038783335JJ
substantial0JJ
cost0.0660824365173543NN

Such bailouts must be paid for through some combination of higher taxes and lower spending

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.51076391449148
WordScorePoS
pay0NN
tax0.0811931365363091NN
spending0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.495463297634339
WordScorePoS
pay0.078760887431929NN
tax0NN
spending0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.437343135000558
WordScorePoS
pay0.0695218668857431NN
tax0NN
spending0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.378720653556898
WordScorePoS
pay0NN
tax0NN
spending0.0602029956716497NN

Because taxes are typically proportional and spending is often progressive at the margin notably in Latin America the cost of bailouts is borne disproportionately by poorer groups

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

High inflation has also been found to be both bad for growth and regressive in its impact

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.732002899727167
WordScorePoS
bad0JJ
growth0.208565600657229NN
impact0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.392322918912604
WordScorePoS
bad0JJ
growth0.11178243319132NN
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.303946726940865
WordScorePoS
bad0JJ
growth0NN
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Label: 6, with a score of: 0.303632900610295
WordScorePoS
bad0.0683326727248364JJ
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concern for equity would lead in general to highly prudent stance on macroeconomic management and financial regulation

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.523320414055606
WordScorePoS
lead0NN
highly0RB
macroeconomic0JJ
management0NN
financial0.0298222075472138JJ
regulation0.0977392570420122NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.414071334126866
WordScorePoS
lead0NN
highly0RB
macroeconomic0.048933054487825JJ
management0NN
financial0.0150369494376999JJ
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Populist macroeconomic policy sooner or later is bad for equity and bad for growth

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.659153963361979
WordScorePoS
macroeconomic0JJ
policy0.0452169560888236NN
bad0JJ
growth0.208565600657229NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.510640011289577
WordScorePoS
macroeconomic0JJ
policy0.0848203862485078NN
bad0JJ
growth0.11178243319132NN

Policy design can increase equity through the pursuit of countercyclical fiscal policy building safety nets before crisis reducing risky lending and supporting only smaller depositors in bailouts

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.585096216713706
WordScorePoS
policy0.0641521854453136NN
increase0.00432344066632653NN
fiscal0JJ
building0.149940347231585NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.474098403299011
WordScorePoS
policy0.0848203862485078NN
increase0.00285817158600878NN
fiscal0.064698038783335JJ
building0NN
safety0NN
reduce0.0310356414389692VB
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Label: 11, with a score of: 0.390602460679491
WordScorePoS
policy0.0136980135278128NN
increase0.00323105002784081NN
fiscal0JJ
building0.0747035830159326NN
safety0.0731385760866977NN
reduce0.0200483235258943VB
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But as in other policy areas these responses need to be underpinned by institutional designs that combine greater institutional freedom from political influence such as independent central banks and autonomous financial regulatory agencies with greater information and debate in society

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.453670404109793
WordScorePoS
policy0.0201317944152378NN
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institutional0JJ
freedom0.107490825192354NN
political0JJ
influence0NN
central0JJ
bank0NN
financial0.016515769558553JJ
agency0NN
information0.0241291244414115NN
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.392315734843366
WordScorePoS
policy0.0641521854453136NN
response0NN
institutional0.036961556179878JJ
freedom0NN
political0JJ
influence0NN
central0JJ
bank0.036961556179878NN
financial0.0150369494376999JJ
agency0NN
information0.0219686053934784NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.344274891635238
WordScorePoS
policy0.0848203862485078NN
response0NN
institutional0JJ
freedom0NN
political0.0792212041430275JJ
influence0NN
central0JJ
bank0NN
financial0.0298222075472138JJ
agency0NN
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society0.0237821918091848NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.338152145152371
WordScorePoS
policy0.0341506708422088NN
response0NN
institutional0JJ
freedom0NN
political0.111637082206855JJ
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central0JJ
bank0NN
financial0.0140083044329373JJ
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The global arena One predetermined circumstance that most powerfully determines person opportunities for leading healthy and productive life is his or her country of birth

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.580862391579861
WordScorePoS
global0.0220597476338268JJ
circumstance0.049270765107907NN
determine0VB
person0.0295821503613099NN
opportunity0.0361300980868102NN
lead0.0504071033101074NN
healthy0JJ
productive0.0985415302158139JJ
life0.0123650647908625NN
country0NN
birth0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.451026389571164
WordScorePoS
global0.013959557403375JJ
circumstance0NN
determine0.0307735781890304VB
person0NN
opportunity0NN
lead0.025518364538905NN
healthy0.0615471563780609JJ
productive0JJ
life0.0250390290383647NN
country0NN
birth0.0748292956291867NN

Global inequities are massive

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.560514348810473
WordScorePoS
global0.0375696197697663JJ

Reducing them will depend primarily on domestic policies in poor countries through their impact on growth and development

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.508236214954975
WordScorePoS
reduce0.0055149369084567VB
depend0VB
primarily0RB
domestic0.0695218668857431JJ
policy0.0452169560888236NN
poor0JJ
country0NN
impact0NN
growth0.208565600657229NN
development0.0055149369084567NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.426587127460554
WordScorePoS
reduce0.0164833460638534VB
depend0VB
primarily0RB
domestic0JJ
policy0.0450489732120807NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
country0NN
impact0NN
growth0.0519476926891779NN
development0.0164833460638534NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.373002420691993
WordScorePoS
reduce0.0310356414389692VB
depend0VB
primarily0RB
domestic0JJ
policy0.0848203862485078NN
poor0JJ
country0NN
impact0NN
growth0.11178243319132NN
development0.0177346522508396NN

But global action can change external conditions and affect the impact of domestic policies

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.739342498959178
WordScorePoS
global0.0375696197697663JJ
action0.0369195714265843NN
change0.402565546215053NN
external0JJ
condition0NN
affect0.0336940052321454VB
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policy0.0102677744436108NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.338236678245041
WordScorePoS
global0.0220597476338268JJ
action0NN
change0NN
external0JJ
condition0.121575732851624NN
affect0VB
impact0NN
domestic0.0695218668857431JJ
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In this sense global and domestic actions are complementary

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.430483511267358
WordScorePoS
sense0NN
global0.0201198688839505JJ
domestic0.0634082886861185JJ
action0.0109843026967392NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.421418282234068
WordScorePoS
sense0.064698038783335NN
global0.0133009891881297JJ
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action0.0145231653596925NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.417134152201977
WordScorePoS
sense0NN
global0.0220597476338268JJ
domestic0.0695218668857431JJ
action0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.365803556673391
WordScorePoS
sense0NN
global0JJ
domestic0.0393804437159645JJ
action0.0409315617631NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.339281915708758
WordScorePoS
sense0NN
global0.0375696197697663JJ
domestic0JJ
action0.0369195714265843NN

We live in an integrated world in which people goods ideas and capital flow across countries

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.631337798932796
WordScorePoS
live0.0269743071558856VB
integrate0.0537696560159885VB
world0.00626002771693937NN
people0.0161552501392041NNS
idea0.0731385760866977NN
flow0NN
country0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.407135175452855
WordScorePoS
live0.0739258553811849VB
integrate0VB
world0.00257343720272548NN
people0.0371911007748996NNS
idea0NN
flow0NN
country0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.338082297258162
WordScorePoS
live0.013214597504793VB
integrate0VB
world0NN
people0NNS
idea0NN
flow0.0811931365363091NN
country0NN

Indeed most policy advice given to poor countries over the last several decades including that by the World Bank has emphasized the advantages of participating in the global economy

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.414604519806949
WordScorePoS
policy0.0450489732120807NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
country0NN
decade0NN
include0VB
world0.00257343720272548NN
bank0NN
global0JJ
economy0NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.542785331988965
WordScorePoS
policy0.0102677744436108NN
poor0JJ
country0NN
decade0.124232265906675NN
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world0.00351929966767313NN
bank0NN
global0.0375696197697663JJ
economy0.0839946104936743NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.350091387757188
WordScorePoS
policy0NN
poor0.0548141757796873JJ
country0NN
decade0NN
include0VB
world0.0124838525528648NN
bank0.0881366997038154NN
global0.0119942111830662JJ
economy0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.316151126955339
WordScorePoS
policy0.0452169560888236NN
poor0JJ
country0NN
decade0NN
include0VB
world0.00172202218602071NN
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global0.0220597476338268JJ
economy0.0821985033584295NN

But global markets are far from equitable and the rules governing their functioning have disproportionately negative effect on developing countries chapter

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.466046833381568
WordScorePoS
global0.00736619084902312JJ
market0NN
equitable0JJ
rule0.162386273072618NN
function0NN
effect0NN
develop0VB
country0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.584598303924129
WordScorePoS
global0.0119942111830662JJ
market0.0913569596328122NN
equitable0.0214456704626236JJ
rule0NN
function0.0440683498519077NN
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develop0VB
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.493196236755723
WordScorePoS
global0.0201198688839505JJ
market0.030649619577211NN
equitable0.017987180284335JJ
rule0.0739231123597559NN
function0.036961556179878NN
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develop0VB
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These rules are the outcome of complex negotiating processes in which developing countries have less voice

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.620344496608864
WordScorePoS
rule0.162386273072618NN
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negotiate0VB
process0NN
develop0VB
country0NN
voice0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.399066263461558
WordScorePoS
rule0NN
outcome0.030745604615229NN
negotiate0VB
process0.0737171311497939NN
develop0VB
country0NN
voice0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.391108412382274
WordScorePoS
rule0NN
outcome0.0465610847355851NN
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process0.0558185411034276NN
develop0VB
country0NN
voice0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.373381376771528
WordScorePoS
rule0NN
outcome0.0330412182586772NN
negotiate0VB
process0NN
develop0VB
country0NN
voice0.064698038783335NN

Moreover even if markets worked equitably unequal endowments would limit the ability of poor countries to benefit from global opportunities

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.360602845690055
WordScorePoS
market0NN
limit0NN
ability0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
country0NN
benefit0NN
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.587069369889853
WordScorePoS
market0.0913569596328122NN
limit0.0357189919948307NN
ability0NN
poor0.0548141757796873JJ
country0NN
benefit0.0252000451111224NN
global0.0119942111830662JJ
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.345097178350002
WordScorePoS
market0.0252035516550537NN
limit0NN
ability0.0607878664258118NN
poor0JJ
country0NN
benefit0NN
global0.0220597476338268JJ
opportunity0.0361300980868102NN

Leveling the global economic and political playing fields thus requires more equitable rules for the functioning of global markets more effective participation of poor countries in global rule setting processes and more actions to help build and maintain the endowments of poor countries and poor people

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.498876365853882
WordScorePoS
level0.0113874611101829NN
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participation0.0614198493690006NN
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people0.0371911007748996NNS

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.341609265155155
WordScorePoS
level0.0610668815653026NN
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.240941755559977
WordScorePoS
level0.00761994916892276NN
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participation0NN
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build0VB
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.374257060448963
WordScorePoS
level0.0138997399903163NN
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participation0NN
poor0.0153248097886055JJ
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.357637675592892
WordScorePoS
level0.00552410547653725NN
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field0.0583416713841148NN
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equitable0.0214456704626236JJ
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The report documents some of the many inequities in the functioning of global markets for labor goods ideas and capital

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.592220641606817
WordScorePoS
report0NN
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function0.0440683498519077NN
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.366257645679615
WordScorePoS
report0NN
document0.0911713013253052NN
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global0JJ
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Unskilled workers from poor countries who could earn higher returns in rich countries face great hurdles in migrating

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.5686119095016
WordScorePoS
worker0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
country0NN
return0NN
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.458845290559883
WordScorePoS
worker0.121575732851624NN
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country0NN
return0NN
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.427067362479247
WordScorePoS
worker0NN
poor0.0548141757796873JJ
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migrate0.0583416713841148VB

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.405686708696229
WordScorePoS
worker0NN
poor0JJ
country0NN
return0.107490825192354NN
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Developingcountry producers face obstacles in selling agricultural products manufactured goods and services in developed countries

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.696225334857999
WordScorePoS
producer0NN
agricultural0.0368585655748969JJ
product0.0442597400933733NN
manufacture0.240811982686599NN
service0.0148023490369527NN
develop0VB
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.63774012374909
WordScorePoS
producer0.0440683498519077NN
agricultural0.250032943963815JJ
product0NN
manufacture0NN
service0.0143446978608332NN
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Patent protection restricts access to innovations particularly drugs for poor countries while new research is strongly oriented to the diseases of richer societies

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.487931428502405
WordScorePoS
protection0.020806307400253NN
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innovation0NN
drug0.0407408489778079NN
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country0NN
research0.0175975629039954NN
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disease0.215415047323213NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.452202562853136
WordScorePoS
protection0.122839698738001NN
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innovation0NN
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poor0.150659516460257JJ
country0NN
research0NN
orient0NN
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.425205422227186
WordScorePoS
protection0NN
access0.0128821355880844NN
innovation0.122982418460916NN
drug0NN
poor0JJ
country0NN
research0.104016094894625NN
orient0NN
disease0NN
society0.0221298700466866NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.365602471470615
WordScorePoS
protection0NN
access0.00344404437204141NN
innovation0.0821985033584295NN
drug0NN
poor0JJ
country0NN
research0NN
orient0.0804764811724088NN
disease0NN
society0.0591643007226199NN

Rich country investors often get better deals in debt crises

Label: 17, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
country0NN
debt0.342531381414775NN

In most cases more equitable rules would bring benefits to developed and developingcountry citizens

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.697394728708904
WordScorePoS
equitable0JJ
rule0.162386273072618NN
bring0VB
benefit0NN
develop0VB

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.394723965217292
WordScorePoS
equitable0.017987180284335JJ
rule0.0739231123597559NN
bring0VB
benefit0NN
develop0VB

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.314105721271947
WordScorePoS
equitable0JJ
rule0NN
bring0.0731385760866977VB
benefit0NN
develop0VB

Benefits vary across markets and countries with those from greater legal migration likely to be greatest and to accrue directly to migrants and those from trade likely to accrue mostly to middle income rather than the least developed countries

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.673658662632289
WordScorePoS
benefit0NN
market0.0202620733250388NN
country0NN
legal0JJ
migration0.12939607756667NN
migrant0.0488696285210061NN
trade0.0237821918091848NN
middle0JJ
income0.166475342664294NN
develop0VB

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.406437035436639
WordScorePoS
benefit0.0260040237236563NN
market0.0377086395700813NN
country0NN
legal0JJ
migration0NN
migrant0NN
trade0NN
middle0.0602029956716497JJ
income0.110649350233433NN
develop0VB

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.356843932237312
WordScorePoS
benefit0NN
market0.0252035516550537NN
country0NN
legal0JJ
migration0NN
migrant0.121575732851624NN
trade0.0591643007226199NN
middle0JJ
income0NN
develop0VB

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.35059936113878
WordScorePoS
benefit0.0252000451111224NN
market0.0913569596328122NN
country0NN
legal0JJ
migration0NN
migrant0NN
trade0.0214456704626236NN
middle0JJ
income0.0643370113878709NN
develop0VB

The report discusses options to reduce inequities in the functioning of global markets including the following allowing greater temporary migration into OECD countries achieving ambitious trade liberalization under the Doha Round allowing poor countries to use generic drugs and developing financial standards more appropriate to developing countries

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.374625546279717
WordScorePoS
report0NN
reduce0.0310356414389692VB
function0NN
global0.0133009891881297JJ
market0.0202620733250388NN
include0VB
migration0.12939607756667NN
oecd0NN
country0NN
achieve0.018377882320743VB
trade0.0237821918091848NN
doha0NN
round0NN
poor0JJ
drug0NN
develop0VB
financial0.0298222075472138JJ
standard0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.277484867494817
WordScorePoS
report0NN
reduce0.0164833460638534VB
function0NN
global0JJ
market0NN
include0VB
migration0NN
oecd0NN
country0NN
achieve0.0113874611101829VB
trade0NN
doha0NN
round0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
drug0NN
develop0VB
financial0.0184786920895884JJ
standard0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.569156187729956
WordScorePoS
report0NN
reduce0.00799614078871077VB
function0.0440683498519077NN
global0.0119942111830662JJ
market0.0913569596328122NN
include0VB
migration0NN
oecd0NN
country0NN
achieve0.0110482109530745VB
trade0.0214456704626236NN
doha0.0357189919948307NN
round0.11668334276823NN
poor0.0548141757796873JJ
drug0NN
develop0VB
financial0.00896409157262106JJ
standard0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.424600569754137
WordScorePoS
report0.0409791940864438NN
reduce0.022306853314744VB
function0NN
global0.022306853314744JJ
market0.0169905820958638NN
include0VB
migration0NN
oecd0.108503934593034NN
country0NN
achieve0.0154106104202498VB
trade0NN
doha0NN
round0NN
poor0.0339811641917276JJ
drug0NN
develop0VB
financial0JJ
standard0.0409791940864438NN

Overview The international laws that govern global markets are the product of complex negotiations

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.552702194600317
WordScorePoS
international0.0189945307832458JJ
law0.164686343640793NN
global0.00736619084902312JJ
market0NN
product0NN
negotiation0NN

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.436178461528095
WordScorePoS
international0.00470029406779661JJ
law0.0543366405761884NN
global0.0182280170776635JJ
market0.0333211986002325NN
product0NN
negotiation0.0401833161726777NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.324606177821268
WordScorePoS
international0.00648516099948979JJ
law0NN
global0.0201198688839505JJ
market0.030649619577211NN
product0.017987180284335NN
negotiation0.036961556179878NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.318182037776
WordScorePoS
international0.00355521737836969JJ
law0NN
global0.0220597476338268JJ
market0.0252035516550537NN
product0.0591643007226199NN
negotiation0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.313909298843335
WordScorePoS
international0.00515473144367677JJ
law0NN
global0.0119942111830662JJ
market0.0913569596328122NN
product0NN
negotiation0NN

In some cases as for human rights covenants the processes generating the laws are perceived to be fair

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.489491909567024
WordScorePoS
human0JJ
rights0NNS
process0NN
generate0VB
law0.164686343640793NN
fair0JJ

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.58915057640933
WordScorePoS
human0.0170753354211044JJ
rights0.078760887431929NNS
process0.0558185411034276NN
generate0VB
law0.0465610847355851NN
fair0JJ

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.340166592907137
WordScorePoS
human0.0199268631468397JJ
rights0NNS
process0NN
generate0.0401833161726777VB
law0.0543366405761884NN
fair0JJ

In other cases processes and outcomes are perceived as unfair even though the formal regulations are equitable

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.546305541325452
WordScorePoS
process0NN
outcome0.0330412182586772NN
regulation0.0977392570420122NN
equitable0JJ

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.528811673812604
WordScorePoS
process0.0737171311497939NN
outcome0.030745604615229NN
regulation0NN
equitable0.0221298700466866JJ

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.427667484661483
WordScorePoS
process0.0558185411034276NN
outcome0.0465610847355851NN
regulation0NN
equitable0JJ

Within the World Trade Organization WTO for example each country has vote and each can block proceedings

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.589040515604388
WordScorePoS
world0.00418824502414673NN
trade0.0539615408530051NN
organization0.0422721924574123NN
country0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.561033651515388
WordScorePoS
world0.00172202218602071NN
trade0.0591643007226199NN
organization0.0347609334428716NN
country0NN

Even so WTO processes are at times perceived as unfair because of the underlying power imbalance between strong commercial interests and the public interest in both developed and developing countries

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.588289621839281
WordScorePoS
process0.0737171311497939NN
time0.0188543197850406NN
underlie0VB
power0.0454743001434393NN
strong0.0454743001434393JJ
commercial0JJ
public0.0160169090870187NN
develop0VB
country0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.518124607457689
WordScorePoS
process0NN
time0.0607862199751165NN
underlie0.0488696285210061VB
power0NN
strong0.0488696285210061JJ
commercial0JJ
public0.0172128079963482NN
develop0VB
country0NN

These imbalances manifest themselves for instance in the number of staff employed in Geneva by different WTO members

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

More effective representation of poor countries in global institutions would help improve processes and may lead to more equitable rules

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.708194752500555
WordScorePoS
effective0.0482582488828229JJ
representation0NN
poor0JJ
country0NN
global0.00736619084902312JJ
institution0.274477239401321NN
improve0VB
process0NN
lead0NN
equitable0JJ
rule0.162386273072618NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.216647490549865
WordScorePoS
effective0JJ
representation0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
country0NN
global0JJ
institution0NN
improve0VB
process0NN
lead0NN
equitable0JJ
rule0NN

The impact of reducing imperfections in global markets varies by country

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.546309547400685
WordScorePoS
impact0.0866018859977851NN
reduce0.022306853314744VB
global0.022306853314744JJ
market0.0169905820958638NN
country0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.410442409168326
WordScorePoS
impact0NN
reduce0.00799614078871077VB
global0.0119942111830662JJ
market0.0913569596328122NN
country0NN

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.359969788605279
WordScorePoS
impact0.042459973210532NN
reduce0.0036456034155327VB
global0.0182280170776635JJ
market0.0333211986002325NN
country0NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.313630309818522
WordScorePoS
impact0.0437569550806737NN
reduce0.00375696197697663VB
global0.0375696197697663JJ
market0NN
country0NN

The larger and fast growing developing countries stand to benefit significantly from freer global trade migration and capital flows helping them sustain fast growth while equitable domestic policies both help underpin longrun growth and the broad internal sharing of this growth

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.692631263214961
WordScorePoS
grow0VB
develop0VB
country0NN
stand0VB
benefit0NN
significantly0RB
global0.0220597476338268JJ
trade0.0591643007226199NN
migration0NN
flow0NN
help0NN
sustain0.049270765107907VB
growth0.208565600657229NN
equitable0JJ
domestic0.0695218668857431JJ
policy0.0452169560888236NN
share0.0252035516550537NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.553134335285135
WordScorePoS
grow0.0405241466500776VB
develop0VB
country0NN
stand0VB
benefit0NN
significantly0RB
global0.0133009891881297JJ
trade0.0237821918091848NN
migration0.12939607756667NN
flow0.0488696285210061NN
help0NN
sustain0.0396106020715138VB
growth0.11178243319132NN
equitable0JJ
domestic0JJ
policy0.0848203862485078NN
share0NN

Countries left behind in the global economy stand to benefit much less from global markets in the short run and will continue to rely on aid

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.486426498698647
WordScorePoS
country0NN
global0.0220597476338268JJ
economy0.0821985033584295NN
stand0VB
benefit0NN
market0.0252035516550537NN
continue0.0295821503613099VB
rely0VB
aid0.0607878664258118NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.40105659761814
WordScorePoS
country0NN
global0.0375696197697663JJ
economy0.0839946104936743NN
stand0VB
benefit0NN
market0NN
continue0.0403047273067529VB
rely0VB
aid0NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.377640905594202
WordScorePoS
country0NN
global0.0251662980592747JJ
economy0.0625160381065121NN
stand0VB
benefit0NN
market0NN
continue0VB
rely0.0749457204978913VB
aid0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.303677113328887
WordScorePoS
country0NN
global0.013959557403375JJ
economy0NN
stand0VB
benefit0NN
market0NN
continue0VB
rely0VB
aid0.123094312756122NN

For them global action that helps compensate for unequal endowments is truly essential

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.46274557934923
WordScorePoS
global0.022306853314744JJ
action0.0121782716594324NN
help0.0542519672965169NN
essential0JJ

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.388445722677741
WordScorePoS
global0.0375696197697663JJ
action0.0369195714265843NN
help0NN
essential0JJ

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.385179578967735
WordScorePoS
global0.013959557403375JJ
action0NN
help0NN
essential0.059903311017139JJ

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.365889091058709
WordScorePoS
global0.0251662980592747JJ
action0NN
help0NN
essential0.0449973847138318JJ

Action to build endowments is primarily domestic through public investments in human development infrastructure and governance structures

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.579997785476204
WordScorePoS
action0.0135141354781442NN
build0.030745604615229VB
primarily0RB
domestic0.0520080474473126JJ
public0.0160169090870187NN
investment0.0377086395700813NN
human0.011275328195446JJ
development0.0330049940546426NN
infrastructure0.192202909044225NN
governance0NN
structure0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.523681076162352
WordScorePoS
action0.0109843026967392NN
build0.0499801157438617VB
primarily0RB
domestic0.0634082886861185JJ
public0.0390556786919513NN
investment0.0766240489430275NN
human0JJ
development0.0469463607292177NN
infrastructure0.0130185595639838NN
governance0NN
structure0.048933054487825NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.310511856153008
WordScorePoS
action0.0409315617631NN
build0VB
primarily0RB
domestic0.0393804437159645JJ
public0.0727679293221751NN
investment0NN
human0.0170753354211044JJ
development0.0124956749436837NN
infrastructure0.024255976440725NN
governance0NN
structure0NN

But global action can support domestic policies through resource transfers in the form of aid which is not offset by debt repayments and investments in global public goods particularly global commons

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.678234973662558
WordScorePoS
global0.0201198688839505JJ
action0.0109843026967392NN
support0.0451108483130998NN
domestic0.0634082886861185JJ
policy0.0641521854453136NN
resource0.0375923735942499NN
transfer0.036961556179878NN
form0NN
aid0NN
debt0.342531381414775NN
investment0.0766240489430275NN
public0.0390556786919513NN
common0JJ

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.199841030501402
WordScorePoS
global0.00736619084902312JJ
action0NN
support0NN
domestic0JJ
policy0.0201317944152378NN
resource0NN
transfer0NN
form0.158049144643351NN
aid0NN
debt0NN
investment0NN
public0.0285977592242194NN
common0JJ

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.317095982299889
WordScorePoS
global0.0220597476338268JJ
action0NN
support0.024730129581725NN
domestic0.0695218668857431JJ
policy0.0452169560888236NN
resource0.0123650647908625NN
transfer0NN
form0.0591643007226199NN
aid0.0607878664258118NN
debt0NN
investment0.0252035516550537NN
public0NN
common0JJ

Aid levels need to be bolstered in line with the commitments rich countries made at the Monterrey Conference and concrete plans should be made to reach the target of devoting

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.480045749942096
WordScorePoS
aid0NN
level0.0172651853471334NN
line0NN
commitment0NN
country0NN
conference0.18234260265061NN
plan0NN
reach0NN
target0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.458664970551432
WordScorePoS
aid0NN
level0.0138997399903163NN
line0NN
commitment0.0739231123597559NN
country0NN
conference0NN
plan0.0130185595639838NN
reach0NN
target0.0898760357768464NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.348169624518939
WordScorePoS
aid0.123094312756122NN
level0NN
line0NN
commitment0NN
country0NN
conference0NN
plan0.021678073222951NN
reach0NN
target0NN

percent of gross national income to aid

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.564157054104149
WordScorePoS
gross0JJ
national0.00886732612541978JJ
income0.166475342664294NN
aid0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.46820583823862
WordScorePoS
gross0.030745604615229JJ
national0.00412562425683033JJ
income0.110649350233433NN
aid0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.41401604341408
WordScorePoS
gross0JJ
national0.00558382296134999JJ
income0NN
aid0.123094312756122NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.34556122237312
WordScorePoS
gross0.0410992516792148JJ
national0.0055149369084567JJ
income0NN
aid0.0607878664258118NN

Larger volumes of aid will only help however if aid is effective in alleviating constraints and spurring development in the recipient countries

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.749787785438135
WordScorePoS
volume0NN
aid0.123094312756122NN
effective0.00914534810831654JJ
constraint0NN
development0.00837573444202498NN
country0NN

Greater effectiveness can be achieved by emphasizing results moving away from ex ante conditionality and progressively shifting design and management from donors to recipients

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.636042881715193
WordScorePoS
achieve0.0194103228106253VB
result0.0683326727248364NN
move0NN
progressively0RB
management0.0428007293971684NN

Aid should not be undermined by debt for debt reduction that is not financed by additional resources can actually undercut effective aid programs

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.907840569888253
WordScorePoS
aid0NN
debt0.342531381414775NN
reduction0NN
finance0.036961556179878NN
additional0.036961556179878JJ
resource0.0375923735942499NN
effective0.0219686053934784JJ

Innovative mechanisms to expand development assistance should be explored including global taxes and private contributions

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.806070628629001
WordScorePoS
mechanism0.147846224719512NN
expand0VB
development0.0469463607292177NN
assistance0.0499801157438617NN
include0VB
global0.0201198688839505JJ
tax0.036961556179878NN
private0.0898760357768464JJ
contribution0NN

Equity and development Bringing equity to the center of development builds on and integrates the major emphases in development thinking of the past to years on markets on human development on governance and on empowerment

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.482976099191822
WordScorePoS
development0.0124956749436837NN
bring0VB
build0VB
integrate0VB
major0JJ
market0NN
human0.0170753354211044JJ
governance0NN
empowerment0.273513903975916NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.401916307086874
WordScorePoS
development0.0368309542451156NN
bring0VB
build0VB
integrate0VB
major0.0285977592242194JJ
market0NN
human0JJ
governance0.107490825192354NN
empowerment0NN

It is noteworthy that this year equity is the focus of both this World Development Report and the Human Development Report of the United Nations Development Programme

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.421455230115282
WordScorePoS
focus0.0279982034978914NN
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development0NN
report0NN
human0.0205355488872215JJ
unite0.0828215106044499VB
nation0.0671298309154199NN
programme0NN

The plea for more level playing field in both the politics and the economies of developing countries serves to integrate the World Bank twin pillars of building an institutional climate conducive to investment and empowering the poor

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.614787422412072
WordScorePoS
level0.0415277415054218NN
field0NN
economy0.0839946104936743NN
develop0VB
country0NN
serve0VB
integrate0.0201523636533764VB
world0.00351929966767313NN
bank0NN
building0NN
institutional0.0828215106044499JJ
climate0.291881734282273NN
conducive0JJ
investment0NN
empower0VB
poor0JJ

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.391828174001855
WordScorePoS
level0.0138997399903163NN
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economy0NN
develop0VB
country0NN
serve0VB
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world0.00418824502414673NN
bank0.036961556179878NN
building0.149940347231585NN
institutional0.036961556179878JJ
climate0NN
conducive0JJ
investment0.0766240489430275NN
empower0VB
poor0.0153248097886055JJ

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.281578774261534
WordScorePoS
level0.0113874611101829NN
field0NN
economy0NN
develop0VB
country0NN
serve0VB
integrate0VB
world0.00257343720272548NN
bank0NN
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institutional0JJ
climate0.0376648791150643NN
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investment0.0376648791150643NN
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poor0.150659516460257JJ

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.32167043193163
WordScorePoS
level0.00552410547653725NN
field0.0583416713841148NN
economy0NN
develop0VB
country0NN
serve0VB
integrate0VB
world0.0124838525528648NN
bank0.0881366997038154NN
building0NN
institutional0JJ
climate0.0365427838531249NN
conducive0JJ
investment0.0182713919265625NN
empower0VB
poor0.0548141757796873JJ

By ensuring that institutions enforce personal political and property rights for all including those currently excluded countries will be able to draw on much larger pools of investors and innovators and be much more effective in providing services to all their citizens

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.676317210557296
WordScorePoS
ensure0.0220985725470694VB
institution0.274477239401321NN
enforce0.107490825192354VB
personal0JJ
political0JJ
property0NN
rights0NNS
include0VB
country0NN
effective0.0482582488828229JJ
provide0.013214597504793VB
service0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.454427646619709
WordScorePoS
ensure0.0124956749436837VB
institution0NN
enforce0VB
personal0JJ
political0.111637082206855JJ
property0.0558185411034276NN
rights0.078760887431929NNS
include0VB
country0NN
effective0.02046578088155JJ
provide0.0112083245137075VB
service0.022416649027415NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.325752627248395
WordScorePoS
ensure0.0247250190957801VB
institution0NN
enforce0VB
personal0JJ
political0JJ
property0.0736315832425121NN
rights0.0519476926891779NNS
include0VB
country0NN
effective0JJ
provide0.0295703421524739VB
service0.0443555132287109NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.304628015072883
WordScorePoS
ensure0.00886732612541978VB
institution0.0991236547760315NN
enforce0VB
personal0JJ
political0.0792212041430275JJ
property0NN
rights0NNS
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Greater equity can over the long term underpin faster growth

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This can be helped by greater fairness in the global arena not least through the international community meeting its commitments made at Monterrey

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Faster growth and human development in poorer countries are essential to reducing global inequity and to reaching the Millennium Development Goals

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Introduction chapter Nthabiseng and Pieter the hypothetical South African children who opened the report overview are not unusual examples of people who face highly disparate initial opportunities

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A girl born to lowercaste family of nine in the slums of Dhaka has vastly different opportunities from boy born to well educated and affluent parents in the well heeled neighborhoods

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An AIDS orphan in rural Zimbabwe is almost certain to have fewer chances and choices in life than compatriot born to healthy and well educated parents in Harare

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Those differences are even greater across borders an average Swiss American or Japanese child born at the same instant as Nthabiseng will have incomparably superior life chances

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Such staggering inequalities in opportunity are intrinsically objectionable and almost every culture religion and philosophical tradition has developed arguments and beliefs that place great value on equity for its own sake

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In addition Part II of this report will argue that we now have considerable evidence that equity is also instrumental to the pursuit of long term prosperity in aggregate terms for society as whole

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But before one can describe inequity or assess its impact on growth and development clear definition of the term is needed

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This introductory chapter presents our working definition of equity and briefly discusses its main component equality of opportunity

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It then turns from our central normative concepts to one of the report key positive concepts inequality traps

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An inequality trap encapsulates the mutually reinforcing nature of various inequalities which leads to their persistence and to an inferior development trajectory

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Equity and inequality of opportunity the basic concepts What is equity

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As with any normative concept the word equity means different things to different people

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It is difficult concept with history of different interpretations varying by country and academic discipline

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Economists link equity to questions of distribution

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Lawyers tend to think of principles meant to correct the strict application of the law which may lead to an outcome judged to be unfair in specific circumstances

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Philosophers have produced the most headway in the thinking about equity

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Indeed the attributes that would characterize just and fair society lie at the foundation of Western political philosophy from Plato Republic and Aristotle Politics onward

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Equity is also central to most of the world great religions including Buddhism Christianity Hinduism Islam and Judaism as well as to most other faith traditions

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More recently social choice theory and the closely related domain of welfare economics have been concerned with the aggregation of preferences into some form of social optimum

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Summarizing such long standing and nuanced characterizations is perilous but the common denominator of these many different views is that equity relates to fairness whether locally in families and communities or globally across nations

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We do not dwell on the different approaches to equity here but we do elaborate on them in chapter which reviews various categories of evidence in support of the intrinsic importance of equity

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For this report we think of equity as being defined in terms of two basic principles Equal opportunity

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The outcome of person life in its many dimensions Introduction should reflect mostly his or her efforts and talents not his or her background

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Predetermined circumstances gender race place of birth family origins and the social groups person is born into should not help determine whether people succeed economically socially and politically

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Avoidance of absolute deprivation

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An aversion to extreme poverty or indeed Rawlsian form of inequality aversion in the space of outcomes suggests that societies may decide to intervene to protect the livelihoods of its neediest members below some absolute threshold of need even if the equal opportunity principle has been upheld

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The road from opportunities to outcomes can be tortuous

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Outcomes may be low because of bad luck or even because of person own failings

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Societies may decide for insurance or for compassion that its members will not be allowed to starve even if they enjoyed their fair share of the opportunity pie but things somehow turned out badly for them

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The equal opportunity principle is conceptually simple circumstances at birth should not matter for person chances in life

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But to measure inequality of opportunities is much harder

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Chapter briefly discusses one approach which decomposes observed income inequality into one part that can be attributed in statistical sense to predetermined circumstances such as race place of birth and parental background and one part that cannot

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The first component captures lower bound value for the opportunity share of income or earnings inequality

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But it is generally very difficult to measure things like family background precisely years of schooling and broad occupational categories are imperfect proxies for family endowments of human physical and social capital

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superior approach would be to capture the inherently multidimensional and groupbased nature of inequality of opportunity

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How do the factors that determine person chances in life the access to health and educational opportunities the ability to connect to the rest of the world the quality of the services available the way institutions treat them relate to one another

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And how do these factors vary across groups

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Such an approach would require focus not only on the dispersion of univariate distributions such as income inequality or life expectancy but also on the correlations among them how do health outcomes vary across socioeconomic groups

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This is the approach taken in most of chapter which summarizes information on inequalities with emphasis on the plural in the various building blocks of opportunity and on their interrelationships

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.917552661948249
WordScorePoS
approach0NN
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opportunity0.029046330719385NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.237427802510433
WordScorePoS
approach0NN
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In taking this route the report recognizes that predetermined circumstances or membership in prespecified groups affect opportunities in two ways The circumstances of one birth affect the endowments one starts with including all kinds of private assets such as physical wealth including land and financial assets family background the human social and cultural capital of one parents and access to public services and infrastructure sometimes referred to as geographic capital

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.427545933436309
WordScorePoS
report0NN
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birth0NN
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kind0NN
private0.0368585655748969JJ
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land0NN
financial0.0185001613201543JJ
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human0.011275328195446JJ
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.359189351062786
WordScorePoS
report0NN
recognize0.0558185411034276VB
circumstance0NN
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opportunity0.02046578088155NN
birth0NN
include0VB
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private0.0558185411034276JJ
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land0.024255976440725NN
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human0.0170753354211044JJ
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Group membership and initial circumstances also affect how one is treated by the institutions with which one must interact

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.88155392066198
WordScorePoS
circumstance0NN
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Two individuals may both live in areas where formal labor markets exist where courts are agile and where police force is present

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.479950217853733
WordScorePoS
individual0JJ
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.427557276193662
WordScorePoS
individual0JJ
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.357288906345134
WordScorePoS
individual0.064698038783335JJ
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But if these two otherwise identical people because of their gender race religion sexual orientation political beliefs residential address or any other morally irrelevant reason are differently rewarded for the same work in the labor market are discriminated against by the court of law or are treated with bias by the police force then the rules are not being applied fairly

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.665810326780931
WordScorePoS
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.536411054506614
WordScorePoS
people0NNS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.310824274020344
WordScorePoS
people0.00571634317201755NNS
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Therefore these two people do not have the same opportunity sets

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.616161473688818
WordScorePoS
people0.00432344066632653NNS
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Label: 7, with a score of: 0.396585311118665
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.313335573706484
WordScorePoS
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Equity also requires fairness in processes

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.603846657690769
WordScorePoS
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.577432576432965
WordScorePoS
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.323215711279963
WordScorePoS
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Endowments that are less unequal processes that are fair and protection from deprivation are not always mutually consistent

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.574407931860869
WordScorePoS
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.478735048579896
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At the policy level there may be WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT tradeoffs among them

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WordScorePoS
policy0.0641521854453136NN
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WordScorePoS
policy0.0201317944152378NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.378307964016372
WordScorePoS
policy0.0848203862485078NN
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.335436009362452
WordScorePoS
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Indeed some policies or institutions developed to further one of the principles may compromise the other

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.640319212873872
WordScorePoS
policy0.0848203862485078NN
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For example policy of affirmative action that seeks to correct past inequities in the access to educational opportunities for one group to equalize endowments may imply that individuals of greater merit but from another group are excluded creating unfair processes

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.410772385812041
WordScorePoS
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For another example the taxes needed to raise government revenues to make transfers to poor individuals desirable to avoid deprivation expropriate some fruits of the efforts of hardworking men and women

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.458211330432959
WordScorePoS
tax0NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.403982817313081
WordScorePoS
tax0NN
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.487250025911831
WordScorePoS
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Label: 14, with a score of: 0.310096605819331
WordScorePoS
tax0NN
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This might be seen as violating property rights or the rights to appropriate the fruits of one own labor again creating unfair processes

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.650191647433632
WordScorePoS
property0.0558185411034276NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.554328806806663
WordScorePoS
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.335879990389671
WordScorePoS
property0NN
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.303707118857561
WordScorePoS
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Whenever such tradeoffs exist which is most of the time no textbook policy prescription can be provided

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.63437116706035
WordScorePoS
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.540539626573548
WordScorePoS
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.307269350827308
WordScorePoS
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Each society must decide the relative weights it ascribes to each of the principles of equity and to the efficient expansion of total production or other aggregate

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.673312815990951
WordScorePoS
society0NN
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Label: 11, with a score of: 0.359053781575163
WordScorePoS
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This report will not prescribe what is equitable for any society

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.673459881577972
WordScorePoS
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.336138341005359
WordScorePoS
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.306579180331413
WordScorePoS
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That is prerogative of its members to be undertaken through decision making processes they regard as fair

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.700226013361923
WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.395400733471472
WordScorePoS
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.314622844030577
WordScorePoS
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Label: 15, with a score of: 0.301962443397963
WordScorePoS
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Inequality traps If people care about equity and if political systems aggregate people views into social preferences why don the distributions we observe represent optimal choices

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.865790962195663
WordScorePoS
inequality0.635305170773079NN
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Why do inequalities of opportunity persist if they are both unfair and inimical to long term prosperity

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.956318004704043
WordScorePoS
inequality0.635305170773079NN
opportunity0.029046330719385NN
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.190281722421517
WordScorePoS
inequality0NN
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And how do these inequalities reproduce themselves

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.998828889740146
WordScorePoS
inequality0.635305170773079NN

The short answer is that political systems do not always assign equal weights to everyone preferences

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.764125669555742
WordScorePoS
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equal0.114211783066808JJ

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.336586707720557
WordScorePoS
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.317600194859507
WordScorePoS
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.303190659592452
WordScorePoS
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Policies and institutions do not arise from benign social planner who aims to maximize the present value of social welfare

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.455026562513864
WordScorePoS
policy0.0201317944152378NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.597053111877052
WordScorePoS
policy0.0848203862485078NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.418621250866435
WordScorePoS
policy0.0450489732120807NN
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.352502973411978
WordScorePoS
policy0.0452169560888236NN
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They are the outcomes of political economy processes in which different groups seek to protect their own interests

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.68141854129973
WordScorePoS
outcome0.0465610847355851NN
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.369559331920483
WordScorePoS
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.314499787676352
WordScorePoS
outcome0NN
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Some groups have more power than others and their views prevail

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.883785011504009
WordScorePoS
power0.036961556179878NN
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.467893207303609
WordScorePoS
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When the interests of dominant groups are aligned with broader collective goals these decisions are for the common good

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.713225579329313
WordScorePoS
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When they are not the outcomes need be neither fair nor efficient

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.745563618514595
WordScorePoS
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.31993541015476
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.302807068709422
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Figure

Label: 9, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
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The interaction of political economic and sociocultural inequalities Political inequalities Institutions Sociocultural inequalities Economic inequalities The interaction of political economic and sociocultural inequalities shapes the institutions and rules in all societies

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.954295594550277
WordScorePoS
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.200694022022352
WordScorePoS
political0JJ
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.127387980489099
WordScorePoS
political0JJ
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The way these institutions function affects people opportunities and their ability to invest and prosper

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.705115046134613
WordScorePoS
institution0.274477239401321NN
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.353983567576972
WordScorePoS
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.340928568169311
WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.307000227017827
WordScorePoS
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Unequal economic opportunities lead to unequal outcomes and reinforce unequal political power

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.434818039096204
WordScorePoS
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.508495793486172
WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.494649885757799
WordScorePoS
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.358937031599134
WordScorePoS
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Unequal power shapes institutions and policies that tend to foster the persistence of the initial conditions figure

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.622380333647735
WordScorePoS
power0NN
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.43918495536055
WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.388593493357198
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.344485941784904
WordScorePoS
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.343137214561015
WordScorePoS
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Consider the status of women in patriarchal societies

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.74810037966376
WordScorePoS
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.347084031981751
WordScorePoS
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.305635461756251
WordScorePoS
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Women are often denied property and inheritance rights

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.80960571971924
WordScorePoS
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.497593401140031
WordScorePoS
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They also have their freedom of movement restricted by social norms that create separate inside and outside spheres of activity for women and men

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.625655460033534
WordScorePoS
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.411342588444721
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.381444135314564
WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.341652563873531
WordScorePoS
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These social inequalities have economic consequences girls are less likely to be sent to school women are less likely to work outside the home women generally earn less than men

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.677176899760164
WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.582807646867466
WordScorePoS
social0.101310366625194JJ
inequality0.635305170773079NN
economic0.103276847978089JJ
girl0NN
school0NN
woman0.0242343960710022NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.309047272325903
WordScorePoS
social0JJ
inequality0NN
economic0JJ
girl0.140824109342254NN
school0.208127520578185NN
woman0.0610612445035112NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.176676921912645
WordScorePoS
social0.0504071033101074JJ
inequality0NN
economic0.128463821595706JJ
girl0NN
school0NN
woman0.0452169560888236NN

This reduces the options for women outside marriage and increases their economic dependence on men

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.745687483442269
WordScorePoS
reduce0VB
woman0.221979360474357NN
marriage0.0911713013253052NN
increase0.00402768349408688NN
economic0.0727679293221751JJ

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.356270011286173
WordScorePoS
reduce0.0055149369084567VB
woman0.0452169560888236NN
marriage0NN
increase0.00711043475673939NN
economic0.128463821595706JJ

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.308652085323714
WordScorePoS
reduce0.0310356414389692VB
woman0.0242343960710022NN
marriage0NN
increase0.00285817158600878NN
economic0.103276847978089JJ

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.301227059184594
WordScorePoS
reduce0.0164833460638534VB
woman0.0450489732120807NN
marriage0NN
increase0NN
economic0.0959899298575892JJ

The inequalities also have political consequences women are less likely to participate in important decisions within and outside the home

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.882459964539009
WordScorePoS
inequality0.635305170773079NN
political0.0792212041430275JJ
woman0.0242343960710022NN
decision0.02794560829783NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.429310134930919
WordScorePoS
inequality0NN
political0.111637082206855JJ
woman0.221979360474357NN
decision0.0393804437159645NN

These unequal social and economic structures tend to be readily reproduced

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.471711295832959
WordScorePoS
social0.0504071033101074JJ
economic0.128463821595706JJ
structure0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.551125796751053
WordScorePoS
social0.112994637345193JJ
economic0.0959899298575892JJ
structure0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.539529273201817
WordScorePoS
social0.101310366625194JJ
economic0.103276847978089JJ
structure0NN

If woman has not been educated and has grown up to believe that good decent women abide by existing social norms she is likely to transmit this belief to her daughters and to enforce such behavior among her daughters in law

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.673241519683526
WordScorePoS
woman0.221979360474357NN
educate0VB
grow0VB
decent0.0393804437159645JJ
exist0VB
social0.0285529457667019JJ
enforce0VB
law0.0465610847355851NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.379320128199637
WordScorePoS
woman0.0452169560888236NN
educate0VB
grow0VB
decent0.173804667214358JJ
exist0VB
social0.0504071033101074JJ
enforce0VB
law0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.328122342846659
WordScorePoS
woman0NN
educate0VB
grow0VB
decent0JJ
exist0VB
social0JJ
enforce0.107490825192354VB
law0.164686343640793NN

An inequality trap may thus prevent generations of women from getting educated restrict their participation in the labor market and reduce their ability to make free informed choices and to realize their potential as individuals

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.801869608295925
WordScorePoS
inequality0.635305170773079NN
prevent0VB
generation0NN
woman0.0242343960710022NN
educate0VB
participation0NN
market0.0202620733250388NN
reduce0.0310356414389692VB
ability0NN
free0JJ
choice0NN
realize0VB
potential0NN
individual0.064698038783335JJ

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.277659077478802
WordScorePoS
inequality0NN
prevent0VB
generation0NN
woman0.221979360474357NN
educate0VB
participation0.0465610847355851NN
market0NN
reduce0VB
ability0NN
free0JJ
choice0NN
realize0VB
potential0NN
individual0JJ

This Introduction reinforces gender differences in power that tend to persist over time

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.647175600569955
WordScorePoS
introduction0NN
reinforce0VB
gender0.196902218579822NN
power0NN
persist0VB
time0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.360415388502679
WordScorePoS
introduction0NN
reinforce0VB
gender0NN
power0NN
persist0.0488696285210061VB
time0.0607862199751165NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.347144111156963
WordScorePoS
introduction0NN
reinforce0VB
gender0.10561808200669NN
power0NN
persist0VB
time0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.31243934604527
WordScorePoS
introduction0NN
reinforce0.036961556179878VB
gender0.0211360962287062NN
power0.036961556179878NN
persist0VB
time0NN

Similarly the unequal distribution of power between the rich and the poor between dominant and subordinate groups helps the rich maintain control over resources

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.650169837746917
WordScorePoS
power0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
dominant0JJ
help0NN
maintain0VB
control0.0614198493690006NN
resource0.0739147683583536NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.406494614661935
WordScorePoS
power0NN
poor0.0548141757796873JJ
dominant0JJ
help0NN
maintain0.0881366997038154VB
control0NN
resource0.0358563662904843NN

Consider an agricultural laborer working for powerful landlord

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.966028319995684
WordScorePoS
agricultural0.250032943963815JJ

Illiteracy and malnourishment may prevent him from breaking out of the cycle of poverty

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.808840298592692
WordScorePoS
prevent0VB
cycle0NN
poverty0.269969049497485NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.361569712979188
WordScorePoS
prevent0VB
cycle0.108503934593034NN
poverty0.0121782716594324NN

But he is also likely to be heavily indebted to his employer which puts him under the landlord control

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.529095226742259
WordScorePoS
heavily0RB
indebted0JJ
employer0NN
control0.0614198493690006NN

Even if laws were in place that would allow him to challenge his landlord dictates being illiterate he would find it difficult to navigate the political and judicial institutions that might help him assert his rights

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.76686363947199
WordScorePoS
law0.164686343640793NN
challenge0NN
political0JJ
institution0.274477239401321NN
rights0NNS

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.413775845402792
WordScorePoS
law0.0465610847355851NN
challenge0NN
political0.111637082206855JJ
institution0NN
rights0.078760887431929NNS

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.369120534438031
WordScorePoS
law0.0330412182586772NN
challenge0NN
political0.0792212041430275JJ
institution0.0991236547760315NN
rights0NNS

In many parts of the world this distance between landlords and laborers is compounded by entrenched social structures landlords typically belong to dominant group defined by race or caste tenants and laborers to subordinate group

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.709417461730882
WordScorePoS
world0.00257343720272548NN
social0.112994637345193JJ
structure0NN
typically0RB
belong0.120266261535276VB
dominant0JJ
race0NN

Because members of these groups often face severe constraints from social norms against intermarrying group based inequalities are perpetuated across generations

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.933977190281674
WordScorePoS
constraint0NN
social0.101310366625194JJ
base0NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
generation0NN

Poor individuals in geographically isolated regions and racial and ethnic minorities also have less political power and less voice in many countries

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.715616082045638
WordScorePoS
poor0.150659516460257JJ
individual0JJ
region0.184259548107002NN
political0JJ
power0NN
voice0NN
country0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.445749130396619
WordScorePoS
poor0JJ
individual0.064698038783335JJ
region0NN
political0.0792212041430275JJ
power0NN
voice0.064698038783335NN
country0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.338019433323169
WordScorePoS
poor0JJ
individual0JJ
region0.0465610847355851NN
political0.111637082206855JJ
power0NN
voice0NN
country0NN

This affects their ability to propose and implement policies that would reduce their disadvantage even if such policies might be growth enhancing for the country

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.598911035793694
WordScorePoS
affect0VB
ability0.0607878664258118NN
implement0.030144637392549VB
policy0.0452169560888236NN
reduce0.0055149369084567VB
growth0.208565600657229NN
enhance0.0123650647908625VB
country0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.491269954758899
WordScorePoS
affect0VB
ability0NN
implement0.0121171980355011VB
policy0.0848203862485078NN
reduce0.0310356414389692VB
growth0.11178243319132NN
enhance0.00994073584907126VB
country0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.353249204730698
WordScorePoS
affect0.0184786920895884VB
ability0NN
implement0.0450489732120807VB
policy0.0450489732120807NN
reduce0.0164833460638534VB
growth0.0519476926891779NN
enhance0.0184786920895884VB
country0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.348980183351444
WordScorePoS
affect0VB
ability0NN
implement0.0458229896037954VB
policy0.0641521854453136NN
reduce0.00335331148065841VB
growth0NN
enhance0.0601477977507998VB
country0NN

The correlations between the unequal distribution of assets opportunities and political power give rise to circular flow of mutually reinforcing patterns of inequality

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.917612342568575
WordScorePoS
asset0.0488696285210061NN
opportunity0.029046330719385NN
political0.0792212041430275JJ
power0NN
rise0.0237821918091848NN
flow0.0488696285210061NN
mutually0RB
reinforce0VB
pattern0NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN

Such flow and its associated feedback loops help inequalities persist over long periods even if they are inefficient and deemed unfair by majority of the population

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.974206909644936
WordScorePoS
flow0.0488696285210061NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
persist0.0488696285210061VB
period0NN
inefficient0JJ
majority0.0792212041430275NN
population0.0860640399817412NN

Economic and political inequalities are themselves embedded in unequal social and cultural institutions

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.897884824421289
WordScorePoS
economic0.103276847978089JJ
political0.0792212041430275JJ
inequality0.635305170773079NN
social0.101310366625194JJ
cultural0JJ
institution0.0991236547760315NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.242034898338479
WordScorePoS
economic0JJ
political0JJ
inequality0NN
social0JJ
cultural0JJ
institution0.274477239401321NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.19397039784931
WordScorePoS
economic0.128463821595706JJ
political0JJ
inequality0NN
social0.0504071033101074JJ
cultural0JJ
institution0.0410992516792148NN

The social networks that the poor have access to are substantially different from those the rich can tap into

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.823640544692376
WordScorePoS
social0.112994637345193JJ
poor0.150659516460257JJ
access0.00514687440545096NN
substantially0RB

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.314669821826401
WordScorePoS
social0.101310366625194JJ
poor0JJ
access0.00138439773401932NN
substantially0RB

For instance poor person social network may be geared primarily toward survival with limited access to networks that would link him or her to better jobs and opportunities

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.714863357733807
WordScorePoS
poor0.150659516460257JJ
person0.0442083771593746NN
social0.112994637345193JJ
primarily0RB
limited0.120266261535276JJ
access0.00514687440545096NN
job0.0225244866060403NN
opportunity0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.400270435590314
WordScorePoS
poor0JJ
person0.0295821503613099NN
social0.0504071033101074JJ
primarily0RB
limited0JJ
access0.00344404437204141NN
job0.135650868266471NN
opportunity0.0361300980868102NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.333485114095946
WordScorePoS
poor0.0229054731708393JJ
person0.107539312031977NN
social0.0458109463416786JJ
primarily0RB
limited0JJ
access0.00626002771693937NN
job0.0136980135278128NN
opportunity0.0164178645080222NN

The rich by contrast are bequeathed with much more economically productive social networks that maintain economic rank

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.583259845466399
WordScorePoS
economically0RB
productive0.0985415302158139JJ
social0.0504071033101074JJ
maintain0VB
economic0.128463821595706JJ

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.439390172002605
WordScorePoS
economically0RB
productive0JJ
social0.112994637345193JJ
maintain0VB
economic0.0959899298575892JJ

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.430144735648566
WordScorePoS
economically0RB
productive0JJ
social0.101310366625194JJ
maintain0VB
economic0.103276847978089JJ

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.33550586368085
WordScorePoS
economically0RB
productive0.0714379839896614JJ
social0JJ
maintain0.0881366997038154VB
economic0JJ

Rich parents can use their social connections to ensure that their child gets into good school or they can call few good friends to make sure that their son gets good job

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.591302758576163
WordScorePoS
social0JJ
ensure0.0390988676729552VB
child0.076326555629389NN
school0.208127520578185NN
job0.0152653111258778NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.403619051504378
WordScorePoS
social0.0504071033101074JJ
ensure0VB
child0.0452169560888236NN
school0NN
job0.135650868266471NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.358275813557931
WordScorePoS
social0.112994637345193JJ
ensure0.0247250190957801VB
child0.0450489732120807NN
school0NN
job0.0225244866060403NN

Conversely poor parents are more subject to chance

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.805228537293071
WordScorePoS
poor0.150659516460257JJ
chance0NN

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.343134999407587
WordScorePoS
poor0.0642010940957526JJ
chance0NN

Connections open doors and reduce constraints

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.726383835245156
WordScorePoS
reduce0VB
constraint0.0602029956716497NN

Social networks are closely allied with culture

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.513504094671719
WordScorePoS
social0.112994637345193JJ
culture0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.460404929977356
WordScorePoS
social0.101310366625194JJ
culture0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.415850602112666
WordScorePoS
social0.0504071033101074JJ
culture0.0410992516792148NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.378334181309065
WordScorePoS
social0JJ
culture0.0832510082312742NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.377933036586892
WordScorePoS
social0.0458109463416786JJ
culture0.0373517915079663NN

By culture we mean aspects of life that deal with relationships among individuals within groups among groups and between ideas and perspectives

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.550455333869071
WordScorePoS
culture0.0373517915079663NN
aspect0NN
life0.0112376090361851NN
individual0JJ
idea0.0731385760866977NN
perspective0NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.473262727042371
WordScorePoS
culture0NN
aspect0.0414107553022249NN
life0.00842350130803634NN
individual0JJ
idea0NN
perspective0.0548233071065585NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.433092959599484
WordScorePoS
culture0.0832510082312742NN
aspect0NN
life0.0125233923809486NN
individual0JJ
idea0NN
perspective0NN

Subordinate groups may face adverse terms of recognition the framework within which they negotiate their interactions with other social groups

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.476101470959901
WordScorePoS
adverse0JJ
term0.149793392961411NN
framework0.0130185595639838NN
negotiate0VB
social0JJ

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.423989522354254
WordScorePoS
adverse0JJ
term0NN
framework0.0319966432858631NN
negotiate0VB
social0.112994637345193JJ

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.41208694721066
WordScorePoS
adverse0JJ
term0.0396106020715138NN
framework0NN
negotiate0VB
social0.101310366625194JJ

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.328357571742743
WordScorePoS
adverse0.0664302389559493JJ
term0NN
framework0.028867295332595NN
negotiate0VB
social0.0169905820958638JJ

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.321805660872511
WordScorePoS
adverse0.04477822029736JJ
term0NN
framework0.0194583992186006NN
negotiate0VB
social0.0458109463416786JJ

One obvious expression is explicit discrimination that can lead to an explicit denial of opportunities and to rational choice to invest less at the margin

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.538467820350002
WordScorePoS
discrimination0.111637082206855NN
lead0NN
opportunity0.02046578088155NN
choice0NN
invest0VB

But the process may also be less overt

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.754215458490058
WordScorePoS
process0.0737171311497939NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.571091222812535
WordScorePoS
process0.0558185411034276NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.32405841664909
WordScorePoS
process0.0316735178673487NN

A person born into low social class or socially excluded group may adopt the dominant group value system

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.501294742561674
WordScorePoS
person0.0442083771593746NN
bear0NN
social0.112994637345193JJ
class0NN
socially0RB
adopt0VB
dominant0JJ
system0.0519476926891779NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.498170331881226
WordScorePoS
person0.107539312031977NN
bear0NN
social0.0458109463416786JJ
class0NN
socially0RB
adopt0.0229054731708393VB
dominant0JJ
system0.0315914058171786NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.416227510059225
WordScorePoS
person0.0214456704626236NN
bear0NN
social0JJ
class0.0583416713841148NN
socially0RB
adopt0.0182713919265625VB
dominant0JJ
system0.0756001353333673NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.348387598998104
WordScorePoS
person0.0237821918091848NN
bear0NN
social0.101310366625194JJ
class0NN
socially0RB
adopt0.0202620733250388VB
dominant0JJ
system0NN

Religious beliefs may propel this women may take on gendered beliefs about their economic and social role and low castes may absorb the upper castes view of their inferior status

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.558134333306595
WordScorePoS
woman0.221979360474357NN
economic0.0727679293221751JJ
social0.0285529457667019JJ
absorb0VB
view0NN
status0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.386857559330689
WordScorePoS
woman0.0452169560888236NN
economic0.128463821595706JJ
social0.0504071033101074JJ
absorb0VB
view0NN
status0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.479396541061388
WordScorePoS
woman0.0242343960710022NN
economic0.103276847978089JJ
social0.101310366625194JJ
absorb0VB
view0NN
status0.0488696285210061NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.438554708968752
WordScorePoS
woman0.0450489732120807NN
economic0.0959899298575892JJ
social0.112994637345193JJ
absorb0VB
view0NN
status0NN

In schools stigmatized group may face stereotype threat adopting the dominant group view of their ability to perform in cognitive tests or in occupations historically controlled by dominant groups

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.518684908117797
WordScorePoS
school0.208127520578185NN
threat0NN
adopt0VB
dominant0JJ
view0NN
ability0NN
control0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.419269771161951
WordScorePoS
school0.0931221694711702NN
threat0NN
adopt0.0285529457667019VB
dominant0JJ
view0NN
ability0NN
control0.0465610847355851NN

This can affect discriminated group capacity to aspire

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.48686955979153
WordScorePoS
affect0.0336940052321454VB
capacity0.025270503924109NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.459434248257075
WordScorePoS
affect0.0397441667210336VB
capacity0.0158976666884135NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.409111798079207
WordScorePoS
affect0.033031539117106VB
capacity0.016515769558553NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.372479974382891
WordScorePoS
affect0VB
capacity0.0451108483130998NN

It also implies that voice the capacity of individuals to influence the decisions that shape their lives is also unequally distributed and that effort and ability are not necessarily exogenous predetermined

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.692734530628861
WordScorePoS
voice0.064698038783335NN
capacity0NN
individual0.064698038783335JJ
influence0NN
decision0.02794560829783NN
life0NN
unequally0RB
distribute0.064698038783335VB
effort0NN
ability0NN

The existence of these inequality traps with mutually reinforcing inequalities in the economic political social and cultural domains has two main implications for this analysis

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.967007806982888
WordScorePoS
inequality0.635305170773079NN
mutually0RB
reinforce0VB
economic0.103276847978089JJ
political0.0792212041430275JJ
social0.101310366625194JJ
cultural0JJ

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.111276050730131
WordScorePoS
inequality0NN
mutually0RB
reinforce0VB
economic0.128463821595706JJ
political0JJ
social0.0504071033101074JJ
cultural0JJ

The first implication is that because of market failures and of the ways in which institutions evolve inequality traps can affect not only the distribution but also the aggregate dynamics of growth and development

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.867256134678989
WordScorePoS
market0.0202620733250388NN
institution0.0991236547760315NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
affect0VB
growth0.11178243319132NN
development0.0177346522508396NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.337738123778439
WordScorePoS
market0NN
institution0.274477239401321NN
inequality0NN
affect0.033031539117106VB
growth0NN
development0.0368309542451156NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.275007890417656
WordScorePoS
market0.0252035516550537NN
institution0.0410992516792148NN
inequality0NN
affect0VB
growth0.208565600657229NN
development0.0055149369084567NN

This in turn means that in the long run equity and efficiency may be complements not substitutes

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.591386807947274
WordScorePoS
means0NNS
efficiency0.134992154141495NN
complement0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.526874179950848
WordScorePoS
means0.120266261535276NNS
efficiency0NN
complement0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.428741404723899
WordScorePoS
means0NNS
efficiency0NN
complement0.0978661089756501NN

Capital land and labor markets in developing countries are imperfect

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.648709895532521
WordScorePoS
land0.0465651203624806NN
market0.0913569596328122NN
develop0VB
country0NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.582633989135823
WordScorePoS
land0.123873694868802NN
market0NN
develop0VB
country0NN

Informational WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT asymmetries and contract enforcement problems imply that some people with good project ideas and thus potentially high marginal product of capital end up constrained in their access to capital

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

This even as other people earn lower return on their more abundant capital

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.856464881097942
WordScorePoS
people0NNS
return0.107490825192354NN

In agriculture land market failures mean that some farmers exert too little effort on some plots where they are sharecropping and too much effort on other plots which they own

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.809194447184796
WordScorePoS
agriculture0.148975141598503NN
land0.0465651203624806NN
market0.0913569596328122NN
farmer0.175025014152344NN
exert0VB
effort0NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.423098976402555
WordScorePoS
agriculture0.0528409850971592NN
land0.123873694868802NN
market0NN
farmer0NN
exert0VB
effort0.032404008418326NN

Investment in human capital can also be allocated inefficiently because of intrahousehold disputes because creditconstrained households lack the resources to keep their children healthy and in school or because discrimination in the labor market reduces the expected returns to schooling for some groups

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.386563621331261
WordScorePoS
investment0NN
human0.0152653111258778JJ
household0NN
lack0.0255262687343935NN
resource0NN
child0.076326555629389NN
healthy0JJ
school0.208127520578185NN
discrimination0NN
market0NN
reduce0VB
expect0VB
return0NN
schooling0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.382793196581424
WordScorePoS
investment0.0376648791150643NN
human0JJ
household0NN
lack0.0753297582301286NN
resource0.0739147683583536NN
child0.0450489732120807NN
healthy0JJ
school0NN
discrimination0.0736315832425121NN
market0NN
reduce0.0164833460638534VB
expect0VB
return0NN
schooling0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.372588859742458
WordScorePoS
investment0NN
human0.0170753354211044JJ
household0.0465610847355851NN
lack0NN
resource0.0280166088658745NN
child0.0170753354211044NN
healthy0JJ
school0.0931221694711702NN
discrimination0.111637082206855NN
market0NN
reduce0VB
expect0VB
return0NN
schooling0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.360627404232977
WordScorePoS
investment0.0182713919265625NN
human0JJ
household0.0297950283197006NN
lack0NN
resource0.0358563662904843NN
child0.0546336178945768NN
healthy0JJ
school0.0297950283197006NN
discrimination0NN
market0.0913569596328122NN
reduce0.00799614078871077VB
expect0.0357189919948307VB
return0NN
schooling0NN

What do such diverse market failures have in common

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.646116125319817
WordScorePoS
market0.0913569596328122NN
common0JJ

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.435288240362618
WordScorePoS
market0NN
common0.0615471563780609JJ

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.390717951223203
WordScorePoS
market0NN
common0.055245183797332JJ

They cause differences in initial endowments such as family wealth race or gender to make investment less efficient

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.684199015973253
WordScorePoS
family0.0465610847355851NN
race0NN
gender0.196902218579822NN
investment0NN
efficient0JJ

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.378605129560738
WordScorePoS
family0NN
race0.036961556179878NN
gender0.0211360962287062NN
investment0.0766240489430275NN
efficient0JJ

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.304925975565213
WordScorePoS
family0NN
race0NN
gender0NN
investment0NN
efficient0.108503934593034JJ

There also are political and institutional reasons why equity and efficiency are longterm complements

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.488190985593944
WordScorePoS
political0JJ
institutional0JJ
efficiency0.134992154141495NN
complement0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.487596121094675
WordScorePoS
political0JJ
institutional0.036961556179878JJ
efficiency0NN
complement0.0978661089756501NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.403728776224069
WordScorePoS
political0.111637082206855JJ
institutional0JJ
efficiency0NN
complement0NN

Markets are not the only institutions in society

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.850486367624284
WordScorePoS
market0NN
institution0.274477239401321NN
society0.118536858482514NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.309816784742382
WordScorePoS
market0.0202620733250388NN
institution0.0991236547760315NN
society0.0237821918091848NN

The functioning of states legal systems and regulatory agencies indeed of all the institutions that assign and enforce property rights and mediate conflicts among citizens is influenced by the distribution of political power or influence or voice in society

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.731968736769133
WordScorePoS
function0NN
legal0.0811931365363091JJ
system0NN
agency0NN
institution0.274477239401321NN
enforce0.107490825192354VB
property0NN
rights0NNS
conflict0.0658099748168827NN
influence0NN
political0JJ
power0NN
voice0NN
society0.118536858482514NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.367155637100383
WordScorePoS
function0NN
legal0JJ
system0.0519476926891779NN
agency0NN
institution0NN
enforce0VB
property0.0736315832425121NN
rights0.0519476926891779NNS
conflict0.147263166485024NN
influence0NN
political0JJ
power0NN
voice0NN
society0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.316217811255122
WordScorePoS
function0NN
legal0JJ
system0NN
agency0NN
institution0NN
enforce0VB
property0.0558185411034276NN
rights0.078760887431929NNS
conflict0NN
influence0NN
political0.111637082206855JJ
power0NN
voice0NN
society0.0335134328085675NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.301629652951283
WordScorePoS
function0NN
legal0JJ
system0NN
agency0NN
institution0.0991236547760315NN
enforce0VB
property0NN
rights0NNS
conflict0NN
influence0NN
political0.0792212041430275JJ
power0NN
voice0.064698038783335NN
society0.0237821918091848NN

Unequal distributions of control over resources and of political influence perpetuate institutions that protect the interests of the most powerful sometimes to the detriment of the personal and property rights of others

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.492274806874046
WordScorePoS
control0NN
resource0NN
political0JJ
influence0NN
institution0.274477239401321NN
protect0.0241291244414115VB
personal0JJ
property0NN
rights0NNS

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.528853112697778
WordScorePoS
control0.0465610847355851NN
resource0.0280166088658745NN
political0.111637082206855JJ
influence0NN
institution0NN
protect0VB
personal0JJ
property0.0558185411034276NN
rights0.078760887431929NNS

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.430135965486013
WordScorePoS
control0.0614198493690006NN
resource0.0739147683583536NN
political0JJ
influence0NN
institution0NN
protect0VB
personal0JJ
property0.0736315832425121NN
rights0.0519476926891779NNS

Those whose rights are not protected have little incentive to invest perpetuating poverty and reproducing inequality

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.867017188066005
WordScorePoS
rights0NNS
protect0VB
incentive0NN
invest0VB
poverty0.05809266143877NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.402521230433809
WordScorePoS
rights0.0519476926891779NNS
protect0VB
incentive0NN
invest0VB
poverty0.269969049497485NN
inequality0NN

Conversely good institutions that protect and enforce personal and property rights for all citizens have led to higher sustained economic growth and long term prosperity

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.546819732771436
WordScorePoS
institution0.0410992516792148NN
protect0.0180650490434051VB
enforce0VB
personal0JJ
property0NN
rights0.0347609334428716NNS
lead0.0504071033101074NN
sustained0JJ
economic0.128463821595706JJ
growth0.208565600657229NN
term0NN
prosperity0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.461320310347523
WordScorePoS
institution0.274477239401321NN
protect0.0241291244414115VB
enforce0.107490825192354VB
personal0JJ
property0NN
rights0NNS
lead0NN
sustained0JJ
economic0JJ
growth0NN
term0NN
prosperity0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.198551376269393
WordScorePoS
institution0.0249900578719309NN
protect0VB
enforce0VB
personal0JJ
property0NN
rights0NNS
lead0NN
sustained0JJ
economic0JJ
growth0NN
term0.149793392961411NN
prosperity0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.401904147981749
WordScorePoS
institution0.0991236547760315NN
protect0VB
enforce0VB
personal0JJ
property0NN
rights0NNS
lead0NN
sustained0JJ
economic0.103276847978089JJ
growth0.11178243319132NN
term0.0396106020715138NN
prosperity0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.310711090591843
WordScorePoS
institution0NN
protect0VB
enforce0VB
personal0JJ
property0.0736315832425121NN
rights0.0519476926891779NNS
lead0NN
sustained0JJ
economic0.0959899298575892JJ
growth0.0519476926891779NN
term0NN
prosperity0NN

Equity can once again help societies grow and develop

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.703954252370548
WordScorePoS
society0.118536858482514NN
grow0VB
develop0VB

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.381895732621053
WordScorePoS
society0.0237821918091848NN
grow0.0405241466500776VB
develop0VB

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.351358738669139
WordScorePoS
society0.0591643007226199NN
grow0VB
develop0VB

This does not mean of course that efficiency equity tradeoffs have somehow been abolished

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.805832436934653
WordScorePoS
efficiency0.134992154141495NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.320976676133973
WordScorePoS
efficiency0.0537696560159885NN

In some cases equity enhancements bring immediate as well as long run benefits for efficiency

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.610041549825878
WordScorePoS
bring0VB
benefit0NN
efficiency0.134992154141495NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.573509587204868
WordScorePoS
bring0.0731385760866977VB
benefit0NN
efficiency0.0537696560159885NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.317528197458138
WordScorePoS
bring0VB
benefit0.0260040237236563NN
efficiency0.0442597400933733NN

If we reduce discrimination against women in one segment of the labor market such as management and if this brings new pool of talent into that segment efficiency is likely to increase even in the short run

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.580174536882918
WordScorePoS
reduce0VB
discrimination0.111637082206855NN
woman0.221979360474357NN
market0NN
management0NN
bring0VB
efficiency0NN
increase0.00402768349408688NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.27424860059211
WordScorePoS
reduce0.00838876601975825VB
discrimination0NN
woman0NN
market0NN
management0NN
bring0VB
efficiency0.134992154141495NN
increase0.0162235147372888NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.423217842858121
WordScorePoS
reduce0.0200483235258943VB
discrimination0NN
woman0.0273960270556257NN
market0NN
management0.0687164195125178NN
bring0.0731385760866977VB
efficiency0.0537696560159885NN
increase0.00323105002784081NN

In other cases however expanding the opportunity sets for the disadvantaged may require more costly redistribution

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.617432010100393
WordScorePoS
expand0.0295821503613099VB
opportunity0.0361300980868102NN
set0NN
disadvantaged0JJ
require0.104282800328615VB

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.432223004695893
WordScorePoS
expand0VB
opportunity0NN
set0.0978661089756501NN
disadvantaged0JJ
require0.0211360962287062VB

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.363041881316383
WordScorePoS
expand0.0449973847138318VB
opportunity0.0549574626423028NN
set0NN
disadvantaged0JJ
require0VB

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.340485060677719
WordScorePoS
expand0VB
opportunity0.029046330719385NN
set0NN
disadvantaged0.064698038783335JJ
require0VB

To finance better quality schooling for those who have the least educated parents and who attend the worst schools it may be necessary to raise taxes on other people

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.67707932949921
WordScorePoS
finance0NN
quality0.076326555629389NN
schooling0NN
educate0VB
attend0VB
worst0JJS
school0.208127520578185NN
raise0NN
tax0NN
people0.00720147981137839NNS

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.315930094893452
WordScorePoS
finance0NN
quality0NN
schooling0NN
educate0VB
attend0VB
worst0JJS
school0.0548954478802642NN
raise0NN
tax0.0811931365363091NN
people0NNS

The basic economic insight that such taxation distorts incentives remains valid

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.446921653488755
WordScorePoS
basic0.0214106369326177JJ
economic0.128463821595706JJ
taxation0NN
incentive0NN
remains0NNS

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.477065700981508
WordScorePoS
basic0.0639932865717261JJ
economic0.0959899298575892JJ
taxation0NN
incentive0NN
remains0NNS

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.374413141686129
WordScorePoS
basic0.0480507272610562JJ
economic0.0320338181740375JJ
taxation0NN
incentive0NN
remains0.0454743001434393NNS

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.333940940599307
WordScorePoS
basic0.0144336476662975JJ
economic0.0433009429988926JJ
taxation0.0542519672965169NN
incentive0NN
remains0NNS

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.307968816826461
WordScorePoS
basic0JJ
economic0.103276847978089JJ
taxation0NN
incentive0NN
remains0NNS

Such policies should be implemented only to the extent that the present value of the longrun benefits of greater equity exceed the efficiency costs of funding them

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.329964036408825
WordScorePoS
policy0NN
implement0VB
extent0NN
benefit0NN
exceed0VB
efficiency0.134992154141495NN
cost0NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.455080022038524
WordScorePoS
policy0.0102677744436108NN
implement0.0102677744436108VB
extent0.0548233071065585NN
benefit0NN
exceed0.0828215106044499VB
efficiency0NN
cost0.0279982034978914NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.398473114390681
WordScorePoS
policy0.0848203862485078NN
implement0.0121171980355011VB
extent0NN
benefit0NN
exceed0VB
efficiency0NN
cost0.0660824365173543NN

The point is that some of these longterm benefits of pursuing greater equity are ignored in the conceptual calculus of policy design

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.524853521608821
WordScorePoS
benefit0.0446918591208085NN
pursue0.0517339898971162VB
policy0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.461684069989098
WordScorePoS
benefit0NN
pursue0VB
policy0.0848203862485078NN

The fact that better schooled children who are poor and from racial minority will be more productive is usually taken into account

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.559200672845449
WordScorePoS
school0.208127520578185NN
child0.076326555629389NN
poor0JJ
productive0JJ
account0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.384738093984901
WordScorePoS
school0NN
child0.0450489732120807NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
productive0JJ
account0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.414171770826352
WordScorePoS
school0.0297950283197006NN
child0.0546336178945768NN
poor0.0548141757796873JJ
productive0.0714379839896614JJ
account0NN

But the fact that they may acquire greater political voice and help make social institutions more inclusive which in turn may increase the stake of that group in society potentially leading to greater trust less conflict and more investment may not be

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.611620166482035
WordScorePoS
acquire0NN
political0JJ
voice0NN
social0JJ
institution0.274477239401321NN
inclusive0.0857932776726581JJ
increase0NN
society0.118536858482514NN
potentially0RB
lead0NN
conflict0.0658099748168827NN
investment0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.370508418611332
WordScorePoS
acquire0NN
political0JJ
voice0NN
social0.112994637345193JJ
institution0NN
inclusive0.0319966432858631JJ
increase0NN
society0NN
potentially0RB
lead0NN
conflict0.147263166485024NN
investment0.0376648791150643NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.458721297316341
WordScorePoS
acquire0NN
political0.0792212041430275JJ
voice0.064698038783335NN
social0.101310366625194JJ
institution0.0991236547760315NN
inclusive0.0172128079963482JJ
increase0.00285817158600878NN
society0.0237821918091848NN
potentially0RB
lead0NN
conflict0NN
investment0.0202620733250388NN

To the extent that such indirect but important benefits of equity enhancing policies are ignored too few of them are pursued even assuming purely benevolent government

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.609686860306709
WordScorePoS
extent0NN
benefit0NN
enhance0.0601477977507998VB
policy0.0641521854453136NN
pursue0VB
government0.048933054487825NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.395318194180452
WordScorePoS
extent0NN
benefit0.0446918591208085NN
enhance0.0158976666884135VB
policy0NN
pursue0.0517339898971162VB
government0NN

By placing equity and fairness as central elements of an efficient development strategy developing countries will be better able to reach sustainable growth and development trajectories

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.528808185970683
WordScorePoS
central0JJ
efficient0JJ
development0.0055149369084567NN
strategy0.0295821503613099NN
develop0VB
country0NN
reach0NN
sustainable0.00688808874408283JJ
growth0.208565600657229NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.418363733629509
WordScorePoS
central0JJ
efficient0.108503934593034JJ
development0.022306853314744NN
strategy0NN
develop0VB
country0NN
reach0.0332151194779746NN
sustainable0.0162522423871414JJ
growth0NN

Such equitable growth paths are likely to lead to faster reductions in the many dimensions of poverty the central objective of development everywhere

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.679282547710934
WordScorePoS
equitable0JJ
growth0.0519476926891779NN
lead0NN
faster0RBR
reduction0NN
dimension0.181686110904276NN
poverty0.269969049497485NN
central0JJ
objective0NN
development0.0164833460638534NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.439825031040654
WordScorePoS
equitable0JJ
growth0.208565600657229NN
lead0.0504071033101074NN
faster0RBR
reduction0NN
dimension0NN
poverty0.0722601961736204NN
central0JJ
objective0NN
development0.0055149369084567NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.370988441151229
WordScorePoS
equitable0JJ
growth0.11178243319132NN
lead0NN
faster0RBR
reduction0.0475643836183697NN
dimension0.0488696285210061NN
poverty0.05809266143877NN
central0JJ
objective0NN
development0.0177346522508396NN

The second implication of the existence of inequality traps is that no real life policy or institution is entirely exogenous no existing organization or application of policy idea has been implemented on purely technocratic basis

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.845800277414791
WordScorePoS
inequality0.635305170773079NN
life0NN
policy0.0848203862485078NN
institution0.0991236547760315NN
exist0VB
organization0.02794560829783NN
idea0NN
implement0.0121171980355011VB
basis0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.281960325265166
WordScorePoS
inequality0NN
life0NN
policy0.0201317944152378NN
institution0.274477239401321NN
exist0VB
organization0NN
idea0NN
implement0VB
basis0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.313762250734009
WordScorePoS
inequality0NN
life0NN
policy0.0641521854453136NN
institution0.0249900578719309NN
exist0.0599173571845643VB
organization0.0422721924574123NN
idea0NN
implement0.0458229896037954VB
basis0.048933054487825NN

All policies and institutions exist because the political system has brought them into being or allowed them to survive

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.569153567407553
WordScorePoS
policy0.0201317944152378NN
institution0.274477239401321NN
exist0VB
political0JJ
system0NN
bring0VB
survive0VB

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.508407485556151
WordScorePoS
policy0.0848203862485078NN
institution0.0991236547760315NN
exist0VB
political0.0792212041430275JJ
system0NN
bring0VB
survive0VB

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.328800127737773
WordScorePoS
policy0.0641521854453136NN
institution0.0249900578719309NN
exist0.0599173571845643VB
political0JJ
system0.0211360962287062NN
bring0VB
survive0VB

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.315297187944051
WordScorePoS
policy0.0136980135278128NN
institution0NN
exist0.04477822029736VB
political0JJ
system0.0315914058171786NN
bring0.0731385760866977VB
survive0VB

The political system reflects the distribution of power and voice attained at particular time and place

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.651494145243164
WordScorePoS
political0.0792212041430275JJ
system0NN
reflect0VB
power0NN
voice0.064698038783335NN
attain0VB
time0.0607862199751165NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.355295381075394
WordScorePoS
political0.111637082206855JJ
system0NN
reflect0VB
power0NN
voice0NN
attain0VB
time0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.340635163888164
WordScorePoS
political0JJ
system0.0211360962287062NN
reflect0VB
power0.036961556179878NN
voice0NN
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This Introduction distribution is in turn influenced by the distribution of wealth income and other assets and outcomes in that society

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Such circular causality for wealth income social and cultural capital and power mediated through institutions evolves throughout time and history

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Acknowledging history and social and political institutions is crucial to avoid policy mistakes

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But fatalistic view of the world is not only wrong but also counterproductive

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To propose policies without understanding history or the specific context for developing these policies often leads to failure

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But this acknowledgment is not equivalent to the view that no policies should be suggested at all

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Such view fails to recognize how purposeful social and political action can achieve significant policy and institutional changes and would result in fatalistic inaction

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History is not endlessly repetitive and as this report documents many countries have taken on the challenge of breaking inequality traps with some success

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Groups have also changed their circumstances or changed social and political institutions

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Consider the civil rights movement in the United States the democratic overthrow of apartheid in South Africa the more participatory budgeting practices in some Brazilian cities and the reforms in access to land education and local government in the Indian state of Kerala

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The challenge for policy is to ask when and how such changes can be supported

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brief preview of the Report Part summarizes evidence on inequity within and across countries

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Part II asks why equity matters for development both intrinsically and instrumentally

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Part III turns to the policy implications

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If unequal opportunities and absolute deprivation are inimical to long term prosperity as well as intrinsically objectionable there is scope for policy and institutional reform aimed at leveling the economic and political playing fields

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An equity lens and the focus on leveling the playing field add three basic points

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First redistributions from richer and more powerful groups to poorer groups that face more limited opportunities are sometimes necessary and should be pursued

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Second when considering policy tradeoffs between equity and efficiency the full long term benefits of equity including on the development of better and more inclusive institutions need to be taken into account

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Third all categories of economic policy macro and micro have effects on both efficiency and growth and equity and distribution

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Because our ultimate goal is the reduction of poverty through the equitable pursuit of prosperity the policy suggestions in these chapters are consistent with good poverty reduction policies which the World Bank has been advocating since at least the publication of the World Development Report

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These suggestions are also in line with the World Development Report three pillars of opportunity empowerment and security

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Inequity within and across countries PART focus on Palanpur Inequality traps stifle economic development in north Indian village Villagers differ markedly from one another in the opportunities they have to improve their welfare and in their abilities to use the assets and endowments available to them

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Mirrored in village economic and social institutions and in the political processes for seeking change these deep seated inequalities have prevented the village from improving human development and accelerating economic growth

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he village of Palanpur in the north Indian state of Uttar Pradesh has been the subject of intensive study by group of development economists between the late and early s

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Researchers visited the village repeatedly and collected detailed quantitative and qualitative information

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While single village study covering specific period of time cannot be used to draw inferences about development in rural India as whole it does provide distinct window into the kind of processes that can shape growth and equity over time

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The study documents modest economic progress over time with slow growth in per capita incomes and some declines in income poverty

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But alongside this sluggish growth is evidence of stagnation and even deterioration along other dimensions of well being

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Different groups of villagers defined by such predetermined characteristics as caste or gender face radically different opportunities for economic and social mobility

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Their economic endowments differ markedly as do their education health occupational mobility and capacity to influence and shape social and political institutions in the village

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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.580611655675908
WordScorePoS
economic0.103276847978089JJ
education0.0121171980355011NN
health0.0405241466500776NN
mobility0.064698038783335NN
capacity0NN
influence0NN
social0.101310366625194JJ
political0.0792212041430275JJ
institution0.0991236547760315NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.372886823963575
WordScorePoS
economic0.0727679293221751JJ
education0.0512260062633133NN
health0.0571058915334038NN
mobility0NN
capacity0NN
influence0NN
social0.0285529457667019JJ
political0.111637082206855JJ
institution0NN

Disadvantage in one dimension of opportunity is generally reinforced by disadvantage in others combined in way that perpetuate the stark inequities over generations

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.683111756778261
WordScorePoS
dimension0.181686110904276NN
opportunity0NN
reinforce0VB
generation0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.392763775894267
WordScorePoS
dimension0NN
opportunity0.0135141354781442NN
reinforce0VB
generation0.0909486002868787NN

These deep seated inequalities of opportunity shape and are shaped by market imperfections in the village resulting in suboptimal investments and impeding growth

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.889138403557503
WordScorePoS
seat0NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
opportunity0.029046330719385NN
market0.0202620733250388NN
result0NN
investment0.0202620733250388NN
growth0.11178243319132NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.321293868634972
WordScorePoS
seat0NN
inequality0NN
opportunity0.0361300980868102NN
market0.0252035516550537NN
result0NN
investment0.0252035516550537NN
growth0.208565600657229NN

Inequalities are also mirrored in village institutions

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.934245590351863
WordScorePoS
inequality0.635305170773079NN
institution0.0991236547760315NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.349154528855689
WordScorePoS
inequality0NN
institution0.274477239401321NN

State and central government policies that were introduced in the village were inevitably filtered through highly unequal distribution of power and influence

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.622701173348887
WordScorePoS
central0JJ
government0.048933054487825NN
policy0.0641521854453136NN
introduce0VB
highly0RB
power0.036961556179878NN
influence0NN

Rather than stimulating broad economic and social progress public policy has simply reproduced the prevailing patterns of inequality

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.844475284469957
WordScorePoS
stimulate0VB
economic0.103276847978089JJ
social0.101310366625194JJ
progress0NN
public0.0172128079963482NN
policy0.0848203862485078NN
pattern0NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.326097807203779
WordScorePoS
stimulate0.0804764811724088VB
economic0.128463821595706JJ
social0.0504071033101074JJ
progress0.0591643007226199NN
public0NN
policy0.0452169560888236NN
pattern0NN
inequality0NN

Caste Gender Caste in Palanpur defines opportunities and determines the activities villagers pursue even independent of occupation education and other standard household characteristics

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.636121743395139
WordScorePoS
gender0.10561808200669NN
opportunity0NN
determine0VB
activity0NN
pursue0VB
education0.244244978014045NN
standard0NN
household0NN
characteristic0JJ

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.57301564095266
WordScorePoS
gender0.196902218579822NN
opportunity0.02046578088155NN
determine0VB
activity0NN
pursue0VB
education0.0512260062633133NN
standard0NN
household0.0465610847355851NN
characteristic0JJ

The three largest castes in Palanpur are Thakurs Muraos and Jatabs

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.823646732903398
WordScorePoS
largest0.0714379839896614JJS

At the top is martial caste known as the Thakurs which accounted for about quarter of the population in

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.595104783402186
WordScorePoS
account0.0172128079963482NN
quarter0NN
population0.0860640399817412NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.415849870339659
WordScorePoS
account0.0577345906651901NN
quarter0NN
population0.0144336476662975NN

Thakurs are disproportionately represented in jobs such as the army and police that accord well with their martial past

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.635603630260785
WordScorePoS
represent0VB
job0.135650868266471NN
police0NNS

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.503657363827393
WordScorePoS
represent0VB
job0NN
police0.107490825192354NNS

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.42265204049143
WordScorePoS
represent0VB
job0.0902026255635679NN
police0NNS

They are typically averse to wage employment in the village because this would place them in subordinate position

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.788081303008846
WordScorePoS
typically0RB
wage0NN
employment0.173804667214358NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.47163946119668
WordScorePoS
typically0RB
wage0NN
employment0.104016094894625NN

Alert to nonfarm employment opportunities outside the village they are well placed to take advantage of them thanks to stronger information and social networks

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.63248648992849
WordScorePoS
employment0.173804667214358NN
opportunity0.0361300980868102NN
information0NN
social0.0504071033101074JJ

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.495498194980498
WordScorePoS
employment0.104016094894625NN
opportunity0.0135141354781442NN
information0.0675706773907211NN
social0.0188543197850406JJ

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.316694546220878
WordScorePoS
employment0NN
opportunity0.029046330719385NN
information0NN
social0.101310366625194JJ

Just below the Thakurs is cultivating caste the Muraos also accounting for quarter of the population

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.506209516607449
WordScorePoS
cultivate0VB
accounting0.0924643738905717NN
quarter0NN
population0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.48935150637165
WordScorePoS
cultivate0.0583416713841148VB
accounting0NN
quarter0NN
population0.0310434135749871NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.471169967884071
WordScorePoS
cultivate0VB
accounting0NN
quarter0NN
population0.0860640399817412NN

Muraos are traditional cultivators who have continued to specialize in agriculture

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.785785838889453
WordScorePoS
traditional0.0440683498519077JJ
continue0VB
agriculture0.148975141598503NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.374154238692121
WordScorePoS
traditional0.0390772412228479JJ
continue0VB
agriculture0.0528409850971592NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.32594428058334
WordScorePoS
traditional0JJ
continue0.0335134328085675VB
agriculture0.0465610847355851NN

Very hardworking they have seen rapid rise in wealth and economic status in the village

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.404410635695477
WordScorePoS
rapid0JJ
rise0NN
economic0.128463821595706JJ
status0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.553832384120731
WordScorePoS
rapid0JJ
rise0.0237821918091848NN
economic0.103276847978089JJ
status0.0488696285210061NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.380643986513668
WordScorePoS
rapid0JJ
rise0.120914181920259NN
economic0JJ
status0NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.324732199388295
WordScorePoS
rapid0.0373517915079663JJ
rise0.0268848280079943NN
economic0.0389167984372011JJ
status0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.30218117499448
WordScorePoS
rapid0JJ
rise0NN
economic0.0959899298575892JJ
status0NN

While they may still not enjoy the same social status as Thakurs they have become more prosperous and now challenge the previously unquestioned political and economic dominance of the Thakurs

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.365591383190985
WordScorePoS
social0.0504071033101074JJ
status0NN
prosperous0JJ
challenge0.0347609334428716NN
political0JJ
economic0.128463821595706JJ

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.569316900568369
WordScorePoS
social0.101310366625194JJ
status0.0488696285210061NN
prosperous0JJ
challenge0NN
political0.0792212041430275JJ
economic0.103276847978089JJ

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.52046093306288
WordScorePoS
social0.0285529457667019JJ
status0NN
prosperous0.0911713013253052JJ
challenge0NN
political0.111637082206855JJ
economic0.0727679293221751JJ

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.357638404589128
WordScorePoS
social0.112994637345193JJ
status0NN
prosperous0JJ
challenge0NN
political0JJ
economic0.0959899298575892JJ

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.307184383287079
WordScorePoS
social0.0458109463416786JJ
status0NN
prosperous0JJ
challenge0.0947742174515357NN
political0JJ
economic0.0389167984372011JJ

At the bottom are the scheduled castes known as Jatabs accounting for percent of the population

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.765073861144769
WordScorePoS
bottom0.064698038783335NN
accounting0NN
population0.0860640399817412NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.469229902706677
WordScorePoS
bottom0NN
accounting0.0924643738905717NN
population0NN

Traditionally untouchable leather workers who now engage primarily in agricultural wage labor Jatabs have not seen any of the social mobility of the Muraos

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.561050039818774
WordScorePoS
worker0NN
engage0VB
primarily0RB
agricultural0.250032943963815JJ
wage0NN
social0JJ
mobility0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.517683220652017
WordScorePoS
worker0NN
engage0VB
primarily0RB
agricultural0JJ
wage0.064698038783335NN
social0.101310366625194JJ
mobility0.064698038783335NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.385913054283955
WordScorePoS
worker0.121575732851624NN
engage0VB
primarily0RB
agricultural0JJ
wage0NN
social0.0504071033101074JJ
mobility0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.329094362756993
WordScorePoS
worker0.0454743001434393NN
engage0.0454743001434393VB
primarily0RB
agricultural0.0368585655748969JJ
wage0NN
social0.0188543197850406JJ
mobility0NN

They remain caste apart with little or no land poor education and little access to nonfarm employment outside the village

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.605434440772135
WordScorePoS
remain0.0499016491051341VB
land0NN
poor0JJ
education0.244244978014045NN
access0.00697628678506322NN
employment0.0352060273355634NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.434895650068787
WordScorePoS
remain0.049270765107907VB
land0NN
poor0JJ
education0.0150723186962745NN
access0.00344404437204141NN
employment0.173804667214358NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.378616019303792
WordScorePoS
remain0VB
land0.0319966432858631NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
education0.0225244866060403NN
access0.00514687440545096NN
employment0NN

Despite some slight improvement over the years Jatabs continue to endure many forms of discrimination including that from government officials

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.397331495283631
WordScorePoS
improvement0NN
continue0VB
form0.158049144643351NN
discrimination0NN
include0VB
government0NN
official0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.617660402416613
WordScorePoS
improvement0NN
continue0.0335134328085675VB
form0.100540298425703NN
discrimination0.111637082206855NN
include0VB
government0NN
official0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.40738536369011
WordScorePoS
improvement0NN
continue0VB
form0.0884167543187491NN
discrimination0.0736315832425121NN
include0VB
government0NN
official0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.308857251891607
WordScorePoS
improvement0NN
continue0VB
form0NN
discrimination0NN
include0VB
government0.048933054487825NN
official0.0739231123597559NN

Gender inequalities in Palanpur are pronounced

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.937702304281275
WordScorePoS
gender0NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.290625155554328
WordScorePoS
gender0.196902218579822NN
inequality0NN

In there were females for every males strikingly lower than in most parts of the world where the ratio is usually greater than one

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.931185923572366
WordScorePoS
female0.0911713013253052NN
world0.00585260443759492NN
ratio0.0688661930304451NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.35037426670239
WordScorePoS
female0NN
world0.00087176582269799NN
ratio0.0615471563780609NN

Child mortality rates are much higher among girls than among boys

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.673304042463546
WordScorePoS
child0.0170753354211044NN
mortality0NN
rate0NN
girl0.393804437159645NN
boy0.206598579091335NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.523325653839616
WordScorePoS
child0.10682408961305NN
mortality0.276962203701274NN
rate0.0433561464459019NN
girl0.0527926887119861NN
boy0NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.461825471624403
WordScorePoS
child0.076326555629389NN
mortality0NN
rate0.0216847879059514NN
girl0.140824109342254NN
boy0.184698660975968NN

As the researchers reported We witnessed several cases of infant girls who were allowed to wither away and die in circumstances that would undoubtedly have prompted more energetic action in the case of male child

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.699750021710811
WordScorePoS
researcher0NN
report0NN
infant0NN
girl0.393804437159645NN
die0VB
circumstance0NN
action0.0409315617631NN
child0.0170753354211044NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.33631556133734
WordScorePoS
researcher0NN
report0NN
infant0NN
girl0.140824109342254NN
die0VB
circumstance0NN
action0NN
child0.076326555629389NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.410763173117155
WordScorePoS
researcher0NN
report0.0307735781890304NN
infant0NN
girl0.0527926887119861NN
die0.0748292956291867VB
circumstance0NN
action0NN
child0.10682408961305NN

Young girls leave their village to join their husband family

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.888305577307358
WordScorePoS
girl0.393804437159645NN
leave0NN
family0.0465610847355851NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.284070472206104
WordScorePoS
girl0.140824109342254NN
leave0NN
family0NN

Marriage is the gift of daughter

Label: 5, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
marriage0.0911713013253052NN

In the new household the girl is acutely vulnerable with no incomeearning opportunities no property no possibility of returning home permanently

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.828242681869637
WordScorePoS
household0.0465610847355851NN
girl0.393804437159645NN
vulnerable0JJ
opportunity0.02046578088155NN
property0.0558185411034276NN
return0NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.307597941672421
WordScorePoS
household0NN
girl0.140824109342254NN
vulnerable0.051052537468787JJ
opportunity0NN
property0NN
return0NN

Giving birth to child improves her status particularly if it boy

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.590137781166552
WordScorePoS
give0VB
birth0NN
child0.076326555629389NN
improve0.0305306222517556VB
status0NN
boy0.184698660975968NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.452738069429982
WordScorePoS
give0VB
birth0NN
child0.0170753354211044NN
improve0VB
status0NN
boy0.206598579091335NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.383627141677975
WordScorePoS
give0.064698038783335VB
birth0.0396106020715138NN
child0.0242343960710022NN
improve0.0121171980355011VB
status0.0488696285210061NN
boy0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.367684372669292
WordScorePoS
give0VB
birth0.0748292956291867NN
child0.10682408961305NN
improve0VB
status0NN
boy0NN

But family planning practices are limited leading to high fertility rates and short birth spacing

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.550945414452058
WordScorePoS
family0.0624189222007589NN
plan0.021678073222951NN
practice0NN
limited0JJ
lead0.025518364538905NN
fertility0NN
rate0.0433561464459019NN
birth0.0748292956291867NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.445639138187753
WordScorePoS
family0NN
plan0NN
practice0NN
limited0.120266261535276JJ
lead0NN
fertility0NN
rate0.0639932865717261NN
birth0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.377236230619043
WordScorePoS
family0NN
plan0.0144336476662975NN
practice0.0703006268489394NN
limited0JJ
lead0.0169905820958638NN
fertility0.0542519672965169NN
rate0NN
birth0NN

Repeated pregnancies take an enormous toll on women general health and put their lives at risk at the time of delivery

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.642047771394243
WordScorePoS
woman0.0381514605760894NN
health0.191387734041787NN
life0.0250390290383647NN
risk0.0703902516159815NN
time0.0127591822694525NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.557194711539259
WordScorePoS
woman0.221979360474357NN
health0.0571058915334038NN
life0.0140083044329373NN
risk0NN
time0NN

Old age is strongly associated with widowhood in part because of the typically large age difference between husbands and wives

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.729188688443444
WordScorePoS
age0.112994637345193NN
typically0RB

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.576372129004236
WordScorePoS
age0.0893142758861673NN
typically0RB

To survive widows depend overwhelmingly on adult sons

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.788466730691475
WordScorePoS
survive0VB
depend0VB
adult0.163013873070017JJ

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.394111291194586
WordScorePoS
survive0.0814816979556159VB
depend0VB
adult0JJ

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.315069949283182
WordScorePoS
survive0VB
depend0.0651400632663124VB
adult0JJ

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.306397420195519
WordScorePoS
survive0VB
depend0.0633470357346975VB
adult0JJ

The participation of women in the labor force in Palanpur is extremely low

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.844744666012564
WordScorePoS
participation0.0465610847355851NN
woman0.221979360474357NN
force0.0465610847355851NN

Of women age or older in only had anything other than domestic work as their primary or secondary occupation

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.731079836140105
WordScorePoS
woman0.221979360474357NN
age0NN
domestic0.0393804437159645JJ
primary0.0970239057629001JJ
secondary0.0688661930304451JJ

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.439037579393434
WordScorePoS
woman0.0610612445035112NN
age0.0255262687343935NN
domestic0JJ
primary0.108423939529757JJ
secondary0.0615662203253227JJ

This low female participation in the labor force and society more generally has extensive consequences

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.702121806268432
WordScorePoS
female0.0911713013253052NN
participation0.0465610847355851NN
force0.0465610847355851NN
society0.0335134328085675NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.559075962208914
WordScorePoS
female0NN
participation0.0548954478802642NN
force0NN
society0.118536858482514NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.323209344378356
WordScorePoS
female0NN
participation0NN
force0.0410992516792148NN
society0.0591643007226199NN

For example the survival disadvantage of girls compared with boys tends to narrow only when adult women have wider opportunities for gainful employment

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.789970777443871
WordScorePoS
girl0.393804437159645NN
compare0VB
boy0.206598579091335NN
adult0JJ
woman0.221979360474357NN
opportunity0.02046578088155NN
employment0.0393804437159645NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.523648862518887
WordScorePoS
girl0.140824109342254NN
compare0VB
boy0.184698660975968NN
adult0.163013873070017JJ
woman0.0610612445035112NN
opportunity0NN
employment0.0352060273355634NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.228469586465868
WordScorePoS
girl0NN
compare0VB
boy0NN
adult0JJ
woman0.0452169560888236NN
opportunity0.0361300980868102NN
employment0.173804667214358NN

Similarly the virtual exclusion of women from most representative institutions in Palanpur has limited the focus and quality of local politics and public action

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.570160944006966
WordScorePoS
exclusion0NN
woman0NN
representative0.107490825192354NN
institution0.274477239401321NN
limited0JJ
focus0NN
quality0NN
local0JJ
public0.0285977592242194NN
action0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.466163912789062
WordScorePoS
exclusion0NN
woman0.221979360474357NN
representative0NN
institution0NN
limited0JJ
focus0NN
quality0NN
local0JJ
public0.0727679293221751NN
action0.0409315617631NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.393223264093158
WordScorePoS
exclusion0.0908430554521382NN
woman0.0450489732120807NN
representative0NN
institution0NN
limited0.120266261535276JJ
focus0NN
quality0NN
local0JJ
public0NN
action0.0269969049497485NN

Focus on Palanpur Schooling Inequalities in education are wide declining only slowly

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.898333184720479
WordScorePoS
focus0NN
schooling0NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
education0.0121171980355011NN
wide0JJ
decline0.02794560829783NN
slowly0RB

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.324879734291532
WordScorePoS
focus0NN
schooling0NN
inequality0NN
education0.244244978014045NN
wide0JJ
decline0NN
slowly0RB

In the late just under percent of males age seven or older and only percent of females were literate

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.6284795032884
WordScorePoS
age0.112994637345193NN
female0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.507097465130478
WordScorePoS
age0NN
female0.0911713013253052NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.49676863490451
WordScorePoS
age0.0893142758861673NN
female0NN

By male literacy had risen to percent and female literacy to just below percent

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.950064549692702
WordScorePoS
literacy0.244520809605025NN
rise0NN
female0NN

Yet education is clearly of great value in Palanpur

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.961591108592946
WordScorePoS
education0.244244978014045NN

Years of schooling strongly increase the likelihood that an individual will find employment in regular job outside the village

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.748267999036486
WordScorePoS
schooling0NN
increase0.00711043475673939NN
individual0JJ
employment0.173804667214358NN
regular0JJ
job0.135650868266471NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.49679435229054
WordScorePoS
schooling0NN
increase0.0159575617614215NN
individual0JJ
employment0.104016094894625NN
regular0JJ
job0.0902026255635679NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.312609792844385
WordScorePoS
schooling0NN
increase0.00285817158600878NN
individual0.064698038783335JJ
employment0NN
regular0.064698038783335JJ
job0NN

Among farmers too direct observation strongly suggests that better educated farmers in Palanpur have been crucial in technological innovation and diffusion

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.645465120987086
WordScorePoS
farmer0.175025014152344NN
direct0JJ
suggest0VB
educate0VB
crucial0JJ
technological0JJ
innovation0NN
diffusion0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.640586980503588
WordScorePoS
farmer0NN
direct0JJ
suggest0.0602029956716497VB
educate0VB
crucial0.0602029956716497JJ
technological0.104016094894625JJ
innovation0.122982418460916NN
diffusion0NN

The perceived value of female education is quite different from that for boys because girls are expected to spend most of their adult life in domestic work

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.716855819951694
WordScorePoS
female0.0911713013253052NN
education0.0512260062633133NN
boy0.206598579091335NN
girl0.393804437159645NN
expect0VB
adult0JJ
life0.0140083044329373NN
domestic0.0393804437159645JJ

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.671041911483814
WordScorePoS
female0NN
education0.244244978014045NN
boy0.184698660975968NN
girl0.140824109342254NN
expect0VB
adult0.163013873070017JJ
life0.0125233923809486NN
domestic0JJ

Although there is good evidence of the benefits of education in domestic activities it is not clear that the effects of maternal literacy on child health for example are recognized

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.617090865734216
WordScorePoS
evidence0NN
benefit0NN
education0.244244978014045NN
domestic0JJ
activity0NN
effect0NN
maternal0JJ
literacy0.244520809605025NN
child0.076326555629389NN
health0NN
recognize0VB

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.543949192157102
WordScorePoS
evidence0NN
benefit0NN
education0.0152605842304358NN
domestic0JJ
activity0NN
effect0NN
maternal0.184641469134183JJ
literacy0NN
child0.10682408961305NN
health0.191387734041787NN
recognize0VB

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.278618987142386
WordScorePoS
evidence0.12939607756667NN
benefit0NN
education0.0121171980355011NN
domestic0JJ
activity0NN
effect0NN
maternal0.0488696285210061JJ
literacy0NN
child0.0242343960710022NN
health0.0405241466500776NN
recognize0VB

Even if benefits are correctly perceived they might not be of direct interest to the parents because daughters are transferred from the village when they marry

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.672832501799885
WordScorePoS
benefit0.0229784274580034NN
direct0JJ
transfer0.0803666323453555NN

Those who bear the costs of female education thus share little in the benefits

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.624718045043702
WordScorePoS
bear0NN
cost0NN
female0NN
education0.244244978014045NN
share0NN
benefit0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.537973730127202
WordScorePoS
bear0NN
cost0NN
female0.0911713013253052NN
education0.0512260062633133NN
share0.0285529457667019NN
benefit0.0393804437159645NN

The upper caste Thakurs have view adopted by many others that education is not important or even suitable for the lower castes

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.889325466417579
WordScorePoS
view0NN
adopt0VB
education0.244244978014045NN

Blatant forms of discrimination against children from disadvantaged castes have disappeared from the schooling system but subtler forms of discrimination have remained for example the highcaste teacher considered any form of contact with Jatab children as repulsive which likely affected his or her rapport with them and probably discouraged their attendance

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.508809898524443
WordScorePoS
form0.158049144643351NN
discrimination0NN
child0.0603953832457135NN
disadvantaged0JJ
schooling0NN
system0NN
remain0VB
teacher0NN
affect0.033031539117106VB

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.306347508765505
WordScorePoS
form0NN
discrimination0NN
child0.076326555629389NN
disadvantaged0JJ
schooling0NN
system0NN
remain0.0499016491051341VB
teacher0.163013873070017NN
affect0.0125233923809486VB

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.464301488568994
WordScorePoS
form0.0884167543187491NN
discrimination0.0736315832425121NN
child0.0450489732120807NN
disadvantaged0JJ
schooling0NN
system0.0519476926891779NN
remain0VB
teacher0NN
affect0.0184786920895884VB

Work Occupational divisions in Palanpur have widened as the village has shifted from an overwhelmingly agricultural economy to one in which nonagricultural activities have come to account for to percent of village income

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.66602484353684
WordScorePoS
agricultural0.250032943963815JJ
economy0NN
activity0NN
account0NN
income0.0643370113878709NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.389162099369397
WordScorePoS
agricultural0JJ
economy0NN
activity0NN
account0.0172128079963482NN
income0.166475342664294NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.346444035319706
WordScorePoS
agricultural0.0368585655748969JJ
economy0NN
activity0NN
account0.0160169090870187NN
income0.110649350233433NN

In some villagers of were employed in regular or semiregular nonfarm jobs

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.633941494205736
WordScorePoS
employ0VB
regular0JJ
job0.135650868266471NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.634063269266965
WordScorePoS
employ0.0454743001434393VB
regular0JJ
job0.0902026255635679NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.302355391473936
WordScorePoS
employ0VB
regular0.064698038783335JJ
job0NN

By this number had increased more than four times to jobs the total population had only doubled

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.528743437214422
WordScorePoS
increase0.00711043475673939NN
time0NN
job0.135650868266471NN
total0NN
population0.0428212738652355NN
double0RB

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.430266991734217
WordScorePoS
increase0.0159575617614215NN
time0.0188543197850406NN
job0.0902026255635679NN
total0.0260040237236563NN
population0NN
double0RB

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.426534387015959
WordScorePoS
increase0.00285817158600878NN
time0.0607862199751165NN
job0NN
total0NN
population0.0860640399817412NN
double0RB

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.308271635226262
WordScorePoS
increase0.00958677785775002NN
time0.0169905820958638NN
job0.0203215381458133NN
total0.0468670845659596NN
population0.0144336476662975NN
double0RB

Outside jobs are associated with higher and more stable incomes and the work is often less strenuous and demanding than in agriculture

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.554148668653303
WordScorePoS
job0.0109267235789154NN
stable0JJ
income0.0643370113878709NN
demand0.0297950283197006NN
agriculture0.148975141598503NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.428510766509497
WordScorePoS
job0.135650868266471NN
stable0.0607878664258118JJ
income0NN
demand0NN
agriculture0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.363148728288008
WordScorePoS
job0NN
stable0JJ
income0.166475342664294NN
demand0NN
agriculture0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.505206149182596
WordScorePoS
job0.0902026255635679NN
stable0JJ
income0.110649350233433NN
demand0.030745604615229NN
agriculture0NN

Access to nonfarm jobs is far from equal however

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.663333197978627
WordScorePoS
access0.00344404437204141NN
job0.135650868266471NN
equal0.0504071033101074JJ

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.486872955531652
WordScorePoS
access0.00780347258345989NN
job0.0170753354211044NN
equal0.114211783066808JJ

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.360838083622965
WordScorePoS
access0.0128821355880844NN
job0.0902026255635679NN
equal0JJ

Workers who wish to obtain regular job generally have to pay bribes and more important get recommendation or introduction from friend or relative

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.788910529610417
WordScorePoS
worker0.121575732851624NN
obtain0VB
regular0JJ
job0.135650868266471NN
pay0.0695218668857431NN
introduction0NN
relative0JJ

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.327582118347288
WordScorePoS
worker0.0454743001434393NN
obtain0VB
regular0JJ
job0.0902026255635679NN
pay0NN
introduction0NN
relative0JJ

Such rationing by personal contacts and influence implies that people with low social status tend to be at disadvantage in the competition for nonfarm jobs even for given education levels skills and endowments

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.835353318996489
WordScorePoS
personal0JJ
influence0NN
people0.00720147981137839NNS
social0JJ
status0NN
job0.0152653111258778NN
education0.244244978014045NN
level0.0231525547935232NN
skill0.407534682675042NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.26281912016229
WordScorePoS
personal0JJ
influence0NN
people0.0106656521351091NNS
social0.0504071033101074JJ
status0NN
job0.135650868266471NN
education0.0150723186962745NN
level0.00761994916892276NN
skill0NN

The least advantaged segments of the labor force in Palanpur are highly represented in agricultural wage labor

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.881679119089777
WordScorePoS
force0.0297950283197006NN
highly0RB
represent0VB
agricultural0.250032943963815JJ
wage0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.322576680186304
WordScorePoS
force0.0465610847355851NN
highly0RB
represent0VB
agricultural0.0558185411034276JJ
wage0NN

Casual wage labor in agriculture can be described as last resort occupation one taken up by those who have no significant alternative

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.657975870537578
WordScorePoS
wage0NN
agriculture0.148975141598503NN
significant0JJ
alternative0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.464732963617548
WordScorePoS
wage0.064698038783335NN
agriculture0NN
significant0.0405241466500776JJ
alternative0NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.376500053737054
WordScorePoS
wage0NN
agriculture0.0528409850971592NN
significant0.032404008418326JJ
alternative0NN

Agricultural wage rates have risen over time but slowly and there are prolonged periods of seasonal unemployment

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.785159249952742
WordScorePoS
agricultural0.250032943963815JJ
wage0NN
rate0.0155217067874935NN
rise0.0214456704626236NN
time0.0182713919265625NN
slowly0RB
period0.0440683498519077NN
unemployment0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.374170453474813
WordScorePoS
agricultural0JJ
wage0.064698038783335NN
rate0.0172128079963482NN
rise0.0237821918091848NN
time0.0607862199751165NN
slowly0RB
period0NN
unemployment0NN

Econometric analysis indicates that controlling for large number of household characteristics caste demographic characteristics education land and so on the probability of engagement in agricultural labor is to percent higher for households that had engaged in this occupation decade earlier

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.559898258092912
WordScorePoS
control0NN
household0.0297950283197006NN
characteristic0JJ
education0NN
land0.0465651203624806NN
agricultural0.250032943963815JJ
engage0VB
decade0NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.383932898624588
WordScorePoS
control0NN
household0NN
characteristic0JJ
education0.244244978014045NN
land0NN
agricultural0JJ
engage0VB
decade0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.425964080077254
WordScorePoS
control0.0465610847355851NN
household0.0465610847355851NN
characteristic0JJ
education0.0512260062633133NN
land0.024255976440725NN
agricultural0.0558185411034276JJ
engage0VB
decade0NN

Occupational inequalities thus result in income inequality and they persist over long periods

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.99103062862039
WordScorePoS
inequality0.635305170773079NN
result0NN
income0.166475342664294NN
persist0.0488696285210061VB
period0NN

Incomes assets and liabilities Per capita incomes in Palanpur have grown at around percent year between and and income poverty fell from around to percent during this period

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.68405201407439
WordScorePoS
income0.166475342664294NN
asset0.0488696285210061NN
capita0NN
grow0.0405241466500776VB
poverty0.05809266143877NN
fall0NN
period0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.425707302641189
WordScorePoS
income0.0442083771593746NN
asset0NN
capita0NN
grow0VB
poverty0.269969049497485NN
fall0NN
period0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.344305275085551
WordScorePoS
income0.0643370113878709NN
asset0NN
capita0NN
grow0.0182713919265625VB
poverty0.0261926252110933NN
fall0.0440683498519077NN
period0.0440683498519077NN

Incomes in the village are distributed about as unequally as they are in India as whole and income inequality has remained relatively stable over time

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.957065750787075
WordScorePoS
income0.166475342664294NN
distribute0.064698038783335VB
unequally0RB
inequality0.635305170773079NN
remain0.0396106020715138VB
stable0JJ
time0.0607862199751165NN

An assessment of economic inequalities based on wealth provides different picture

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.952253741491576
WordScorePoS
economic0.103276847978089JJ
inequality0.635305170773079NN
base0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.165628395567577
WordScorePoS
economic0.128463821595706JJ
inequality0NN
base0NN

Ownership of durables has expanded and the value of land and other productive assets has grown implying significant rise in gross wealth

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.398483264208815
WordScorePoS
ownership0NN
expand0.0201523636533764VB
land0NN
productive0JJ
asset0NN
grow0.0171695137813101VB
significant0.0343390275626203JJ
rise0.120914181920259NN
gross0JJ

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.356901185677899
WordScorePoS
ownership0NN
expand0VB
land0.123873694868802NN
productive0JJ
asset0NN
grow0.016202004209163VB
significant0.032404008418326JJ
rise0NN
gross0JJ

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.350162149755947
WordScorePoS
ownership0NN
expand0.0295821503613099VB
land0NN
productive0.0985415302158139JJ
asset0NN
grow0VB
significant0JJ
rise0NN
gross0.0410992516792148JJ

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.326360215543075
WordScorePoS
ownership0NN
expand0VB
land0.0465651203624806NN
productive0.0714379839896614JJ
asset0NN
grow0.0182713919265625VB
significant0JJ
rise0.0214456704626236NN
gross0JJ

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.318041777724363
WordScorePoS
ownership0NN
expand0VB
land0NN
productive0JJ
asset0.0488696285210061NN
grow0.0405241466500776VB
significant0.0405241466500776JJ
rise0.0237821918091848NN
gross0JJ

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.31647661914878
WordScorePoS
ownership0NN
expand0.0268848280079943VB
land0.0389167984372011NN
productive0JJ
asset0NN
grow0.0229054731708393VB
significant0JJ
rise0.0268848280079943NN
gross0.0373517915079663JJ

But there has also been dramatic and uneven expansion of liabilities

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.740040125909226
WordScorePoS
uneven0.0804764811724088JJ
expansion0NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.672562719784748
WordScorePoS
uneven0JJ
expansion0.0731385760866977NN

Inequality in the distribution of net wealth has widened in Palanpur from Gini of around

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.998828889740146
WordScorePoS
inequality0.635305170773079NN

in to conservatively estimated

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.765883642519583
WordScorePoS
estimate0.059903311017139NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.383060435719248
WordScorePoS
estimate0.0299609328954485NN

Many of the liabilities come from publicly provided and subsidized credit sources that have expanded sharply over time but that have been associated with pervasive corruption

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.868016453363314
WordScorePoS
credit0NN
source0NN
expand0VB
time0NN
corruption0.322472475577062NN

Disadvantaged groups such as the Jatabs are the principal targets of fraudulent accounting practices that have resulted in dizzying accumulation of debts and dramatically raised the cost of borrowing for such households

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.777533582241637
WordScorePoS
disadvantaged0JJ
target0.0898760357768464NN
accounting0NN
practice0NN
result0NN
debt0.342531381414775NN
raise0NN
cost0NN
household0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.344826455887927
WordScorePoS
disadvantaged0.064698038783335JJ
target0NN
accounting0NN
practice0.02794560829783NN
result0NN
debt0NN
raise0NN
cost0.0660824365173543NN
household0.0330412182586772NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.335597821211681
WordScorePoS
disadvantaged0JJ
target0NN
accounting0NN
practice0.0703006268489394NN
result0NN
debt0NN
raise0.0332151194779746NN
cost0.0277064208763707NN
household0.0554128417527413NN

Those without access to cheap formal credit have to fall back on private moneylenders at high interest rates

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.644044706341929
WordScorePoS
access0.00610236075888593NN
credit0NN
fall0.123094312756122NN
private0JJ
rate0.0433561464459019NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.410359308865813
WordScorePoS
access0.0128821355880844NN
credit0.0602029956716497NN
fall0NN
private0.0368585655748969JJ
rate0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.347182085231326
WordScorePoS
access0.00314118376811005NN
credit0NN
fall0NN
private0.0898760357768464JJ
rate0NN

Collective inaction The different bases of social division in Palanpur have led to multiple solidarities and oppositions

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.498891056931829
WordScorePoS
basis0NN
social0.112994637345193JJ
lead0NN
multiple0JJ

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.447302961196188
WordScorePoS
basis0NN
social0.101310366625194JJ
lead0NN
multiple0JJ

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.445112328126274
WordScorePoS
basis0NN
social0.0504071033101074JJ
lead0.0504071033101074NN
multiple0JJ

The village society is highly fragmented with few solid rallying points for collective action whether cooperative or adversarial

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.673693850214468
WordScorePoS
society0.118536858482514NN
highly0RB
action0NN

The limited reach of collective action in turn is responsible for some of the most serious failures of its development

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.623493550396134
WordScorePoS
limited0.120266261535276JJ
reach0NN
action0.0269969049497485NN
responsible0JJ
development0.0164833460638534NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.390823329795928
WordScorePoS
limited0JJ
reach0.0658099748168827NN
action0NN
responsible0JJ
development0.0368309542451156NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.369176419049935
WordScorePoS
limited0JJ
reach0NN
action0.0145231653596925NN
responsible0.064698038783335JJ
development0.0177346522508396NN

For example the village assembly panchayat is constituted every few years but it rarely meets

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.944106140672428
WordScorePoS
rarely0RB
meet0.0881366997038154VB

In it was made obligatory that at least one woman participant be selected but in Palanpur she is never consulted and has never attended any panchayat meetings

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.822127130349811
WordScorePoS
woman0.221979360474357NN
attend0VB

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.418417505918798
WordScorePoS
woman0.0546336178945768NN
attend0.0583416713841148VB

All decisions and responsibilities are effectively taken by village headman who has always come from one of the privileged groups

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.858489819395469
WordScorePoS
decision0.0393804437159645NN
responsibility0.0911713013253052NN
effectively0RB

There also is ample scope for self serving patronage and fraud

Label: 14, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
serve0.0531983120572613VB

Modern arrangements elections reserved seats for low castes and women on the panchayat have not profoundly altered the elitist and nonparticipatory character of local politics in the village

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.773485640352712
WordScorePoS
modern0.462321869452858JJ
reserve0NN
seat0NN
woman0NN
local0JJ

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.523915384871677
WordScorePoS
modern0JJ
reserve0NN
seat0.0911713013253052NN
woman0.221979360474357NN
local0JJ

The dominance of privileged groups over collective institutions has had farreaching consequences

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.928024905735602
WordScorePoS
institution0.274477239401321NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.335143345875739
WordScorePoS
institution0.0991236547760315NN

Between the late and early no fewer than types of government provided programs were introduced to the village public works road building program free schooling free basic health care old age pensions fair price shop farmer cooperative and so on

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.516080328379353
WordScorePoS
type0NN
government0NN
introduce0VB
public0.021678073222951NN
road0.0249430985430622NN
building0NN
free0JJ
schooling0.0407408489778079NN
basic0JJ
health0.191387734041787NN
care0.104031537001265NN
age0.0893142758861673NN
fair0JJ
price0NN
farmer0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.473348775616577
WordScorePoS
type0NN
government0.048933054487825NN
introduce0VB
public0.0390556786919513NN
road0NN
building0.149940347231585NN
free0.0898760357768464JJ
schooling0NN
basic0JJ
health0NN
care0NN
age0.0153248097886055NN
fair0JJ
price0NN
farmer0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.343230877715431
WordScorePoS
type0NN
government0NN
introduce0VB
public0NN
road0NN
building0NN
free0JJ
schooling0NN
basic0JJ
health0NN
care0NN
age0.0365427838531249NN
fair0.0440683498519077JJ
price0.0583416713841148NN
farmer0.175025014152344NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.319054745993323
WordScorePoS
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Most of them remained nonfunctional particularly when there was redistributive component

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Only programs that enjoyed strong backing from the politically advantaged in the village were allowed to succeed

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The authors of the study conclude There is little prospect of major improvement in the orientation and achievements of government intervention without significant change in the balance of political power both at the state and at the local level

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Source Drèze Lanjouw and Sharma

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Inequity within countries individuals and groups chapter Across the world individuals and groups face highly unequal opportunities to better themselves economically and socially

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Inequalities as such might not be of particular concern if outcomes varied for reasons that had to do mainly with individual efforts

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But taking our cue from the first chapter we are concerned here with systematic differences in opportunities for individuals and groups who differ only in skin color caste gender or place of residence predetermined characteristics that can be argued to be morally irrelevant

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As illustrated in focus on the Indian village of Palanpur when such inequalities of opportunity are pronounced they are often reproduced over time and not only affect welfare directly but also act to stifle human development and economic growth

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On the basis of what predetermined characteristics should groups be defined such that we would not want to see systematic differences in their opportunities

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Clearly there is no single answer

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Roemer argues that society has to make this choice through some kind of ethical and political process

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The circumstances could include social origin variables outside an individual control such as sex race ethnicity caste parental education and occupation wealth or place of birth

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Cogneau notes that society choice of circumstances establishes direct link between equality of opportunities and the intergenerational transmission of outcomes

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In this chapter we are largely compelled to let data availability dictate the group definitions we consider

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We can thus present only partial and often rudimentary picture of the full range of inequity that might exist in country

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Because we wish not only to look within country but also to compare across countries we use group definitions of broad relevance

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Although economic inequalities are clearly part of the story this chapter goes beyond incomes to emphasize inequalities in key dimensions of opportunity such as health education and the freedom and capacity of people to participate in and shape society

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There is special concern with inequalities that tend to perpetuate differences across individuals and groups over time within and across generations

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These result in inequality traps that are pervasive in many countries

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Such inequality traps reinforce our concern with equity on intrinsic grounds but they can also be particularly detrimental to the development process because they act to curtail economic dynamism

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key objective here is to show how inequalities combine interact and are reproduced through interlinked economic political and sociocultural processes

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Individuals and groups differ markedly in their power to influence these processes indeed they differ even in their capacity to aspire to such influence

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The report emphasizes that such agency is dimension of opportunity alongside education health and wealth

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And inequalities of agency are central in explaining how inequalities of opportunity are transmitted over time box

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This chapter presents evidence of high degree of inequality of opportunity in many developing countries inequalities manifest in variety of dimensions such as health education and income

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It then focuses on the specific dimension of inequality of power or agency

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Throughout the chapter we emphasize that Inequity within countries individuals and groups inequalities in different dimensions can interact with and reinforce one another over time

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To highlight these connections we end by focusing on the specific case of gender inequity

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Inequalities in health Alongside the intrinsic importance of health as dimension of welfare poor health can directly influence an individual opportunities his or her earnings capacity performance at school ability to care for children participation in community activities and so on

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This important instrumental function of health implies that inequalities in health often translate into inequalities in other dimensions of welfare

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And these inequalities are reproduced over time

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We focus here on children while recognizing that differences in social status wealth and health also matter for adults

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Demographic and Health Survey DHS data indicate that health status varies sharply across population groups

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To what extent does it vary across population groups defined by characteristics that are predetermined and arguably have no moral relevance

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We draw on DHS data from countries to examine how the health of children varies across population groups defined by mother education rural or urban residence and parent economic status proxied by an index of household ownership of consumer durables

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We look further at cross country differences in health in chapter

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Infant mortality

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For these countries infant mortality rates vary markedly from low of around per live births in Colombia and Jordan to more than in Mali Niger and Mozambique figure

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But even where overall infant mortality rates are high the figures for children whose mothers have secondary education or higher are dramatically lower

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The risk of death among children with well educated mothers in Mali for example is about the same as that for the average child in Indonesia

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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.23915701880375
WordScorePoS
risk0NN
death0NN
child0.0242343960710022NN
educate0VB
mother0NN
average0.146608885563018NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.203071369333545
WordScorePoS
risk0NN
death0NN
child0NN
educate0VB
mother0NN
average0.1656430212089NN

And while the overall infant mortality rate in Brazil lies BOX

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.908386084457874
WordScorePoS
infant0NN
mortality0.276962203701274NN
rate0.0433561464459019NN
lie0NN

Unequal opportunities persist across generations in Brazil As prelude to the themes in this chapter we describe one attempt to quantify the level and persistence of inequalities of opportunity in Brazil based on nationally representative household survey data

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.9068784456518
WordScorePoS
opportunity0.029046330719385NN
persist0.0488696285210061VB
generation0NN
level0NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
base0NN
nationally0RB
representative0NN
household0.0330412182586772NN
survey0.064698038783335NN
datum0NN

Brazil was selected for reason

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

With Gini coefficient of per capita incomes just below

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.716826069902687
WordScorePoS
capita0NN
income0.166475342664294NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.476444965336779
WordScorePoS
capita0NN
income0.110649350233433NN

and persistent over time it is generally perceived to be one of the world most unequal countries

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.588680951858398
WordScorePoS
persistent0JJ
time0.0607862199751165NN
world0.00276879546803864NN
country0NN

Brazil main household survey the Pesquisa Nacional por Amostra de Domicilios PNAD included in set of supplemental questions on the parents of respondents

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

This permitted an analysis of the intergenerational persistence in inequalities

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.998828889740146
WordScorePoS
inequality0.635305170773079NN

Using four circumstance variables parental schooling father occupation race and region of birth Bourguignon Ferreira and Menendez investigated how inequalities of opportunity generate inequality in current earnings across different cohorts of adult individuals

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.956525720924485
WordScorePoS
circumstance0NN
schooling0NN
race0.0488696285210061NN
region0NN
birth0.0396106020715138NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
opportunity0.029046330719385NN
generate0VB
current0JJ
adult0JJ
individual0.064698038783335JJ

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.121313847869838
WordScorePoS
circumstance0NN
schooling0NN
race0NN
region0.184259548107002NN
birth0NN
inequality0NN
opportunity0NN
generate0VB
current0JJ
adult0JJ
individual0JJ

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.10732599966437
WordScorePoS
circumstance0NN
schooling0NN
race0NN
region0NN
birth0NN
inequality0NN
opportunity0NN
generate0VB
current0JJ
adult0.163013873070017JJ
individual0JJ

Applying conceptual framework closely related to that in chapter they decomposed earnings inequality into lower bound component attributable to the inequality of opportunity to the effect of the four observed circumstance variables and residual component which would account for personal effort luck measurement error transitory income and other unobservable characteristics

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.954817528182042
WordScorePoS
framework0NN
related0JJ
inequality0.635305170773079NN
opportunity0.029046330719385NN
effect0NN
circumstance0NN
account0.0172128079963482NN
personal0JJ
effort0NN
measurement0NN
income0.166475342664294NN
characteristic0JJ

They found that the four variables accounted for more than fifth of the total earnings inequality within gender cohorts

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.921704001294726
WordScorePoS
account0.0172128079963482NN
total0NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
gender0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.278131129920882
WordScorePoS
account0NN
total0NN
inequality0NN
gender0.196902218579822NN

Of the four family background was most important

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.690581699607026
WordScorePoS
family0.0624189222007589NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.515135985988816
WordScorePoS
family0.0465610847355851NN

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.386093191910923
WordScorePoS
family0.0348974218717993NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.329642047177293
WordScorePoS
family0.0297950283197006NN

This distribution of certain opportunities and outcomes has persisted across generations

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.599291261055439
WordScorePoS
opportunity0.0135141354781442NN
outcome0.030745604615229NN
persist0VB
generation0.0909486002868787NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.491801516382498
WordScorePoS
opportunity0.029046330719385NN
outcome0.0330412182586772NN
persist0.0488696285210061VB
generation0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.363268609496037
WordScorePoS
opportunity0NN
outcome0NN
persist0VB
generation0.0819583881728876NN

When the authors estimated econometrically the relationship between schooling and race region of origin parental education and father occupation only the coefficient on parental education seems to have fallen across cohorts

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.716946145137068
WordScorePoS
estimate0.0299609328954485NN
schooling0NN
race0NN
region0NN
origin0NN
education0.244244978014045NN
fall0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.317102089935936
WordScorePoS
estimate0NN
schooling0NN
race0NN
region0.184259548107002NN
origin0NN
education0.0225244866060403NN
fall0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.524239589030405
WordScorePoS
estimate0.059903311017139NN
schooling0.0407408489778079NN
race0NN
region0.124837844401518NN
origin0NN
education0.0152605842304358NN
fall0.123094312756122NN

In other words race region of origin and father occupation continue to predict an individual education level

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.539551916410346
WordScorePoS
race0NN
region0NN
origin0NN
continue0VB
predict0VB
individual0JJ
education0.244244978014045NN
level0.0231525547935232NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.440224139099467
WordScorePoS
race0NN
region0.184259548107002NN
origin0NN
continue0VB
predict0VB
individual0JJ
education0.0225244866060403NN
level0.0113874611101829NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.40020166874447
WordScorePoS
race0.0488696285210061NN
region0NN
origin0.0488696285210061NN
continue0.0237821918091848VB
predict0VB
individual0.064698038783335JJ
education0.0121171980355011NN
level0NN

And even for education mechanisms are at work to reproduce schooling levels across generations especially at the lower end of the distribution

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.701810349875424
WordScorePoS
education0.244244978014045NN
mechanism0NN
schooling0NN
level0.0231525547935232NN
generation0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.424517724199173
WordScorePoS
education0NN
mechanism0.147846224719512NN
schooling0NN
level0.0138997399903163NN
generation0NN

Brazil underscores the need to look at range of outcomes of which incomes are only one with education health and services also of great concern

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.490650360836791
WordScorePoS
range0NN
outcome0.0416255041156371NN
income0NN
education0.244244978014045NN
health0NN
service0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.446439563154237
WordScorePoS
range0NN
outcome0.0330412182586772NN
income0.166475342664294NN
education0.0121171980355011NN
health0.0405241466500776NN
service0.00795378154685591NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.41468189338325
WordScorePoS
range0.0249430985430622NN
outcome0NN
income0NN
education0.0152605842304358NN
health0.191387734041787NN
service0.0100171139310145NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.434774434889366
WordScorePoS
range0.0368585655748969NN
outcome0.030745604615229NN
income0.110649350233433NN
education0.022550656390892NN
health0.0377086395700813NN
service0.0148023490369527NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.304323251762483
WordScorePoS
range0NN
outcome0.0465610847355851NN
income0NN
education0.0512260062633133NN
health0.0571058915334038NN
service0.022416649027415NN

It also underscores the need to look at range of processes of which income and economic wealth based mechanisms form only part and for which group based interactions are as central as household and individual conditions behaviors and characteristics

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.442788867873647
WordScorePoS
range0NN
process0NN
income0.166475342664294NN
economic0.103276847978089JJ
base0NN
mechanism0NN
form0NN
central0JJ
household0.0330412182586772NN
individual0.064698038783335JJ
condition0NN
characteristic0JJ

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.372558397849983
WordScorePoS
range0NN
process0NN
income0NN
economic0.128463821595706JJ
base0NN
mechanism0NN
form0.0591643007226199NN
central0JJ
household0NN
individual0JJ
condition0.121575732851624NN
characteristic0JJ

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.287692130872386
WordScorePoS
range0NN
process0NN
income0.017987180284335NN
economic0JJ
base0.017987180284335NN
mechanism0.147846224719512NN
form0NN
central0JJ
household0NN
individual0JJ
condition0NN
characteristic0.036961556179878JJ

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.190432735961598
WordScorePoS
range0NN
process0NN
income0NN
economic0JJ
base0NN
mechanism0NN
form0.158049144643351NN
central0JJ
household0NN
individual0JJ
condition0NN
characteristic0JJ

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.381990273836587
WordScorePoS
range0NN
process0NN
income0.0442083771593746NN
economic0.0959899298575892JJ
base0.0442083771593746NN
mechanism0NN
form0.0884167543187491NN
central0JJ
household0NN
individual0JJ
condition0NN
characteristic0JJ

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.332175111408554
WordScorePoS
range0NN
process0.0558185411034276NN
income0NN
economic0.0727679293221751JJ
base0NN
mechanism0NN
form0.100540298425703NN
central0JJ
household0.0465610847355851NN
individual0JJ
condition0NN
characteristic0JJ

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.305150519494923
WordScorePoS
range0.0368585655748969NN
process0.0737171311497939NN
income0.110649350233433NN
economic0.0320338181740375JJ
base0NN
mechanism0NN
form0NN
central0JJ
household0NN
individual0JJ
condition0NN
characteristic0JJ

Source Bourguignon Ferreira and Menendez

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.73415387760794
WordScorePoS
source0.0613562156822703NN

The perception of particularly high inequality in Brazil may to some extent be result of the way income is measured there

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.947735903861513
WordScorePoS
inequality0.635305170773079NN
extent0NN
result0NN
income0.166475342664294NN
measure0NN

Alternative approaches to measuring inequality based on other welfare indicators indicate that Brazil may be less of an outlier in Latin America than previously believed

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.934641713033332
WordScorePoS
alternative0NN
approach0NN
measure0NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
base0NN
welfare0NN

See box

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

and also De Ferranti and others

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

below estimates from the rate for children whose mothers have not been educated is roughly twice as high

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.868295571423398
WordScorePoS
estimate0.059903311017139NN
rate0.0433561464459019NN
child0.10682408961305NN
mother0.162963395911232NN
educate0.0407408489778079VB

Further analysis not reported here indicates that infant mortality rates are also sharply differentiated across population groups defined by rural urban residence and economic status proxied by asset ownership

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.455246840687402
WordScorePoS
report0NN
infant0NN
mortality0NN
rate0NN
population0.0194583992186006NN
rural0.0373517915079663JJ
urban0.27622591898666JJ
economic0.0389167984372011JJ
status0NN
asset0NN
ownership0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.42971432045173
WordScorePoS
report0.0307735781890304NN
infant0NN
mortality0.276962203701274NN
rate0.0433561464459019NN
population0NN
rural0JJ
urban0JJ
economic0JJ
status0NN
asset0NN
ownership0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.310735433250659
WordScorePoS
report0NN
infant0.0583416713841148NN
mortality0NN
rate0.0155217067874935NN
population0.0310434135749871NN
rural0.148975141598503JJ
urban0JJ
economic0JJ
status0NN
asset0NN
ownership0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.209642126346537
WordScorePoS
report0NN
infant0NN
mortality0NN
rate0NN
population0.0428212738652355NN
rural0JJ
urban0JJ
economic0.128463821595706JJ
status0NN
asset0NN
ownership0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.532502366186633
WordScorePoS
report0NN
infant0NN
mortality0.0488696285210061NN
rate0.0172128079963482NN
population0.0860640399817412NN
rural0.0330412182586772JJ
urban0.0488696285210061JJ
economic0.103276847978089JJ
status0.0488696285210061NN
asset0.0488696285210061NN
ownership0NN

Stunting

Label: 2, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
stunt0.11668334276823NN

Another dimension of health extreme stunting with height for age below three standard deviations from the reference population also varies markedly across countries

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.837523320990075
WordScorePoS
dimension0.181686110904276NN
health0NN
extreme0.294526332970048JJ
stunt0NN
height0.120266261535276NN
age0.112994637345193NN
standard0NN
population0NN
country0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.331364782009438
WordScorePoS
dimension0NN
health0.191387734041787NN
extreme0JJ
stunt0NN
height0NN
age0.0893142758861673NN
standard0NN
population0NN
country0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.301859142482861
WordScorePoS
dimension0NN
health0NN
extreme0.0714379839896614JJ
stunt0.11668334276823NN
height0NN
age0.0365427838531249NN
standard0NN
population0.0310434135749871NN
country0NN

Overall rates are as high as percent in Pakistan and the Republic of Yemen but negligible in Trinidad and Tobago and very low in Jordan Armenia Brazil and Kazakhstan figure

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Figure

Label: 9, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
figure0.0602029956716497NN

Infant mortality varies across countries but also by mother education within countries Infant mortality rate per live births No education Secondary or higher Col om Jo bia Sri rdan La Vie nka Par tnam Phi agua lipp Tha ines ilan Souotswa th na fric Nic Per ara gu Bra zi Gu rke ate Ind mala one si Eg Tun ypt Zim isi bab Mo hana ro Sen cco eg Ken al ya El Nige Tur Salva ria km do eni sta Ind Bo ia li Erit via Sudea Ba Nep ngl al Cam esh ero on ComTogo oro Ug aiti and Camemen bod Zam ia Pak bia Cen ista tra Af Mad Ben rica aga in R sca epu Bu Gui lic rkin nea aF Côt Ch so ad Ivo Ma ire Eth lawi Rw opia and Mo Ni ali zam ger biq ue Source Authors calculations from Demographic Health Survey DHS data

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.804111775679327
WordScorePoS
infant0NN
mortality0.276962203701274NN
country0NN
mother0.162963395911232NN
education0.0152605842304358NN
rate0.0433561464459019NN
live0.0300513417930436VB
birth0.0748292956291867NN
secondary0JJ
source0NN
health0.191387734041787NN
survey0NN
datum0NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.437758721307703
WordScorePoS
infant0NN
mortality0NN
country0NN
mother0NN
education0.244244978014045NN
rate0.0216847879059514NN
live0.0200404333715257VB
birth0NN
secondary0.0615662203253227JJ
source0NN
health0NN
survey0NN
datum0NN

Note The continuous dark line represents the mean infant mortality rate in each country while the endpoints of the whiskers indicate the infant mortality rates by different levels of mother education

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.860218400817187
WordScorePoS
line0NN
represent0VB
infant0NN
mortality0.276962203701274NN
rate0.0433561464459019NN
country0NN
level0NN
mother0.162963395911232NN
education0.0152605842304358NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.326462842324873
WordScorePoS
line0NN
represent0VB
infant0NN
mortality0NN
rate0.0216847879059514NN
country0NN
level0.0231525547935232NN
mother0NN
education0.244244978014045NN

Figure

Label: 9, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
figure0.0602029956716497NN

Stunting levels of children born in rural versus urban areas are far from the same Percentage of children severely stunted score < Rural Urban Trin ida da nd Tob ago Jor dan Arm eni Kaz akh Brazil sta Do min ica olomb nR epu ia Par blic agu Tun isia Tur key Egy pt Tur Gabo km eni sta Sri aiti Lan Na ka Mo ibia roc Nic ara gua Gh an Bo Zim livia bab Sen ega Gu ine Be nin Côt gand ed Ma Ivoire urit Ta nia Bu nzan rkin ia Ba Fas ngl ade Rw sh and Cam Mali bod ia Gu Chad ate ma la Ne Nig al er Zam ia Ma ia law Eth iop Yem Pak en ista Source Authors calculations from Demographic Health Survey DHS data

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.558101495755085
WordScorePoS
stunt0.11668334276823NN
level0.00552410547653725NN
child0.0546336178945768NN
bear0NN
rural0.148975141598503JJ
urban0JJ
percentage0.0583416713841148NN
severely0RB
arm0NN
key0.0297950283197006NN
law0NN
source0.0130963126055467NN
health0NN
survey0NN
datum0NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.531543503748511
WordScorePoS
stunt0NN
level0.00692515656684925NN
child0.0273960270556257NN
bear0NN
rural0.0373517915079663JJ
urban0.27622591898666JJ
percentage0NN
severely0RB
arm0NN
key0NN
law0NN
source0NN
health0.0229054731708393NN
survey0NN
datum0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.363322886651431
WordScorePoS
stunt0NN
level0NN
child0.10682408961305NN
bear0.0814816979556159NN
rural0JJ
urban0JJ
percentage0NN
severely0RB
arm0NN
key0NN
law0NN
source0NN
health0.191387734041787NN
survey0NN
datum0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.339065301043956
WordScorePoS
stunt0NN
level0.0610668815653026NN
child0.0603953832457135NN
bear0NN
rural0JJ
urban0JJ
percentage0NN
severely0RB
arm0.107490825192354NN
key0NN
law0.164686343640793NN
source0NN
health0NN
survey0NN
datum0NN

Note The continuous dark line represents the percentage of severely stunted children in each country while the endpoints of the whiskers indicate the percentages for urban and rural areas

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.702142385526153
WordScorePoS
line0NN
represent0VB
percentage0.0583416713841148NN
severely0RB
stunt0.11668334276823NN
child0.0546336178945768NN
country0NN
urban0JJ
rural0.148975141598503JJ

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.607902326091629
WordScorePoS
line0.0373517915079663NN
represent0VB
percentage0NN
severely0RB
stunt0NN
child0.0273960270556257NN
country0NN
urban0.27622591898666JJ
rural0.0373517915079663JJ

Indicates stunting level in urban areas are higher than in rural areas

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.733758459634765
WordScorePoS
stunt0NN
level0.00692515656684925NN
urban0.27622591898666JJ
rural0.0373517915079663JJ

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.62084474072738
WordScorePoS
stunt0.11668334276823NN
level0.00552410547653725NN
urban0JJ
rural0.148975141598503JJ

Inequity within countries individuals and groups Figure

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.732080791860852
WordScorePoS
country0NN
individual0.064698038783335JJ
figure0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.681217816992765
WordScorePoS
country0NN
individual0JJ
figure0.0602029956716497NN

Access to childhood immunization services depends on parents economic status Percentage not covered Poorest Wealthiest Jor gypt dan Co lom Rw ia and So uth Peru Afr ic Ke nya Ma law Zam razil bia Vie tna Gu urkey ate Tan ala zan Tur Indo ia km eni esia sta Mo roc Gh ana Ph Benin ilip Ba pine ngl ad Co esh mo ro Bo Pa livia Ka zak agua hst an Bu rkin men aF Ca aso me ro Ug on and Ma India uri tan ia Ha iti Ce ntr Tog al fric Ethi opi an Ma epub dag lic Mo asc zam ar biq Gu ine Ca Mali mb Pa dia kis ta Eri tre Nig er Ch ad Source Authors calculations from Demographic Health Survey DHS data

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.307226915714681
WordScorePoS
access0.00610236075888593NN
childhood0NN
service0.0100171139310145NN
depend0VB
economic0JJ
status0NN
percentage0NN
cover0NN
poorest0JJS
law0NN
source0NN
health0.191387734041787NN
survey0NN
datum0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.254044225735845
WordScorePoS
access0.00690021170452351NN
childhood0NN
service0NN
depend0VB
economic0JJ
status0NN
percentage0NN
cover0NN
poorest0JJS
law0.164686343640793NN
source0NN
health0NN
survey0NN
datum0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.224593487471952
WordScorePoS
access0.00344404437204141NN
childhood0NN
service0.0197870712294258NN
depend0VB
economic0.128463821595706JJ
status0NN
percentage0NN
cover0NN
poorest0JJS
law0NN
source0NN
health0NN
survey0NN
datum0NN

Note The continuous dark line represents the percentage of children without access to basic immunization package in each country while the endpoints of the whiskers indicate the percentages for the top and the bottom quintile of the asset ownership distribution

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Indicates that the poorest quintile have higher access to childhood immunization services than the wealthiest quintile

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.743231866880171
WordScorePoS
poorest0.0330412182586772JJS
quintile0.064698038783335NN
access0.00138439773401932NN
childhood0NN
service0.00795378154685591NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.382845986687477
WordScorePoS
poorest0JJS
quintile0NN
access0.00697628678506322NN
childhood0.0815069365350084NN
service0NN

The difference between children born in rural and urban areas can be dramatic particularly at higher overall stunting levels

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.625071019650881
WordScorePoS
child0.0273960270556257NN
bear0NN
rural0.0373517915079663JJ
urban0.27622591898666JJ
stunt0NN
level0.00692515656684925NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.585394988697287
WordScorePoS
child0.0546336178945768NN
bear0NN
rural0.148975141598503JJ
urban0JJ
stunt0.11668334276823NN
level0.00552410547653725NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.338329591246386
WordScorePoS
child0.10682408961305NN
bear0.0814816979556159NN
rural0JJ
urban0JJ
stunt0NN
level0NN

In Guatemala stunting rates for children in urban areas are around percent but in rural areas they are as much as three times higher

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.602333000569558
WordScorePoS
stunt0.11668334276823NN
rate0.0155217067874935NN
child0.0546336178945768NN
urban0JJ
rural0.148975141598503JJ
time0.0182713919265625NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.580029139563924
WordScorePoS
stunt0NN
rate0NN
child0.0273960270556257NN
urban0.27622591898666JJ
rural0.0373517915079663JJ
time0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.313247124919281
WordScorePoS
stunt0NN
rate0.0172128079963482NN
child0.0242343960710022NN
urban0.0488696285210061JJ
rural0.0330412182586772JJ
time0.0607862199751165NN

Children in Guatemala clearly have no choice in deciding whether they are born in the countryside or the city but their opportunities to achieve good health are clearly much less assured in rural than in urban areas

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.861815085277622
WordScorePoS
child0.0273960270556257NN
choice0NN
bear0NN
city0.607697021770652NN
opportunity0.0164178645080222NN
achieve0VB
health0.0229054731708393NN
rural0.0373517915079663JJ
urban0.27622591898666JJ

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.334566889407312
WordScorePoS
child0.10682408961305NN
choice0NN
bear0.0814816979556159NN
city0NN
opportunity0NN
achieve0.00385756426954823VB
health0.191387734041787NN
rural0JJ
urban0JJ

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.248530415568015
WordScorePoS
child0.0546336178945768NN
choice0NN
bear0NN
city0.0440683498519077NN
opportunity0.0261926252110933NN
achieve0.0110482109530745VB
health0NN
rural0.148975141598503JJ
urban0JJ

As for infant mortality rates stunting among children is also sharply differentiated by mother education and household economic status

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.67415595269167
WordScorePoS
infant0NN
mortality0.276962203701274NN
rate0.0433561464459019NN
stunt0NN
child0.10682408961305NN
mother0.162963395911232NN
education0.0152605842304358NN
household0NN
economic0JJ
status0NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.381147894784559
WordScorePoS
infant0NN
mortality0NN
rate0.0216847879059514NN
stunt0NN
child0.076326555629389NN
mother0NN
education0.244244978014045NN
household0NN
economic0JJ
status0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.210201655279667
WordScorePoS
infant0NN
mortality0NN
rate0NN
stunt0NN
child0.0452169560888236NN
mother0NN
education0.0150723186962745NN
household0NN
economic0.128463821595706JJ
status0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.320305011832171
WordScorePoS
infant0NN
mortality0.0488696285210061NN
rate0.0172128079963482NN
stunt0NN
child0.0242343960710022NN
mother0NN
education0.0121171980355011NN
household0.0330412182586772NN
economic0.103276847978089JJ
status0.0488696285210061NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.306221611434223
WordScorePoS
infant0.0583416713841148NN
mortality0NN
rate0.0155217067874935NN
stunt0.11668334276823NN
child0.0546336178945768NN
mother0NN
education0NN
household0.0297950283197006NN
economic0JJ
status0NN

access to health services proxied here as having received at least one of three key childhood vaccinations bacille CalmetteGuérin diptheria pertussis and tetanus or measles figure

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.788013325993341
WordScorePoS
access0.00610236075888593NN
health0.191387734041787NN
service0.0100171139310145NN
receive0.0814816979556159VB
key0NN
childhood0NN
measles0.0407408489778079NNS
figure0NN

This is so even in countries where the overall percentage of children without any coverage is as high as percent

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.544048521285185
WordScorePoS
country0NN
percentage0NN
child0.10682408961305NN
coverage0.0307735781890304NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.5373045810308
WordScorePoS
country0NN
percentage0NN
child0.0450489732120807NN
coverage0.0908430554521382NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.446693901543792
WordScorePoS
country0NN
percentage0.0583416713841148NN
child0.0546336178945768NN
coverage0NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.30178817990353
WordScorePoS
country0NN
percentage0NN
child0.076326555629389NN
coverage0NN

Conversely children whose parents are in the bottom quintile are much more likely to lack access to such basic health care

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.652646939870841
WordScorePoS
child0.10682408961305NN
bottom0NN
quintile0NN
lack0NN
access0.00610236075888593NN
basic0JJ
health0.191387734041787NN
care0.104031537001265NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.312524253456211
WordScorePoS
child0.0242343960710022NN
bottom0.064698038783335NN
quintile0.064698038783335NN
lack0NN
access0.00138439773401932NN
basic0JJ
health0.0405241466500776NN
care0NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.309783496054775
WordScorePoS
child0.076326555629389NN
bottom0NN
quintile0NN
lack0.0255262687343935NN
access0.00697628678506322NN
basic0.0433695758119029JJ
health0NN
care0.0416255041156371NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.302902464011672
WordScorePoS
child0.0450489732120807NN
bottom0NN
quintile0NN
lack0.0753297582301286NN
access0.00514687440545096NN
basic0.0639932865717261JJ
health0NN
care0NN

In Morocco where roughly percent of children have not received even one of these three vaccinations the proportion for children in the poorest quintile is well above percent

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.642183263387232
WordScorePoS
child0.10682408961305NN
receive0.0814816979556159VB
proportion0.025518364538905NN
poorest0JJS
quintile0NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.356851530194964
WordScorePoS
child0.076326555629389NN
receive0VB
proportion0.0255262687343935NN
poorest0JJS
quintile0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.315102431659366
WordScorePoS
child0.0546336178945768NN
receive0VB
proportion0.0182713919265625NN
poorest0.0297950283197006JJS
quintile0NN

Access to immunization

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Children born in families whose asset ownership places them in the top quintile of the distribution of economic status have high probability of High impact health services

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.569234238800684
WordScorePoS
child0.10682408961305NN
bear0.0814816979556159NN
family0.0624189222007589NN
asset0NN
ownership0NN
quintile0NN
economic0JJ
status0NN
impact0NN
health0.191387734041787NN
service0.0100171139310145NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.243577359239426
WordScorePoS
child0.0452169560888236NN
bear0NN
family0NN
asset0NN
ownership0NN
quintile0NN
economic0.128463821595706JJ
status0NN
impact0NN
health0NN
service0.0197870712294258NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.426081262867676
WordScorePoS
child0.0242343960710022NN
bear0NN
family0NN
asset0.0488696285210061NN
ownership0NN
quintile0.064698038783335NN
economic0.103276847978089JJ
status0.0488696285210061NN
impact0NN
health0.0405241466500776NN
service0.00795378154685591NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.342129376404327
WordScorePoS
child0.0170753354211044NN
bear0NN
family0.0465610847355851NN
asset0NN
ownership0.0558185411034276NN
quintile0NN
economic0.0727679293221751JJ
status0NN
impact0NN
health0.0571058915334038NN
service0.022416649027415NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.326115524086816
WordScorePoS
child0.0450489732120807NN
bear0NN
family0NN
asset0NN
ownership0.0736315832425121NN
quintile0NN
economic0.0959899298575892JJ
status0NN
impact0NN
health0NN
service0.0443555132287109NN

The World Bank drawing on DHS data from low and middle income countries finds that the poor are considerably less likely WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT than the non poor to have access to highimpact health services such as skilled delivery care antenatal care and complementary feeding

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.534034129889674
WordScorePoS
world0.00087176582269799NN
bank0NN
datum0NN
middle0JJ
income0NN
country0NN
poor0JJ
development0.00837573444202498NN
report0.0307735781890304NN
access0.00610236075888593NN
health0.191387734041787NN
service0.0100171139310145NN
care0.104031537001265NN
antenatal0.0814816979556159JJ

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.413631026721578
WordScorePoS
world0.00257343720272548NN
bank0NN
datum0NN
middle0JJ
income0.0442083771593746NN
country0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
development0.0164833460638534NN
report0NN
access0.00514687440545096NN
health0NN
service0.0443555132287109NN
care0NN
antenatal0JJ

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.237868020683253
WordScorePoS
world0.00276879546803864NN
bank0NN
datum0NN
middle0JJ
income0.166475342664294NN
country0NN
poor0JJ
development0.0177346522508396NN
report0NN
access0.00138439773401932NN
health0.0405241466500776NN
service0.00795378154685591NN
care0NN
antenatal0JJ

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.378596392510596
WordScorePoS
world0.00257642711761688NN
bank0NN
datum0.0454743001434393NN
middle0.0602029956716497JJ
income0.110649350233433NN
country0NN
poor0JJ
development0.0330049940546426NN
report0NN
access0.0128821355880844NN
health0.0377086395700813NN
service0.0148023490369527NN
care0.030745604615229NN
antenatal0JJ

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.322535156038979
WordScorePoS
world0.0124838525528648NN
bank0.0881366997038154NN
datum0NN
middle0JJ
income0.0643370113878709NN
country0NN
poor0.0548141757796873JJ
development0.0159922815774215NN
report0NN
access0.00749031153171887NN
health0NN
service0.0143446978608332NN
care0NN
antenatal0JJ

Similarly Wodon draws on household survey data from African countries to indicate that while virtually all urban households are within one hour travel time to health center the proportion in rural areas is generally only around half and as low as percent in Niger and Ethiopia

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.515159163935563
WordScorePoS
household0NN
survey0NN
datum0NN
african0IN
country0NN
urban0.27622591898666JJ
travel0NN
time0NN
health0.0229054731708393NN
proportion0NN
rural0.0373517915079663JJ

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.375262804376833
WordScorePoS
household0.0297950283197006NN
survey0NN
datum0NN
african0IN
country0NN
urban0JJ
travel0NN
time0.0182713919265625NN
health0NN
proportion0.0182713919265625NN
rural0.148975141598503JJ

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.351619872288821
WordScorePoS
household0NN
survey0NN
datum0NN
african0IN
country0NN
urban0JJ
travel0NN
time0.0127591822694525NN
health0.191387734041787NN
proportion0.025518364538905NN
rural0JJ

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.480739767336304
WordScorePoS
household0.0330412182586772NN
survey0.064698038783335NN
datum0NN
african0IN
country0NN
urban0.0488696285210061JJ
travel0NN
time0.0607862199751165NN
health0.0405241466500776NN
proportion0NN
rural0.0330412182586772JJ

Disability

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.600939243273535
WordScorePoS
disability0.0704120546711269NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.539240492111565
WordScorePoS
disability0.0631828116343571NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.477009591092162
WordScorePoS
disability0.0558912165956601NN

Data from number of countries suggest that disabled people are much more likely to be poor

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.668304498527313
WordScorePoS
datum0NN
country0NN
suggest0VB
people0.0371911007748996NNS
poor0.150659516460257JJ

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.442194665654146
WordScorePoS
datum0.0454743001434393NN
country0NN
suggest0.0602029956716497VB
people0.0186171553883251NNS
poor0JJ

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.332893038217198
WordScorePoS
datum0.0739231123597559NN
country0NN
suggest0VB
people0.00432344066632653NNS
poor0.0153248097886055JJ

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.314320903358021
WordScorePoS
datum0NN
country0NN
suggest0VB
people0.024149913320522NNS
poor0.0642010940957526JJ

Hoogeveen reports that in Uganda the probability of poverty for urban dwellers living in household with disabled head is percent higher than for those who live in household with an able bodied head

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.652160962780834
WordScorePoS
report0NN
poverty0.269969049497485NN
urban0JJ
live0.0739258553811849VB
household0NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.54098324770985
WordScorePoS
report0NN
poverty0.0164178645080222NN
urban0.27622591898666JJ
live0.0269743071558856VB
household0NN

The Serbian Poverty Reduction Strategy reports that percent of disabled people are unemployed

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.825541398494982
WordScorePoS
poverty0.269969049497485NN
reduction0NN
strategy0.0442083771593746NN
report0NN
people0.0371911007748996NNS

In study drawing on household surveys in eight countries self reported disability was found to be more correlated with nonattendance at school than other characteristics including gender or rural residence

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.621656449151817
WordScorePoS
study0NN
household0NN
survey0NN
country0NN
report0NN
disability0.0704120546711269NN
school0.208127520578185NN
characteristic0JJ
include0VB
gender0.10561808200669NN
rural0JJ

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.54467358881552
WordScorePoS
study0NN
household0.0465610847355851NN
survey0NN
country0NN
report0NN
disability0NN
school0.0931221694711702NN
characteristic0JJ
include0VB
gender0.196902218579822NN
rural0JJ

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.337507005533454
WordScorePoS
study0NN
household0.0297950283197006NN
survey0NN
country0NN
report0NN
disability0NN
school0.0297950283197006NN
characteristic0JJ
include0VB
gender0NN
rural0.148975141598503JJ

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.302078219578775
WordScorePoS
study0NN
household0.0330412182586772NN
survey0.064698038783335NN
country0NN
report0NN
disability0.0558912165956601NN
school0NN
characteristic0JJ
include0VB
gender0NN
rural0.0330412182586772JJ

Sen emphasizes that the disabled face not only an earnings handicap associated with lower probability of employment and lower compensation for their work but also conversion handicap

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.824351029662739
WordScorePoS
employment0.173804667214358NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.493345640840179
WordScorePoS
employment0.104016094894625NN

By this he means that physically disabled person requires more income than an ablebodied person to achieve the same living standard

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.412995437696639
WordScorePoS
means0NNS
person0.0237821918091848NN
require0VB
income0.166475342664294NN
achieve0.018377882320743VB
live0.0159075630937118VB
standard0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.562476212453201
WordScorePoS
means0.120266261535276NNS
person0.0442083771593746NN
require0VB
income0.0442083771593746NN
achieve0.0113874611101829VB
live0.0739258553811849VB
standard0NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.40256392693376
WordScorePoS
means0NNS
person0.107539312031977NN
require0VB
income0NN
achieve0VB
live0.0269743071558856VB
standard0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.334170647278475
WordScorePoS
means0NNS
person0NN
require0.0260040237236563VB
income0.110649350233433NN
achieve0.0114006914853063VB
live0.00740117451847634VB
standard0.0454743001434393NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.31363272624634
WordScorePoS
means0NNS
person0.0295821503613099NN
require0.104282800328615VB
income0NN
achieve0.0152398983378455VB
live0.00989353561471291VB
standard0NN

Social inequalities damaging health

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.937780897147321
WordScorePoS
social0.101310366625194JJ
inequality0.635305170773079NN
health0.0405241466500776NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.268083896591079
WordScorePoS
social0JJ
inequality0.0307735781890304NN
health0.191387734041787NN

Not only are health outcomes correlated with inequalities in other dimensions but such social inequalities can be argued to be detrimental to individual health outcomes

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.932094124252713
WordScorePoS
health0.0405241466500776NN
outcome0.0330412182586772NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
dimension0.0488696285210061NN
social0.101310366625194JJ
detrimental0JJ
individual0.064698038783335JJ

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.253672461745973
WordScorePoS
health0.191387734041787NN
outcome0NN
inequality0.0307735781890304NN
dimension0NN
social0JJ
detrimental0JJ
individual0JJ

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.16823899284481
WordScorePoS
health0NN
outcome0NN
inequality0NN
dimension0.181686110904276NN
social0.112994637345193JJ
detrimental0JJ
individual0JJ

In his comprehensive review of the literature Deaton argues that while it is certainly plausible that various inequalities such as those in power cause bad health it is not clear that inequality of income is the main culprit

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.969275888790683
WordScorePoS
review0NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
power0NN
bad0JJ
health0.0405241466500776NN
income0.166475342664294NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.165919098260935
WordScorePoS
review0NN
inequality0.0307735781890304NN
power0NN
bad0JJ
health0.191387734041787NN
income0NN

He provides evidence suggesting that after controlling for an individual income income inequality at the group level does not matter independently for individual health

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.932672294758308
WordScorePoS
evidence0.12939607756667NN
suggest0VB
control0NN
individual0.064698038783335JJ
income0.166475342664294NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
level0NN
health0.0405241466500776NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.178774175453149
WordScorePoS
evidence0NN
suggest0VB
control0.020806307400253NN
individual0JJ
income0NN
inequality0.0307735781890304NN
level0NN
health0.191387734041787NN

Thus the main inequalities that affect health may not be in the income space

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.930941946901401
WordScorePoS
inequality0.635305170773079NN
affect0VB
health0.0405241466500776NN
income0.166475342664294NN
space0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.252458243698454
WordScorePoS
inequality0.0307735781890304NN
affect0.00625975725959118VB
health0.191387734041787NN
income0NN
space0NN

He cites examples of other key dimensions of inequality land ownership women agency health and fertility in India and democratic rights in England in the and in the U

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.70792520458876
WordScorePoS
key0NN
dimension0.0488696285210061NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
land0NN
ownership0NN
woman0.0242343960710022NN
agency0NN
health0.0405241466500776NN
fertility0NN
democratic0JJ
rights0NNS

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.41394214050448
WordScorePoS
key0NN
dimension0NN
inequality0NN
land0.024255976440725NN
ownership0.0558185411034276NN
woman0.221979360474357NN
agency0NN
health0.0571058915334038NN
fertility0NN
democratic0JJ
rights0.078760887431929NNS

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.363267904362256
WordScorePoS
key0NN
dimension0.181686110904276NN
inequality0NN
land0.0319966432858631NN
ownership0.0736315832425121NN
woman0.0450489732120807NN
agency0NN
health0NN
fertility0NN
democratic0JJ
rights0.0519476926891779NNS

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.262693246819672
WordScorePoS
key0NN
dimension0NN
inequality0.0307735781890304NN
land0NN
ownership0NN
woman0.0381514605760894NN
agency0NN
health0.191387734041787NN
fertility0NN
democratic0JJ
rights0.0175975629039954NNS

South in the

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

In general an individual rank in the relevant hierarchy has been found to be important to health in animal and human experiments

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.608977052045355
WordScorePoS
individual0JJ
relevant0JJ
health0.191387734041787NN
animal0NN
human0JJ

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.364006160533922
WordScorePoS
individual0JJ
relevant0JJ
health0NN
animal0.0950205536020462NN
human0.0193783617722719JJ

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.334806703344002
WordScorePoS
individual0.064698038783335JJ
relevant0JJ
health0.0405241466500776NN
animal0NN
human0JJ

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.313469293321474
WordScorePoS
individual0JJ
relevant0.0832510082312742JJ
health0NN
animal0NN
human0.0152653111258778JJ

Repeated stress associated with insults and the lack of control that comes from low rank has well developed biochemical basis

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.738641226813876
WordScorePoS
stress0NN
lack0.0753297582301286NN
control0.0614198493690006NN
develop0VB
basis0NN

The consequences of poor health are reflected in education achievements economic prosperity and future generations

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.490738158082899
WordScorePoS
poor0.150659516460257JJ
health0NN
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education0.0225244866060403NN
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Label: 4, with a score of: 0.349645279842667
WordScorePoS
poor0JJ
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Label: 3, with a score of: 0.295824338575155
WordScorePoS
poor0JJ
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.205477035179983
WordScorePoS
poor0JJ
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.389474977176959
WordScorePoS
poor0.0339811641917276JJ
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.315081295094225
WordScorePoS
poor0JJ
health0.0377086395700813NN
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education0.022550656390892NN
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economic0.0320338181740375JJ
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Consider the plight of AIDS orphans in southern Africa the stark inequalities of opportunity they face and the possible role for public action box

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.893186942473293
WordScorePoS
aid0NN
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africa0IN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
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DHS data figures

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.819417641095815
WordScorePoS
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.573196937763079
WordScorePoS
datum0.0739231123597559NN
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provide detailed insights into the relationship between inequalities in health and some key circumstance variables

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.907745628063228
WordScorePoS
provide0VB
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Label: 3, with a score of: 0.311852335856927
WordScorePoS
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But they are not particularly well suited to capturing the contribution of detailed spatial factors such as place of birth in overall inequality because of the limited sample size

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.959299958627023
WordScorePoS
capture0NN
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In one attempt to get around this problem child height in Cambodia was estimated at the commune level based on statistical procedure to combine DHS data with population census data

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.455402494731756
WordScorePoS
child0.0450489732120807NN
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Label: 3, with a score of: 0.374576531529354
WordScorePoS
child0.10682408961305NN
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level0NN
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The study documents considerable heterogeneity across Cambodia more than communes in the prevalence of stunting and being underweight among children under the age of five figure

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.583307493974353
WordScorePoS
study0NN
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child0.10682408961305NN
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.51184797678184
WordScorePoS
study0NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.389177339245875
WordScorePoS
study0NN
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child0.0450489732120807NN
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The analysis provides clear evidence that in Cambodia child opportunities for good health have strong spatial dimension to them

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.590910558753828
WordScorePoS
evidence0.12939607756667NN
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Label: 3, with a score of: 0.549063379792828
WordScorePoS
evidence0NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.417461420800773
WordScorePoS
evidence0NN
child0.0450489732120807NN
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strong0JJ
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Yet clearly no child is able to determine in which locality he or she is born

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.837504442707195
WordScorePoS
child0.10682408961305NN
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Trends Average health in most countries improved in the twentieth century chapter

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.795657605261362
WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.401147132590395
WordScorePoS
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Label: 3, with a score of: 0.385317701405149
WordScorePoS
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Deaton documents that improvements in health are likely to have accompanied economic growth but he also emphasizes the globalization of knowledge facilitated by local political eco Inequity within countries individuals and groups BOX

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.467679671545181
WordScorePoS
document0NN
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Label: 3, with a score of: 0.249715818030551
WordScorePoS
document0NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.557719109856006
WordScorePoS
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.434071750882178
WordScorePoS
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Unequal assets unequal opportunities AIDS orphans in Southern Africa It is hard to imagine people with fewer assets through absolutely no fault of their own than AIDS orphans

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.665583511195692
WordScorePoS
asset0NN
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aid0.123094312756122NN
southern0.0416126148005059JJ
africa0IN
people0.00539943740774902NNS

Left to fend for themselves on the death of one or both parents from progressively debilitating heavily stigmatized and costly totreat disease their plight would be of concern even if they numbered but few

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.941555905493634
WordScorePoS
death0.193573191943949NN
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In southern Africa however the United Nations Children Fund UNICEF estimates that there were

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.550714921473208
WordScorePoS
southern0.0416126148005059JJ
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Label: 13, with a score of: 0.505836393966214
WordScorePoS
southern0JJ
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.301932789153922
WordScorePoS
southern0.0595900566394012JJ
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million AIDS orphans in veritable demographic group in their own right

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.896628537902683
WordScorePoS
aid0.123094312756122NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.442783541946284
WordScorePoS
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By UNICEF projects that there will be

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.778049848378303
WordScorePoS
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Label: 6, with a score of: 0.489993527444456
WordScorePoS
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Label: 13, with a score of: 0.393121834169814
WordScorePoS
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million AIDS orphans in South Africa by million in Zambia

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.896628537902683
WordScorePoS
aid0.123094312756122NN
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.442783541946284
WordScorePoS
aid0.0607878664258118NN
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An entire generation of Africans is emerging who will have been raised if they are lucky by grandparents or extended family members themselves likely to be impoverished overwhelmed and suffering from the disease

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.736813699927154
WordScorePoS
generation0NN
african0IN
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Label: 6, with a score of: 0.416227134143568
WordScorePoS
generation0NN
african0IN
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family0.0348974218717993NN
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At worst they will grow up in child headed households or in situations in which their basic rights to food clothing shelter and adequate care are routinely denied

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.519706342712129
WordScorePoS
worst0JJS
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child0.0546336178945768NN
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.388513188165506
WordScorePoS
worst0JJS
grow0.0339811641917276VB
child0NN
household0.0554128417527413NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.327579047750089
WordScorePoS
worst0JJS
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child0.0450489732120807NN
household0NN
situation0.0519476926891779NN
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rights0.0519476926891779NNS
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adequate0.0519476926891779JJ
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Wills and schooling Beginning to overcome the huge disadvantages that AIDS orphans start life with requires special attention on numerous fronts box

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.637939048121197
WordScorePoS
schooling0NN
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Label: 3, with a score of: 0.484604483352096
WordScorePoS
schooling0.0407408489778079NN
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.455256224591164
WordScorePoS
schooling0NN
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considers variety of policy options

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.796402470876869
WordScorePoS
variety0.120266261535276NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.408620326446485
WordScorePoS
variety0NN
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.309051728226251
WordScorePoS
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From legal standpoint parents who know their death is imminent and who have young children need to be encouraged even if they are illiterate to prepare enforceable wills that will protect the inheritance rights of their children to ensure that surviving adults do not just forcibly take their land savings or other valuables

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.570900338543942
WordScorePoS
legal0JJ
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child0.10682408961305NN
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ensure0.00837573444202498VB
survive0.0814816979556159VB
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Label: 4, with a score of: 0.425020711703021
WordScorePoS
legal0JJ
death0NN
child0.076326555629389NN
encouraged0JJ
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.337535141915266
WordScorePoS
legal0JJ
death0NN
child0.0170753354211044NN
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.32112203332097
WordScorePoS
legal0.0811931365363091JJ
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child0.0603953832457135NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.315639169253437
WordScorePoS
legal0JJ
death0NN
child0.0450489732120807NN
encouraged0JJ
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inheritance0.0908430554521382NN
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land0.0319966432858631NN

From an education standpoint it is vital to keep children in school where the acquisition of even basic skills can give them some viable prospect of being able to move out of poverty

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.873493860362167
WordScorePoS
education0.244244978014045NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.358041921533974
WordScorePoS
education0.0225244866060403NN
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child0.0450489732120807NN
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Where child is the head of household and perhaps its sole income earner however the pressures to drop out of school are enormous

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.552596169094958
WordScorePoS
child0.076326555629389NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.434670943424884
WordScorePoS
child0.0242343960710022NN
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.432491437416098
WordScorePoS
child0.0546336178945768NN
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.304527877596212
WordScorePoS
child0.0170753354211044NN
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Numerous studies document significantly higher dropout rates of AIDS orphans

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.720047879083559
WordScorePoS
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.394397843462218
WordScorePoS
study0NN
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In Kenya one extreme example found that percent of the children orphaned by AIDS were not in school compared to percent of nonorphans UNAIDS

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.588661910975449
WordScorePoS
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Label: 4, with a score of: 0.493107941115416
WordScorePoS
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Label: 3, with a score of: 0.451915780263065
WordScorePoS
extreme0JJ
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Attending school is also important from civic perspective it socializes children into the norms and mores of society and gives them the confidence and capacity to participate more fully in it

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.583712671514496
WordScorePoS
attend0VB
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.513716137574141
WordScorePoS
attend0VB
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.329760615238964
WordScorePoS
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Without such socialization vulnerable young children are easy targets for those offering them security and status through membership in street gang criminal network or militia movement

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.503299440948263
WordScorePoS
vulnerable0.0182713919265625JJ
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Label: 4, with a score of: 0.450612140558855
WordScorePoS
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.401715204763698
WordScorePoS
vulnerable0.112994637345193JJ
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If AIDS orphans continue to stay from school at their current rate comments one senior U

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.617291204650299
WordScorePoS
aid0NN
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Label: 3, with a score of: 0.447097046947357
WordScorePoS
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.340151682903752
WordScorePoS
aid0NN
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.30108381962595
WordScorePoS
aid0NN
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official you will have society where kids haven been to school and therefore can fulfill even basic jobs

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.558162442718574
WordScorePoS
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.452421782873697
WordScorePoS
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.362882464089211
WordScorePoS
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.33557911057453
WordScorePoS
official0NN
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.300694722241468
WordScorePoS
official0NN
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a society where large proportion can have antisocial instincts because their lives have been so hard

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.577212364880694
WordScorePoS
society0.118536858482514NN
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.471038600106783
WordScorePoS
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.370443828602003
WordScorePoS
society0.0335134328085675NN
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You [will] have generation of children who will be more vulnerable to exploitation and to disease because they won have the same sense of self worth cited in Fleshman

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.636352005296731
WordScorePoS
generation0NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.312142191389619
WordScorePoS
generation0NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.312101656734355
WordScorePoS
generation0NN
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Such children face the dismal prospect of failing to accumulate assets because of the extreme burdens thrust on them nomic and educational conditions

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.710004487194605
WordScorePoS
child0.0450489732120807NN
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.35573885080721
WordScorePoS
child0.0546336178945768NN
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.348740192302015
WordScorePoS
child0.0452169560888236NN
asset0NN
extreme0JJ
burden0NN
educational0JJ
condition0.121575732851624NN

In the and however progress slowed result of the worldwide HIV AIDS epidemic and rises in cardiovascular mortality in Eastern Europe and former Soviet Union countries

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.968516500104942
WordScorePoS
progress0.0449274832628543NN
slow0.0307735781890304JJ
result0NN
worldwide0RB
hiv0.448149338755887NN
aid0.123094312756122NN
epidemic0.0407408489778079JJ
rise0NN
mortality0.276962203701274NN
eastern0.0407408489778079JJ
country0NN

How have inequalities in health evolved within countries

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.943817550563487
WordScorePoS
inequality0.635305170773079NN
health0.0405241466500776NN
country0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.310255474472667
WordScorePoS
inequality0.0307735781890304NN
health0.191387734041787NN
country0NN

Data from DHS provide some clues

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.671370855257571
WordScorePoS
datum0.0739231123597559NN
provide0.00601568197638796VB

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.444077909114395
WordScorePoS
datum0.0454743001434393NN
provide0.00740117451847634VB

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.373905150239172
WordScorePoS
datum0NN
provide0.0445201436316848VB

For subset of countries multiple rounds of DHS data are available to document changes in infant mortality over time

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.720487861478159
WordScorePoS
country0NN
multiple0JJ
round0NN
datum0NN
document0NN
infant0NN
mortality0.276962203701274NN
time0.0127591822694525NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.480695319679566
WordScorePoS
country0NN
multiple0JJ
round0.11668334276823NN
datum0NN
document0NN
infant0.0583416713841148NN
mortality0NN
time0.0182713919265625NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.305522412937653
WordScorePoS
country0NN
multiple0.048933054487825JJ
round0NN
datum0.0739231123597559NN
document0NN
infant0NN
mortality0NN
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Of some spells of health change that could be identified roughly corresponded to improved health outcomes in the form of lower infant mortality rates

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.712964127346821
WordScorePoS
health0.191387734041787NN
change0NN
identify0VB
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outcome0NN
form0NN
infant0NN
mortality0.276962203701274NN
rate0.0433561464459019NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.418628838102649
WordScorePoS
health0NN
change0.402565546215053NN
identify0VB
improve0.0102677744436108VB
outcome0NN
form0NN
infant0NN
mortality0NN
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.218266352808316
WordScorePoS
health0NN
change0NN
identify0VB
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outcome0NN
form0.158049144643351NN
infant0NN
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rate0.0571955184484387NN

Although overall health improved in these cases the gaps between urban and rural areas between groups defined by mother education and between groups defined by durable asset ownership did not universally decline alongside the overall declines in their most formative years and the paucity of opportunities available to them thereafter

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.533028222745957
WordScorePoS
health0.0229054731708393NN
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gap0NN
urban0.27622591898666JJ
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mother0NN
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ownership0NN
decline0.0315914058171786NN
opportunity0.0164178645080222NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.528848032981942
WordScorePoS
health0.191387734041787NN
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gap0NN
urban0JJ
rural0JJ
mother0.162963395911232NN
education0.0152605842304358NN
asset0NN
ownership0NN
decline0.0351951258079907NN
opportunity0NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.330258832930394
WordScorePoS
health0NN
improve0.0305306222517556VB
gap0NN
urban0JJ
rural0JJ
mother0NN
education0.244244978014045NN
asset0NN
ownership0NN
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.236804127165838
WordScorePoS
health0NN
improve0.0218534471578307VB
gap0NN
urban0JJ
rural0.148975141598503JJ
mother0NN
education0NN
asset0NN
ownership0NN
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opportunity0.0261926252110933NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.337110948144077
WordScorePoS
health0.0405241466500776NN
improve0.0121171980355011VB
gap0NN
urban0.0488696285210061JJ
rural0.0330412182586772JJ
mother0NN
education0.0121171980355011NN
asset0.0488696285210061NN
ownership0NN
decline0.02794560829783NN
opportunity0.029046330719385NN

Avoiding infection The most immediate priority however is ensuring that AIDS orphans do not themselves become infected with the disease thereby increasing the likelihood that they will perpetuate the cycle

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.904690335918577
WordScorePoS
avoid0VB
infection0.122222546933424NN
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ensure0.00837573444202498VB
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infected0.0407408489778079JJ
disease0.215415047323213NN
increase0.0143984997539974NN
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AIDS orphans face precisely such risk however because the stigma of HIV AIDS means that people often assume that the children of parents who died from AIDS must be infected shunning shaming or exploiting them accordingly

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.932410159932327
WordScorePoS
aid0.123094312756122NN
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hiv0.448149338755887NN
means0NNS
people0.00539943740774902NNS
child0.10682408961305NN
die0.0748292956291867VB
infected0.0407408489778079JJ

Some AIDS orphans have even been denied access to schools and health clinics because of the fear their very presence generates

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.719071934206685
WordScorePoS
aid0.123094312756122NN
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health0.191387734041787NN
generate0VB

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.482478583393084
WordScorePoS
aid0NN
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health0NN
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.354465276052655
WordScorePoS
aid0NN
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Children grieving the loss of parent are also vulnerable to the sexual predations of those putatively claiming to offer them comfort

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.415198327134276
WordScorePoS
child0.0170753354211044NN
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Label: 3, with a score of: 0.451576051916466
WordScorePoS
child0.10682408961305NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.423877065623454
WordScorePoS
child0.0450489732120807NN
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vulnerable0.112994637345193JJ
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Label: 4, with a score of: 0.341634033883737
WordScorePoS
child0.076326555629389NN
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vulnerable0.051052537468787JJ
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.313725586751006
WordScorePoS
child0.0546336178945768NN
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Indeed the desperation and apparent hopelessness of their circumstances all the more so if it coincides with natural disaster such as drought can drive AIDS orphans into prostitution

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.518293663571064
WordScorePoS
circumstance0NN
natural0.0229054731708393JJ
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Label: 3, with a score of: 0.35274864345607
WordScorePoS
circumstance0NN
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Label: 6, with a score of: 0.350378763421183
WordScorePoS
circumstance0NN
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.349148668506722
WordScorePoS
circumstance0NN
natural0JJ
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drought0.0714379839896614NN
drive0NN
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The plight of AIDS orphans provides graphic illustration of how cycles of disadvantage can perpetuate themselves and how social isolation and exclusion especially at young age can preclude the acquisition of assets and undermine the capacity to sustain participation in the institutions that provide the best path out of poverty

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.662310971578279
WordScorePoS
aid0NN
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age0.112994637345193NN
asset0NN
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participation0.0614198493690006NN
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provide0.0295703421524739VB
poverty0.269969049497485NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.43023992975459
WordScorePoS
aid0NN
cycle0NN
social0JJ
exclusion0NN
age0NN
asset0.0811931365363091NN
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participation0.0548954478802642NN
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provide0.013214597504793VB
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.358880649744776
WordScorePoS
aid0NN
cycle0NN
social0.101310366625194JJ
exclusion0NN
age0.0202620733250388NN
asset0.0488696285210061NN
capacity0NN
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participation0NN
institution0.0991236547760315NN
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poverty0.05809266143877NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.304281638233055
WordScorePoS
aid0.0607878664258118NN
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exclusion0NN
age0.0252035516550537NN
asset0NN
capacity0.0123650647908625NN
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participation0NN
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poverty0.0722601961736204NN

Sources Avert

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.698086939742219
WordScorePoS
source0NN
avert0.0814816979556159VB

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.52566372467018
WordScorePoS
source0.0613562156822703NN
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avert

Label: 3, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
avert0.0814816979556159VB

org aidsorphans

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Accessed December

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.887049741719444
WordScorePoS
access0NN
december0.0548233071065585NNP

Fleshman

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Hargreaves and Glynn Lewis UNAIDS UNICEF USAID UNAIDS and UNICEF

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Figure

Label: 9, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
figure0.0602029956716497NN

Stunting and underweight in Cambodia Stunting and underweight number of communes Stunting low underweight low Stunting low underweight high Stunting high underweight low Stunting high underweight high Incomplete data kilometers Source Fujii

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT BOX

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.557885995940362
WordScorePoS
world0.00464349782489754NN
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.419953944381463
WordScorePoS
world0.00418824502414673NN
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Label: 3, with a score of: 0.3286817118747
WordScorePoS
world0.00087176582269799NN
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Health improvements and greater health equity in Peru Paxson and Schady drawing on multiple rounds of DHS data document the declining infant mortality rate in Peru between the late and late s

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.860187858752355
WordScorePoS
health0.191387734041787NN
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multiple0JJ
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rate0.0433561464459019NN

A general downward trend exhibited sharp setback during the major economic crisis between and but resumed after the crisis

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.627518463839313
WordScorePoS
major0.0214106369326177JJ
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.432416100980469
WordScorePoS
major0JJ
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The downward trend remained evident even after adjusting for age of mother recall period education and urban status indicating that the overall trend decline in infant mortality was not attributable only to general improvements in education an aging population or urbanization

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.583718368523362
WordScorePoS
remain0VB
age0.0893142758861673NN
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population0NN
urbanization0NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.502826587704805
WordScorePoS
remain0.0499016491051341VB
age0.0255262687343935NN
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urbanization0NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.403965294801685
WordScorePoS
remain0VB
age0NN
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population0.0194583992186006NN
urbanization0.146277152173395NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.311353520610591
WordScorePoS
remain0.0396106020715138VB
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education0.0121171980355011NN
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population0.0860640399817412NN
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In addition the fact that infant mortality rose sharply around even after these adjustments supports the notion that the decrease in household income and the collapse of public expenditures on health as result of the crisis were important

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.6151092132405
WordScorePoS
addition0NN
infant0NN
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support0.00625975725959118NN
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income0NN
public0.021678073222951NN
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health0.191387734041787NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.489079495573868
WordScorePoS
addition0NN
infant0NN
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rise0.0237821918091848NN
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household0.0330412182586772NN
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.311235304110902
WordScorePoS
addition0.0368585655748969NN
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rise0.0221298700466866NN
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Infant mortality rates in Peru varied markedly with the education level of the mother in late and the see figure below

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.798272473788818
WordScorePoS
infant0NN
mortality0.276962203701274NN
rate0.0433561464459019NN
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level0NN
mother0.162963395911232NN
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Label: 4, with a score of: 0.46288237781312
WordScorePoS
infant0NN
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rate0.0216847879059514NN
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level0.0231525547935232NN
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During the economic crisis increases in mortality were largest among infants born to women with less education

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.563353835058433
WordScorePoS
economic0JJ
increase0.0143984997539974NN
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.462574398591368
WordScorePoS
economic0.0727679293221751JJ
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Label: 4, with a score of: 0.422539625006691
WordScorePoS
economic0JJ
increase0.0144029596227568NN
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woman0.0610612445035112NN
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.258860575868674
WordScorePoS
economic0.128463821595706JJ
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woman0.0452169560888236NN
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After the crisis the gap between infant mortality rates associated with different maternal education levels declined steadily suggesting an overall decline in inequality in mortality alongside the decline in overall mortality rates

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.758859163287618
WordScorePoS
gap0NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.581713784864484
WordScorePoS
gap0NN
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Label: 4, with a score of: 0.188081990327827
WordScorePoS
gap0NN
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There is some support for the view that changes in the amount and composition of public expenditures on social programs drove these improvements

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.476584510808122
WordScorePoS
support0.0184786920895884NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.452687818728207
WordScorePoS
support0NN
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.328851436468238
WordScorePoS
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Label: 11, with a score of: 0.312944416462521
WordScorePoS
support0.0224752180723703NN
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Real total expenditures increased two and half times between and and such public spending did not bypass the poor

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.416112074154474
WordScorePoS
total0NN
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poor0.150659516460257JJ

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.402014380193633
WordScorePoS
total0NN
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.378484256980601
WordScorePoS
total0.0260040237236563NN
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.376432397545911
WordScorePoS
total0.0468670845659596NN
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.307051265513835
WordScorePoS
total0.0252000451111224NN
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Adjusted infant mortality rates by maternal education Probability of dying in the first year

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WordScorePoS
infant0NN
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die0.0748292956291867VB

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.376798566729611
WordScorePoS
infant0NN
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Years of maternal education th percentile or year th percentile or years th percentile or years th percentile or years

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.74384442764633
WordScorePoS
maternal0JJ
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Label: 3, with a score of: 0.608798713813393
WordScorePoS
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th percentile or years

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Source Paxson and Schady

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WordScorePoS
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in infant mortality

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WordScorePoS
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The improvements in health were not necessarily shared across all groups in the population

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 7, with a score of: 0.380517269629326
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.368260303553543
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.351688185671949
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.319755450727463
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As Cornia and Menchini note mortality differentials across groups tend to narrow with an improvement of the average only if policies focus explicitly on equity

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WordScorePoS
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improvement0NN
average0.146608885563018NN
policy0.0848203862485078NN
focus0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.54042599675559
WordScorePoS
mortality0.276962203701274NN
differential0JJ
improvement0NN
average0NN
policy0NN
focus0NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.397880009043212
WordScorePoS
mortality0NN
differential0JJ
improvement0NN
average0.1656430212089NN
policy0.0102677744436108NN
focus0.0279982034978914NN

Without such focus improvements in the average may not translate to declining group differences

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.686246332569418
WordScorePoS
focus0.0279982034978914NN
improvement0NN
average0.1656430212089NN
decline0.0236803262479443NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.551198814472238
WordScorePoS
focus0NN
improvement0NN
average0.146608885563018NN
decline0.02794560829783NN

For example in the United States between the and the overall decline in the infant mortality rate to

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.877798627762482
WordScorePoS
unite0VB
decline0.0351951258079907NN
infant0NN
mortality0.276962203701274NN
rate0.0433561464459019NN

in was accompanied by an increase in the ratio of black to white infant mortality rates from

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.916764184370654
WordScorePoS
increase0.0143984997539974NN
ratio0.0615471563780609NN
infant0NN
mortality0.276962203701274NN
rate0.0433561464459019NN

Inequality in health does not inevitably fall as overall health improves but such virtuous process is possible box

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.771417378311347
WordScorePoS
inequality0.635305170773079NN
health0.0405241466500776NN
fall0NN
improve0.0121171980355011VB
process0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.568280968119952
WordScorePoS
inequality0.0307735781890304NN
health0.191387734041787NN
fall0.123094312756122NN
improve0VB
process0NN

Inequalities in education Education is of great intrinsic importance when assessing inequalities of opportunity

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.928833741032553
WordScorePoS
inequality0.635305170773079NN
education0.0121171980355011NN
opportunity0.029046330719385NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.342721515512979
WordScorePoS
inequality0NN
education0.244244978014045NN
opportunity0NN

It is also an important determinant of individuals income health and that of their children and capacity to interact and communicate with others

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.592631615450212
WordScorePoS
individual0JJ
income0NN
health0.191387734041787NN
child0.10682408961305NN
capacity0.00625975725959118NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.576009799524382
WordScorePoS
individual0.064698038783335JJ
income0.166475342664294NN
health0.0405241466500776NN
child0.0242343960710022NN
capacity0NN

Inequalities in education thus contribute to inequalities in other important dimensions of well being

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.966873542278922
WordScorePoS
inequality0.635305170773079NN
education0.0121171980355011NN
contribute0VB
dimension0.0488696285210061NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.177346432339416
WordScorePoS
inequality0NN
education0.244244978014045NN
contribute0VB
dimension0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.148277443445623
WordScorePoS
inequality0NN
education0.0225244866060403NN
contribute0VB
dimension0.181686110904276NN

Measuring inequality in education is not easy

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.904193315885437
WordScorePoS
measure0NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
education0.0121171980355011NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.341113756951732
WordScorePoS
measure0NN
inequality0NN
education0.244244978014045NN

Census and survey data in most countries can generally yield statistics on for example years of schooling

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.560266479590367
WordScorePoS
survey0NN
datum0NN
country0NN
yield0.0828215106044499NN
schooling0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.500071075978882
WordScorePoS
survey0NN
datum0.0739231123597559NN
country0NN
yield0NN
schooling0NN

But such information does not capture well the quality of education and how that might vary across individuals

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.856687934764645
WordScorePoS
information0.0182963616752599NN
capture0NN
quality0.076326555629389NN
education0.244244978014045NN
individual0JJ

Nor is it easy to compare years of schooling across countries because those years might mean something quite different from country to country

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.865386059359477
WordScorePoS
compare0.0307735781890304VB
schooling0.0407408489778079NN
country0NN

Test results

Label: 6, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
result0.0683326727248364NN

Despite the measurement difficulties there is considerable evidence of inequalities of opportunity in education in the developing world

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.936639889406714
WordScorePoS
measurement0NN
difficulty0NN
evidence0.12939607756667NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
opportunity0.029046330719385NN
education0.0121171980355011NN
develop0VB
world0.00276879546803864NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.284929001384085
WordScorePoS
measurement0NN
difficulty0NN
evidence0NN
inequality0NN
opportunity0NN
education0.244244978014045NN
develop0VB
world0.0017440716962658NN

Consider the differences in test performance among Ecuadorian children ages three to six years across population groups defined by parental education region of residence and wealth box

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.525472650434754
WordScorePoS
performance0NN
child0.0450489732120807NN
age0.112994637345193NN
population0NN
education0.0225244866060403NN
region0.184259548107002NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.498495472815305
WordScorePoS
performance0NN
child0.076326555629389NN
age0.0255262687343935NN
population0NN
education0.244244978014045NN
region0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.484292354694994
WordScorePoS
performance0NN
child0.10682408961305NN
age0.0893142758861673NN
population0NN
education0.0152605842304358NN
region0.124837844401518NN

Test results among very young children capture well the inequality in opportunity in education but such data are not readily available for large numbers of developing countries

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.84656439297322
WordScorePoS
result0NN
child0.0242343960710022NN
capture0NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
opportunity0.029046330719385NN
education0.0121171980355011NN
datum0NN
develop0VB
country0NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.387303049591019
WordScorePoS
result0NN
child0.076326555629389NN
capture0NN
inequality0NN
opportunity0NN
education0.244244978014045NN
datum0NN
develop0VB
country0NN

So we look instead at the percentage of household heads with no education by gender and by urban rural residence

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.557900652289695
WordScorePoS
percentage0NN
household0NN
education0.244244978014045NN
gender0.10561808200669NN
urban0JJ
rural0JJ

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.500039098777941
WordScorePoS
percentage0NN
household0NN
education0NN
gender0NN
urban0.27622591898666JJ
rural0.0373517915079663JJ

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.469919167879639
WordScorePoS
percentage0NN
household0.0465610847355851NN
education0.0512260062633133NN
gender0.196902218579822NN
urban0JJ
rural0JJ

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.378104653061498
WordScorePoS
percentage0.0583416713841148NN
household0.0297950283197006NN
education0NN
gender0NN
urban0JJ
rural0.148975141598503JJ

Male and female household heads

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.888683727794981
WordScorePoS
female0.0911713013253052NN
household0.0465610847355851NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.357537483992828
WordScorePoS
female0NN
household0.0554128417527413NN

The overall percentage of household heads without any education varies dramatically across our sample of odd countries figure

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.806781448638052
WordScorePoS
percentage0NN
household0NN
education0.244244978014045NN
country0NN
figure0NN

In the high income countries the percentage rates are negligible

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.615924121924957
WordScorePoS
income0.166475342664294NN
country0NN
percentage0NN
rate0.0172128079963482NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.463399262733977
WordScorePoS
income0.0643370113878709NN
country0NN
percentage0.0583416713841148NN
rate0.0155217067874935NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.371017965170776
WordScorePoS
income0.110649350233433NN
country0NN
percentage0NN
rate0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.362810635768881
WordScorePoS
income0.0442083771593746NN
country0NN
percentage0NN
rate0.0639932865717261NN

But at Inequity within countries individuals and groups the other extreme in Burkina Faso and Mali for example the overall percentage is more than percent

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.892500107337407
WordScorePoS
country0NN
individual0JJ
extreme0.294526332970048JJ
percentage0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.393269950375153
WordScorePoS
country0NN
individual0JJ
extreme0.0714379839896614JJ
percentage0.0583416713841148NN

What is similarly striking is that in most countries the likelihood that the household head is uneducated is dramatically higher than average when she is woman

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.661103742305316
WordScorePoS
country0NN
household0.0465610847355851NN
average0NN
woman0.221979360474357NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.501931117942899
WordScorePoS
country0NN
household0.0330412182586772NN
average0.146608885563018NN
woman0.0242343960710022NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.433064320076113
WordScorePoS
country0NN
household0NN
average0.1656430212089NN
woman0.0102677744436108NN

In the Laos People Democratic Republic for example although the overall percentage of household heads with no education is about percent the rate is closer to percent for female household heads

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.574700672957249
WordScorePoS
people0.00720147981137839NNS
democratic0JJ
percentage0NN
household0NN
education0.244244978014045NN
rate0.0216847879059514NN
female0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.495561031834198
WordScorePoS
people0NNS
democratic0JJ
percentage0NN
household0.0465610847355851NN
education0.0512260062633133NN
rate0NN
female0.0911713013253052NN

Rural and urban household heads

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.811168975305385
WordScorePoS
rural0.0373517915079663JJ
urban0.27622591898666JJ
household0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.462446183815109
WordScorePoS
rural0.148975141598503JJ
urban0JJ
household0.0297950283197006NN

Similar patterns can be observed for rural and urban areas figure

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.838106311959486
WordScorePoS
pattern0NN
rural0.0373517915079663JJ
urban0.27622591898666JJ
figure0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.398169264970455
WordScorePoS
pattern0NN
rural0.148975141598503JJ
urban0JJ
figure0NN

In general household heads are far more likely to have no education when they are based in rural areas than in urban areas

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.646296682399083
WordScorePoS
household0NN
education0NN
base0NN
rural0.0373517915079663JJ
urban0.27622591898666JJ

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.503399041769007
WordScorePoS
household0NN
education0.244244978014045NN
base0NN
rural0JJ
urban0JJ

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.36845274349318
WordScorePoS
household0.0297950283197006NN
education0NN
base0NN
rural0.148975141598503JJ
urban0JJ

Even in countries where the overall percentage without education is very high the rate in urban areas can be dramatically lower

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.650511328523244
WordScorePoS
country0NN
percentage0NN
education0NN
rate0NN
urban0.27622591898666JJ

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.6262639145418
WordScorePoS
country0NN
percentage0NN
education0.244244978014045NN
rate0.0216847879059514NN
urban0JJ

For example in Burundi the percentage of household heads with no education in urban areas compares with the national average in Mexico the Dominican Republic and Brazil

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.524761850175217
WordScorePoS
percentage0NN
household0NN
education0NN
urban0.27622591898666JJ
compare0VB
national0.00501208088147356JJ
average0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.46554987352642
WordScorePoS
percentage0NN
household0.0330412182586772NN
education0.0121171980355011NN
urban0.0488696285210061JJ
compare0VB
national0.00886732612541978JJ
average0.146608885563018NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.45573658829444
WordScorePoS
percentage0NN
household0NN
education0.244244978014045NN
urban0JJ
compare0VB
national0JJ
average0NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.426530519248567
WordScorePoS
percentage0NN
household0NN
education0.0102677744436108NN
urban0JJ
compare0.0414107553022249VB
national0.0112708859309299JJ
average0.1656430212089NN

Access to teachers

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.987012296476343
WordScorePoS
access0.00697628678506322NN
teacher0.163013873070017NN

A recent study of primary schools and health clinics in Bangladesh Ecuador India Indonesia Peru and Uganda has identified teacher absenteeism as an important common problem

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.766489726225615
WordScorePoS
study0NN
primary0.108423939529757JJ
school0.208127520578185NN
health0NN
identify0VB
teacher0.163013873070017NN
common0JJ

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.421590117400476
WordScorePoS
study0NN
primary0.0108390366114755JJ
school0NN
health0.191387734041787NN
identify0VB
teacher0NN
common0.0615471563780609JJ

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.39518305266244
WordScorePoS
study0NN
primary0.0970239057629001JJ
school0.0931221694711702NN
health0.0571058915334038NN
identify0VB
teacher0NN
common0JJ

The study found that higher income areas generally have lower teacher absentee rates than poorer areas

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.547116273294496
WordScorePoS
study0NN
income0NN
teacher0.163013873070017NN
rate0.0216847879059514NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.54412292924465
WordScorePoS
study0NN
income0.166475342664294NN
teacher0NN
rate0.0172128079963482NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.32776664336538
WordScorePoS
study0NN
income0.110649350233433NN
teacher0NN
rate0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.320516081232049
WordScorePoS
study0NN
income0.0442083771593746NN
teacher0NN
rate0.0639932865717261NN

It also found that higher paid teachers generally more educated and experienced appear equally or more likely to be absent than contract or less remunerated instructors perhaps because these instructors sense lower risk of being fired for their absence

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.53482791024376
WordScorePoS
pay0NN
teacher0.163013873070017NN
educate0VB
experienced0JJ
contract0NN
sense0NN
risk0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.492125618029458
WordScorePoS
pay0.0695218668857431NN
teacher0NN
educate0VB
experienced0JJ
contract0.0804764811724088NN
sense0NN
risk0NN

And although salaries in rural areas were often higher than in urban areas teacher attendance in these areas was typically lower than in urban areas

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.916174444960935
WordScorePoS
rural0.0373517915079663JJ
urban0.27622591898666JJ
teacher0NN
typically0RB

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.253218422565834
WordScorePoS
rural0JJ
urban0JJ
teacher0.163013873070017NN
typically0RB

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.231411288172339
WordScorePoS
rural0.148975141598503JJ
urban0JJ
teacher0NN
typically0RB

In most surveyed countries the quality of infrastructure and the frequency of monitoring appeared to contribute to lower absenteeism

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.633945860548151
WordScorePoS
survey0NN
country0NN
quality0.022550656390892NN
infrastructure0.192202909044225NN
monitor0NN
contribute0VB

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.406830901004343
WordScorePoS
survey0NN
country0NN
quality0.0203215381458133NN
infrastructure0.028867295332595NN
monitor0.0332151194779746NN
contribute0.0554128417527413VB

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.343685463269678
WordScorePoS
survey0.064698038783335NN
country0NN
quality0.0121171980355011NN
infrastructure0NN
monitor0.0396106020715138NN
contribute0VB

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.316128046715763
WordScorePoS
survey0NN
country0NN
quality0.00916459792075908NN
infrastructure0.0130185595639838NN
monitor0.0599173571845643NN
contribute0.0249900578719309VB

Trends Another way to assess inequalities of opportunity in education is to calculate an overall index of inequality for years of edu BOX

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.977511765062915
WordScorePoS
inequality0.635305170773079NN
opportunity0.029046330719385NN
education0.0121171980355011NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.182007238420955
WordScorePoS
inequality0NN
opportunity0NN
education0.244244978014045NN

Child test scores in Ecuador the role of wealth parental education and place of residence That education achievements vary markedly by population groups and that this can have profound implications is brought out forcefully in recent study by Paxson and Schady

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.815179892861772
WordScorePoS
child0.076326555629389NN
education0.244244978014045NN
achievement0NN
population0NN
profound0JJ
bring0VB
study0NN

They show that cognitive development of Ecuadorian children ages three to six years as measured by test of vocabulary recognition TVIP varies significantly depending on the wealth of their household their place of residence the education of their mother and that of their father

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.530035900343922
WordScorePoS
development0.00837573444202498NN
child0.10682408961305NN
age0.0893142758861673NN
measure0NN
significantly0RB
depend0VB
household0NN
education0.0152605842304358NN
mother0.162963395911232NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.517970349472931
WordScorePoS
development0.0279277626235394NN
child0.076326555629389NN
age0.0255262687343935NN
measure0NN
significantly0RB
depend0VB
household0NN
education0.244244978014045NN
mother0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.416767057045963
WordScorePoS
development0.0164833460638534NN
child0.0450489732120807NN
age0.112994637345193NN
measure0.103895385378356NN
significantly0RB
depend0VB
household0NN
education0.0225244866060403NN
mother0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.308936830822309
WordScorePoS
development0.0159922815774215NN
child0.0546336178945768NN
age0.0365427838531249NN
measure0.0504000902222448NN
significantly0RB
depend0.0357189919948307VB
household0.0297950283197006NN
education0NN
mother0NN

The extent to which these circumstance variables are associated with performance on cognitive tests is typically more pronounced for the older children in their sample

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.478207757796107
WordScorePoS
extent0NN
circumstance0NN
performance0NN
typically0RB
child0.10682408961305NN

These socioeconomic characteristics are significantly associated with cognitive development even after controlling for child health and home environment

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.665045294151869
WordScorePoS
characteristic0JJ
significantly0RB
development0.00837573444202498NN
control0.020806307400253NN
child0.10682408961305NN
health0.191387734041787NN
environment0NN

The researchers point to the striking evidence that in Ecuador the youngest children irrespective of wealth quintile or education of their parents perform broadly as well as their comparators

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.718113237251239
WordScorePoS
researcher0NN
evidence0NN
child0.076326555629389NN
irrespective0RB
quintile0NN
education0.244244978014045NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.516222115125956
WordScorePoS
researcher0NN
evidence0.12939607756667NN
child0.0242343960710022NN
irrespective0RB
quintile0.064698038783335NN
education0.0121171980355011NN

But as children in Ecuador get older their cognitive development relative to this benchmark falters significantly

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.454048130998283
WordScorePoS
child0.10682408961305NN
development0.00837573444202498NN
relative0JJ
significantly0RB

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.435755878817291
WordScorePoS
child0.0273960270556257NN
development0.0100241617629471NN
relative0.0731385760866977JJ
significantly0RB

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.410907557711299
WordScorePoS
child0.076326555629389NN
development0.0279277626235394NN
relative0JJ
significantly0RB

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.383207502126166
WordScorePoS
child0.0603953832457135NN
development0.0368309542451156NN
relative0JJ
significantly0RB

Only children in the top half of the wealth distribution and with highly educated parents maintain their performance relative to their comparators

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.522676991408069
WordScorePoS
child0.0273960270556257NN
highly0RB
educate0VB
maintain0.055245183797332VB
performance0NN
relative0.0731385760866977JJ

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.495114287002226
WordScorePoS
child0.10682408961305NN
highly0RB
educate0.0407408489778079VB
maintain0VB
performance0NN
relative0JJ

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.479027231521434
WordScorePoS
child0.0546336178945768NN
highly0RB
educate0VB
maintain0.0881366997038154VB
performance0NN
relative0JJ

By the time they are six years old most children in the sample are so far behind in their cognitive development that it is uncertain whether and how they could ever catch up

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.47681922412676
WordScorePoS
time0.0127591822694525NN
child0.10682408961305NN
development0.00837573444202498NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.388487411469503
WordScorePoS
time0NN
child0.076326555629389NN
development0.0279277626235394NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.382901436261786
WordScorePoS
time0.0607862199751165NN
child0.0242343960710022NN
development0.0177346522508396NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.362298740344135
WordScorePoS
time0NN
child0.0603953832457135NN
development0.0368309542451156NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.331261852754065
WordScorePoS
time0.0182713919265625NN
child0.0546336178945768NN
development0.0159922815774215NN

Wealthiest and poorest quartiles Median score Wealthiest Poorest th Age in months Maternal education Median score or more years years Age in months Source Paxson and Schady

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.605031799132858
WordScorePoS
poorest0JJS
age0.0893142758861673NN
maternal0.184641469134183JJ
education0.0152605842304358NN
source0NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.471994561727445
WordScorePoS
poorest0JJS
age0.0255262687343935NN
maternal0JJ
education0.244244978014045NN
source0NN

cation and to assess how much overall inequality of education can be attributed to mean differences between morally irrelevant groups

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.929250120729048
WordScorePoS
inequality0.635305170773079NN
education0.0121171980355011NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.350566625809805
WordScorePoS
inequality0NN
education0.244244978014045NN

Araujo Ferreira and Schady find that the inequality of adult education measured by years of schooling for countries can be pronounced

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.819389048231914
WordScorePoS
inequality0.635305170773079NN
adult0JJ
education0.0121171980355011NN
measure0NN
schooling0NN
country0NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.515433909069114
WordScorePoS
inequality0NN
adult0.163013873070017JJ
education0.244244978014045NN
measure0NN
schooling0NN
country0NN

They also find that it is strongly and inversely correlated with mean years of schooling across countries

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

The data assembled by these authors also indicate that the inequality of education for specific subgroups of the population can change

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.806867393496604
WordScorePoS
datum0NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
education0.0121171980355011NN
specific0JJ
population0.0860640399817412NN
change0NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.454134857028586
WordScorePoS
datum0NN
inequality0NN
education0.0102677744436108NN
specific0JJ
population0NN
change0.402565546215053NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.268680246045519
WordScorePoS
datum0NN
inequality0NN
education0.244244978014045NN
specific0JJ
population0NN
change0NN

While female schooling achievements relative to male achievements were dramatically lower among the oldest cohorts particularly in Sub Saharan Africa South WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT Figure

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.50011092115474
WordScorePoS
female0NN
schooling0NN
achievement0.0368585655748969NN
relative0JJ
saharan0.0221298700466866JJ
africa0IN
south0RB
world0.00257642711761688NN
development0.0330049940546426NN
report0NN
figure0.0602029956716497NN

Education levels vary across countries but they also depend on gender of household head Percentage of household heads with no education Female Male Un Ge inlan rm ited we any Kin den Ca dom Un Nonada ited rw Kyr Stat Ka gyzs es Jamakhstan tan Taj ica ik Ro istan ma Isr ia ae Mo hilel ldo Pa Pera rag Sri uay Lan ka Tha Italy Ge ila Bo org nd sni Vie ia aa tn nd He Alb am rze ani Co ovi sta na Ric IndTurkea Re one púb Ecu sia lica Bo Pa ador liva ria Boama na de Colo livia Ve mb nez ia Do min El Mexela ica Salv ico R ad epu or blic LaoBrazi Ma PoPDR dag lan Tanasca zan Jor da Ho Kenyn Ca nduraa mb Ca icar odia me ag Gu roon ua ate Pa mala ki Cô Yestan te me Iv Ghoire an Ha Ba Tim iti ngl or ade sh Bu enin Mo rund ro Gu cco in MaEthio ea uri pia tan Bu rkin ia Ma aso li Source Authors calculations from household survey data

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.649901194094903
WordScorePoS
education0.244244978014045NN
level0.0231525547935232NN
country0NN
depend0VB
gender0.10561808200669NN
household0NN
percentage0NN
female0NN
ki0NN
source0NN
survey0NN
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.576424272443906
WordScorePoS
education0.0512260062633133NN
level0.0172651853471334NN
country0NN
depend0VB
gender0.196902218579822NN
household0.0465610847355851NN
percentage0NN
female0.0911713013253052NN
ki0NN
source0NN
survey0NN
datum0NN

Note The continuous dark line represents the percentage of household heads with no education in each country while the endpoints of the whiskers indicate the percentages for male and female headed households

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.574783252093272
WordScorePoS
line0NN
represent0VB
percentage0NN
household0NN
education0.244244978014045NN
country0NN
female0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.554249475491561
WordScorePoS
line0NN
represent0VB
percentage0NN
household0.0465610847355851NN
education0.0512260062633133NN
country0NN
female0.0911713013253052NN

Indicates that female headed households have higher average levels of education than male headed households

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.521633408287623
WordScorePoS
female0NN
household0NN
average0NN
level0.0231525547935232NN
education0.244244978014045NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.438551669975696
WordScorePoS
female0NN
household0.0330412182586772NN
average0.146608885563018NN
level0NN
education0.0121171980355011NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.424174464288689
WordScorePoS
female0NN
household0NN
average0.1656430212089NN
level0.0415277415054218NN
education0.0102677744436108NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.493126932136103
WordScorePoS
female0.0911713013253052NN
household0.0465610847355851NN
average0NN
level0.0172651853471334NN
education0.0512260062633133NN

Asia and to lesser extent the Middle East and North Africa these disparities are noticeably lower for the younger cohorts particularly in Sub Saharan Africa figure

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.72622183176786
WordScorePoS
asia0IN
extent0NN
middle0.0602029956716497JJ
north0RB
africa0IN
disparity0NN
saharan0.0221298700466866JJ
figure0.0602029956716497NN

Additionally disparities in years of schooling between urban and rural areas have been falling in some regions most strikingly in the Middle East and North Africa and in Eastern Europe and Central Asia

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.531587453330262
WordScorePoS
additionally0RB
disparity0NN
schooling0NN
urban0.27622591898666JJ
rural0.0373517915079663JJ
fall0NN
region0NN
middle0JJ
north0RB
africa0IN
eastern0JJ
central0JJ
asia0IN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.452469478378798
WordScorePoS
additionally0RB
disparity0NN
schooling0NN
urban0JJ
rural0.148975141598503JJ
fall0.0440683498519077NN
region0.0297950283197006NN
middle0JJ
north0RB
africa0IN
eastern0JJ
central0.0440683498519077JJ
asia0IN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.312362966664573
WordScorePoS
additionally0RB
disparity0NN
schooling0NN
urban0JJ
rural0JJ
fall0NN
region0.184259548107002NN
middle0JJ
north0RB
africa0IN
eastern0JJ
central0JJ
asia0IN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.558433416887774
WordScorePoS
additionally0RB
disparity0NN
schooling0.0407408489778079NN
urban0JJ
rural0JJ
fall0.123094312756122NN
region0.124837844401518NN
middle0JJ
north0RB
africa0IN
eastern0.0407408489778079JJ
central0JJ
asia0IN

But in Sub Saharan Africa there has been little if any change

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.921086156137783
WordScorePoS
saharan0JJ
africa0IN
change0.402565546215053NN

The urban rural between group contribution to inequality in this region has hovered at around percent across all the cohorts examined

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.85001300346907
WordScorePoS
urban0.0488696285210061JJ
rural0.0330412182586772JJ
contribution0NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
region0NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.371638564944464
WordScorePoS
urban0.27622591898666JJ
rural0.0373517915079663JJ
contribution0NN
inequality0NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.218376344185264
WordScorePoS
urban0JJ
rural0JJ
contribution0NN
inequality0NN
region0.184259548107002NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.211870573640207
WordScorePoS
urban0JJ
rural0.148975141598503JJ
contribution0NN
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region0.0297950283197006NN

Economic inequalities An individual consumption his or her income or his or her wealth have all been used as indicators of the command of an individual over goods and services that can be purchased in the market and that contribute directly to well being

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.835823296540451
WordScorePoS
economic0.103276847978089JJ
inequality0.635305170773079NN
individual0.064698038783335JJ
consumption0NN
income0.166475342664294NN
service0.00795378154685591NN
market0.0202620733250388NN
contribute0VB

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.357498516829408
WordScorePoS
economic0.0433009429988926JJ
inequality0NN
individual0JJ
consumption0.332151194779746NN
income0NN
service0.00666957305782837NN
market0.0169905820958638NN
contribute0.0554128417527413VB

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.252686538591742
WordScorePoS
economic0.128463821595706JJ
inequality0NN
individual0JJ
consumption0.147812295323721NN
income0NN
service0.0197870712294258NN
market0.0252035516550537NN
contribute0VB

It is clear too that individuals economic status can determine and shape in many ways the opportunities they face to improve their situations

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.414344505616105
WordScorePoS
individual0JJ
economic0.128463821595706JJ
status0NN
determine0VB
opportunity0.0361300980868102NN
improve0.0150723186962745VB
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.595015604580275
WordScorePoS
individual0.064698038783335JJ
economic0.103276847978089JJ
status0.0488696285210061NN
determine0VB
opportunity0.029046330719385NN
improve0.0121171980355011VB
situation0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.341172284950549
WordScorePoS
individual0JJ
economic0.0959899298575892JJ
status0NN
determine0VB
opportunity0NN
improve0VB
situation0.0519476926891779NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.336504277282688
WordScorePoS
individual0JJ
economic0.0389167984372011JJ
status0NN
determine0VB
opportunity0.0164178645080222NN
improve0.0273960270556257VB
situation0.0631828116343571NN

Economic well being can also contribute to improved education outcomes and better health care

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.515304380209284
WordScorePoS
economic0JJ
contribute0VB
improve0.0305306222517556VB
education0.244244978014045NN
outcome0.0416255041156371NN
health0NN
care0.0416255041156371NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.447158636999805
WordScorePoS
economic0JJ
contribute0VB
improve0VB
education0.0152605842304358NN
outcome0NN
health0.191387734041787NN
care0.104031537001265NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.228283685388597
WordScorePoS
economic0.128463821595706JJ
contribute0VB
improve0.0150723186962745VB
education0.0150723186962745NN
outcome0NN
health0NN
care0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.461700116642274
WordScorePoS
economic0.0727679293221751JJ
contribute0VB
improve0VB
education0.0512260062633133NN
outcome0.0465610847355851NN
health0.0571058915334038NN
care0.0931221694711702NN

In turn good health and good education are typically important determinants of economic status

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.504316350858053
WordScorePoS
health0NN
education0.244244978014045NN
typically0RB
economic0JJ
status0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.426686872456425
WordScorePoS
health0.191387734041787NN
education0.0152605842304358NN
typically0RB
economic0JJ
status0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.296373023007003
WordScorePoS
health0NN
education0.0150723186962745NN
typically0RB
economic0.128463821595706JJ
status0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.422845323247906
WordScorePoS
health0.0405241466500776NN
education0.0121171980355011NN
typically0RB
economic0.103276847978089JJ
status0.0488696285210061NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.373934419025689
WordScorePoS
health0.0571058915334038NN
education0.0512260062633133NN
typically0RB
economic0.0727679293221751JJ
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An ideal measure of economic wellbeing for assessing inequality will capture an individual long term economic status

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.887547686199709
WordScorePoS
measure0NN
economic0.103276847978089JJ
inequality0.635305170773079NN
capture0NN
individual0.064698038783335JJ
term0.0396106020715138NN
status0.0488696285210061NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.260178753022236
WordScorePoS
measure0.0347609334428716NN
economic0.128463821595706JJ
inequality0NN
capture0NN
individual0JJ
term0NN
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.16658064004074
WordScorePoS
measure0NN
economic0JJ
inequality0NN
capture0NN
individual0JJ
term0.149793392961411NN
status0.036961556179878NN

But it is difficult to produce such comprehensive indicator accurately

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.800466474622367
WordScorePoS
produce0.0651400632663124VB

In practice it is common to work with measures of current income or consumption compiled from household survey data

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.700037374110194
WordScorePoS
practice0.0703006268489394NN
common0JJ
measure0NN
current0.0332151194779746JJ
income0NN
consumption0.332151194779746NN
household0.0554128417527413NN
survey0NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.416476246771615
WordScorePoS
practice0.02794560829783NN
common0JJ
measure0NN
current0JJ
income0.166475342664294NN
consumption0NN
household0.0330412182586772NN
survey0.064698038783335NN
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.260259306348144
WordScorePoS
practice0NN
common0JJ
measure0.0347609334428716NN
current0JJ
income0NN
consumption0.147812295323721NN
household0NN
survey0NN
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While consumption Inequity within countries individuals and groups Figure

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.863375757129778
WordScorePoS
consumption0.332151194779746NN
country0NN
individual0JJ
figure0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.384215244123486
WordScorePoS
consumption0.147812295323721NN
country0NN
individual0JJ
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Education levels vary by country and between rural and urban sectors Percentage of household heads with no education Rural Urban Un ited Ge inlan ma Kin wed ny gdo en Un NoCana ited rw da ay Kyr tates Ka gyzs zak tan Ja stan Taj maic ikis Ro tan Isr ania ael Mo Chile ldo Pe Sri aragu ru Lan ay ka Tha Italy Bo Ge nd sni Vieorgia aa tn nd He Alb am rze ani Co govi st Tura Rica Ind key Re púb Ecunesia lica ado Bo ana liva ria Bo ma na de Colo livia Ve mb nez ia Do min El Mexela ica Salv ico R ad epu or blic LaoBrazi Ma Po DR dag lan Tanasca za Jor nia da Ho Kenyn Ca duraa Nicmbod Ca arag ia Gu meroua ate on Pa mala ki Cô Yestan te me Iv Ghoire an Ba Timaiti ngl or ade sh Bu enin Mo rund ro Gu cco in Ma thio ea uri pia tan Bu rkin Maa li aso Source Authors calculations from household survey data

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.56853340092751
WordScorePoS
education0NN
level0.00692515656684925NN
country0NN
rural0.0373517915079663JJ
urban0.27622591898666JJ
sector0NN
percentage0NN
household0NN
st0IN
key0NN
ki0NN
source0NN
survey0NN
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Label: 4, with a score of: 0.458752194961791
WordScorePoS
education0.244244978014045NN
level0.0231525547935232NN
country0NN
rural0JJ
urban0JJ
sector0NN
percentage0NN
household0NN
st0IN
key0NN
ki0NN
source0NN
survey0NN
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.432683982015551
WordScorePoS
education0NN
level0.00552410547653725NN
country0NN
rural0.148975141598503JJ
urban0JJ
sector0.0182713919265625NN
percentage0.0583416713841148NN
household0.0297950283197006NN
st0IN
key0.0297950283197006NN
ki0NN
source0.0130963126055467NN
survey0NN
datum0NN

Note The continuous dark line represents the percentage of household heads with no education in each country while the endpoints of the whiskers indicate the percentages for urban and rural households

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.581643291961139
WordScorePoS
line0.0373517915079663NN
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percentage0NN
household0NN
education0NN
country0NN
urban0.27622591898666JJ
rural0.0373517915079663JJ

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.539078735235453
WordScorePoS
line0NN
represent0VB
percentage0.0583416713841148NN
household0.0297950283197006NN
education0NN
country0NN
urban0JJ
rural0.148975141598503JJ

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.404820490287577
WordScorePoS
line0NN
represent0VB
percentage0NN
household0NN
education0.244244978014045NN
country0NN
urban0JJ
rural0JJ

Indicates that rural households have higher average levels of education than urban households

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.498263662075305
WordScorePoS
rural0.0373517915079663JJ
household0NN
average0NN
level0.00692515656684925NN
education0NN
urban0.27622591898666JJ

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.476835406746878
WordScorePoS
rural0.0330412182586772JJ
household0.0330412182586772NN
average0.146608885563018NN
level0NN
education0.0121171980355011NN
urban0.0488696285210061JJ

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.415704468256893
WordScorePoS
rural0JJ
household0NN
average0NN
level0.0231525547935232NN
education0.244244978014045NN
urban0JJ

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.338036669668317
WordScorePoS
rural0JJ
household0NN
average0.1656430212089NN
level0.0415277415054218NN
education0.0102677744436108NN
urban0JJ

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.332829847851092
WordScorePoS
rural0.148975141598503JJ
household0.0297950283197006NN
average0NN
level0.00552410547653725NN
education0NN
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and income inequality are expected to correlate reasonably well with long term wellbeing it is unclear exactly how well they actually do

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.953996564443428
WordScorePoS
income0.166475342664294NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
expect0VB
term0.0396106020715138NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.19023506132458
WordScorePoS
income0.017987180284335NN
inequality0NN
expect0VB
term0.149793392961411NN

And different measures of economic welfare based on income consumption or wealth can yield quite different assessments of inequality see also box

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.793768771649617
WordScorePoS
measure0NN
economic0.103276847978089JJ
welfare0NN
base0NN
income0.166475342664294NN
consumption0NN
yield0NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.394356564097762
WordScorePoS
measure0NN
economic0.0433009429988926JJ
welfare0.0542519672965169NN
base0.0199423462679015NN
income0NN
consumption0.332151194779746NN
yield0NN
inequality0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.272790994172432
WordScorePoS
measure0.0347609334428716NN
economic0.128463821595706JJ
welfare0NN
base0NN
income0NN
consumption0.147812295323721NN
yield0NN
inequality0NN

For example Sudjana and Mishra drawing on evidence produced by Claessens Djankov and Lang argue that wealth inequality in Indonesia is far more concentrated than suggested by comparable figures based on consumption figure

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.845991627584441
WordScorePoS
evidence0.12939607756667NN
produce0VB
inequality0.635305170773079NN
suggest0VB
figure0NN
base0NN
consumption0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.426268299611338
WordScorePoS
evidence0NN
produce0.0332151194779746VB
inequality0NN
suggest0VB
figure0NN
base0.0199423462679015NN
consumption0.332151194779746NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.163525251945645
WordScorePoS
evidence0NN
produce0VB
inequality0NN
suggest0VB
figure0NN
base0NN
consumption0.147812295323721NN

In more than percent of the stock market capitalization in Indonesia was controlled by families

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.535733279547405
WordScorePoS
stock0NN
market0.0913569596328122NN
capitalization0NN
control0NN
family0.0297950283197006NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.411785609897823
WordScorePoS
stock0NN
market0NN
capitalization0NN
control0.0465610847355851NN
family0.0465610847355851NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.368021408057391
WordScorePoS
stock0NN
market0NN
capitalization0NN
control0.020806307400253NN
family0.0624189222007589NN

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.32503647217301
WordScorePoS
stock0.0401833161726777NN
market0.0333211986002325NN
capitalization0NN
control0NN
family0NN

This is in stark contrast to neighboring countries such as Singapore and Malaysia but it is Figure

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

The share of inequality in years of schooling attributable to differences between males and females has been declining Between group contribution to total inequality proportion

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.972165854749168
WordScorePoS
share0NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
schooling0NN
female0NN
decline0.02794560829783NN
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proportion0NN

Sub Saharan Africa Middle East and North Africa

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.748143467320479
WordScorePoS
saharan0.0221298700466866JJ
africa0IN
middle0.0602029956716497JJ
north0RB

Europe and Central Asia South Asia Other

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.902717615649585
WordScorePoS
central0.0924643738905717JJ
asia0IN
south0RB

East Asia

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Latin America and Caribbean Year of birth Source Araujo Ferreira and Schady

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT BOX

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.557885995940362
WordScorePoS
world0.00464349782489754NN
development0.022306853314744NN
report0.0409791940864438NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.419953944381463
WordScorePoS
world0.00418824502414673NN
development0.0469463607292177NN
report0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.3286817118747
WordScorePoS
world0.00087176582269799NN
development0.00837573444202498NN
report0.0307735781890304NN

Beware of intercountry comparisons of inequality

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.998828889740146
WordScorePoS
inequality0.635305170773079NN

Because countries differ in their data collection systems cross country data on economic inequality are generally based on variety of indicators that are treated interchangeably

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.846101442944499
WordScorePoS
country0NN
datum0NN
collection0NN
system0NN
economic0.103276847978089JJ
inequality0.635305170773079NN
base0NN
variety0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.147165002746853
WordScorePoS
country0NN
datum0NN
collection0NN
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The lack of uniform basis for measuring economic inequality in different countries has serious implications for comparability

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One of the main sources of noncomparability of inequality is that some countries use household income as indicator of well being while others use consumption expenditures Atkinson and Brandolini

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These two indicators capture different aspects of economic welfare with the former perhaps seen better as measure of welfare opportunity and the latter as measure of welfare achievement

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In most countries measured inequality based on income is higher than if it is based on consumption

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But this is not inevitable and the degree to which the two indicators disagree varies from country to country see table to the right

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The problem of comparability is not confined to the choice of welfare indicator

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An important but underappreciated additional issue is that even for given indicator its definition varies considerably across countries and even within countries over time

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Consumption inequality based on different definitions of consumption can vary markedly and will depend on variety of factors including the following The length of the recall period over which consumption is recorded

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Figure

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Market capitalization controlled by the top families in selected countries Indonesia

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Philippines

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Thailand

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Hong Kong China

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Republic of Korea

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Singapore

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Malaysia

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Taiwan China

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Japan

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Source Claessens Djankov and Lang

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The degree of disaggregation of consumption items

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Inequality summary measures in selection of countries consumption versus income The methods for imputation of housing and durables consumption

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Similarly income inequality can vary depending on whether income Gini coefficient Year Consumption Income Panama

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Brazil

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Includes actual and implicit transfers and Thailand

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Refers to full income or earnings only

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Nicaragua

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Additional factors confounding comparability include differences in survey nonresponse rates across countries which are likely to affect measured inequality see Korinek Mistiaen and Ravallion forthcoming

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Differences across countries in the availability of spatial price indexes can also affect conclusions

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Thomas demonstrates that adjusting for spatial price variation can affect conclusions about the degree of income or consumption inequality

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Across countries there tends to be little uniformity in whether and how spatial price variation is accommodated

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Cross country datasets on economic inequality generally incorporate some attempts to improve comparability but they typically fall far short of achieving strict comparability

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Without concerted effort to harmonize data collection across countries it is unlikely that such global databases can be relied on to provide more than tentative picture of differences in inequality across countries

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Peru

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Morocco

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Vietnam

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Nepal

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Albania

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Bulgaria

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Russian Federation

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Bangladesh

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Is intended to capture pre or post tax income only marginally higher than the figure for the Philippines

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More generally Davies and Shorrocks report estimates published by Merrill Lynch and Forbes that some percent of the world millionaires come from the developing world

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Similarly Morck Stangeland and Yeung find higher ratio of billionaire wealth to gross domestic product GDP in Latin America and the Caribbean and East Asia but not India and South Africa see chapters and for further discussion

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These figures imply that the distribution of wealth may on average be more concentrated in developing countries than in the developed

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When wealth is associated with political influence such inequalities also translate into political capture and can provide window on this added dimension of opportunity

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Bearing in mind the warnings offered in box

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figure

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provides an approximate Source Authors creation

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picture of how economic inequality is distributed across countries

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The highest levels of recorded inequality occur in Africa the second highest in Latin America

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But inequality measures for Latin America come largely from income data while those in other regions such as South Asia come mainly from consumption data

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As box

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illustrated income data tend to produce higher measured inequality

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Within regions the data suggest that inequality can vary markedly between countries consumption inequality in South Africa is extremely high while in Mauritius it is lower even than in OECD countries

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How much overall economic inequality within countries is attributable to differences across population groups

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Unlike health and education inequalities the systematic decomposition of income inequality by population groups has long been subject to analysis in the economics literature

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Figure

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Africa and Latin America have the world highest levels of inequality Income and expenditure Gini coefficients Sub Saharan Africa Mauritius Ethiopia Niger Tanzania Benin Mauritania Guinea Ghana Mali Mozambique Senegal Angola Burkina Faso Nigeria Burundi Cameroon Uganda Kenya Côte Ivoire Madagascar Zimbabwe Gambia The Malawi Zambia South Africa Lesotho Swaziland Central African Republic Botswana Namibia Europe and Central Asia Azerbaijan Hungary Bosnia and Herzegovina Czech Republic Slovakia Ukraine Armenia Uzbekistan Serbia Romania Bulgaria Belarus Slovenia Kyrgyzstan Kazakhstan Poland Albania Croatia Russia Tajikistan Lithuania Moldova Latvia FYR Macedonia Turkey Estonia Georgia Turkmenistan Based on consumption Based on income Based on income High Income Economies Taiwan China Japan Finland Sweden Belgium Denmark Norway Germany Austria Netherlands Luxembourg France Switzerland Italy Ireland Australia Canada Spain United Kingdom Greece New Zealand United States Portugal Hong Kong China Latin America and the Caribbean Peru Trinidad and Tobago Nicaragua Jamaica R

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de Venezuela Uruguay St

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Lucia Guyana Costa Rica Guatemala Panama Dominican Republic Mexico El Salvador Honduras Argentina Chile Ecuador Colombia Paraguay Bolivia Brazil Middle East and North Africa Yemen Egypt Israel Algeria Jordan Morocco Tunisia Iran East Asia and Pacific Vietnam Rep

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of Korea Indonesia Mongolia Lao PDR Thailand Cambodia Philippines Singapore China Papua New Guinea Malaysia

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Based on consumption South Asia Pakistan Bangladesh India Nepal Sri Lanka

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Source Authors calculations from household survey data

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WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT These decomposition exercises seek to understand what share of inequality can be attributed to differences between groups and what to inequality within groups

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There are several attractions to studying certain population groups in this way and to comparing findings across countries

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Our interest here is to define groups by circumstances we might consider morally irrelevant thereby gaining window on the importance of inequality of opportunity in the economic sphere

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Additionally decomposition results generally are far less sensitive to differences in definitions of underlying welfare indicators than are Figure

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Between group inequality decompositions social group of the household head Sub Saharan Africa South Africa Madagascar Benin Côte Ivoire Niger Guinea East Asia and Pacific Vietnam Europe and Central Asia Kyrgyzstan Romania High Income Economies United States Germany France Luxembourg United Kingdom Canada Belgium Switzerland Australia Ireland Norway Sweden Austria Finland Conventional Feasible Latin America and the Caribbean Paraguay Guatemala Bolivia Panama Peru Brazil Guyana Nicaragua St

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saharan0JJ
africa0IN
south0RB
asia0IN
central0JJ
income0.166475342664294NN
economy0NN
unite0VB
feasible0JJ
st0IN

Lucia Middle East and North Africa Israel Jordan South Asia Nepal Sri Lanka Bangladesh

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Proportion Source Authors calculations from household survey data

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.458171841285041
WordScorePoS
proportion0.0428007293971684NN
source0.0613562156822703NN
household0NN
survey0NN
datum0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.429941328738248
WordScorePoS
proportion0NN
source0NN
household0.0330412182586772NN
survey0.064698038783335NN
datum0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.373495849609621
WordScorePoS
proportion0NN
source0.0109843026967392NN
household0NN
survey0NN
datum0.0739231123597559NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.330416119974772
WordScorePoS
proportion0.0285529457667019NN
source0NN
household0.0465610847355851NN
survey0NN
datum0NN

measured levels of inequality

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.95649680801434
WordScorePoS
measure0NN
level0NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN

In that sense some of the difficulties with cross country comparisons described in box

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.732080791860852
WordScorePoS
sense0.064698038783335NN
difficulty0NN
country0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.681217816992765
WordScorePoS
sense0NN
difficulty0.0602029956716497NN
country0NN

are attenuated by subgroup decompositions

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Between group shares of total inequality While the between group share of overall inequality is an appealing indicator of the salience of differences across groups in the overall assessment of inequality there are concerns about its interpretation

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.989345907931529
WordScorePoS
share0NN
total0NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN

In particular empirical measures of betweengroup shares are generally found to be quite low see figures

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.483235630867069
WordScorePoS
measure0.103895385378356NN
share0NN
figure0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.455404161146901
WordScorePoS
measure0NN
share0.0377086395700813NN
figure0.0602029956716497NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.404386532185288
WordScorePoS
measure0.0504000902222448NN
share0.0365427838531249NN
figure0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.356391869530394
WordScorePoS
measure0NN
share0.0766240489430275NN
figure0NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.330424032363634
WordScorePoS
measure0.0710409787438328NN
share0NN
figure0NN

The conventional presentation of betweengroup inequality is relative to total inequality

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.994986091246108
WordScorePoS
inequality0.635305170773079NN
relative0JJ
total0NN

Elbers and others however note that total inequality can be viewed as the between group inequality that would be observed if every household in the population constituted separate group

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.989191604760969
WordScorePoS
total0NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
view0NN
household0.0330412182586772NN
population0.0860640399817412NN

Clearly against such benchmark one would rarely observe high share of betweengroup inequality

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.984559966541854
WordScorePoS
rarely0RB
share0NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN

Elbers and his colleagues propose an alternative comparing the actual betweengroup inequality with the maximum possible inequality that would be obtained by keeping the number of groups and their sizes at actual levels

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.979578664651869
WordScorePoS
alternative0NN
compare0VB
actual0JJ
inequality0.635305170773079NN
maximum0NN
obtain0VB
size0.0396106020715138NN
level0NN

For example an assessment of the contribution of gender differences to inequality compares actual between gender inequality with the hypothetical betweengender inequality that would be obtained by sorting the income distribution so that all males appeared at one end of the distribution and all females at the other

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.953237684772299
WordScorePoS
contribution0NN
gender0NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
compare0VB
actual0JJ
obtain0VB
income0.166475342664294NN
female0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.223074305222122
WordScorePoS
contribution0NN
gender0.196902218579822NN
inequality0NN
compare0VB
actual0JJ
obtain0VB
income0NN
female0.0911713013253052NN

This ratio provides measure of how far actual between group inequality lies below the maximum between group inequality that is feasible given the existing configuration of groups

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.972680527634226
WordScorePoS
ratio0NN
measure0NN
actual0JJ
inequality0.635305170773079NN
lie0NN
maximum0NN
feasible0JJ
exist0VB

Economic inequality can be decomposed in large sample of countries based on several population breakdowns two of which are presented in figures

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.941314677676814
WordScorePoS
economic0.103276847978089JJ
inequality0.635305170773079NN
country0NN
base0NN
population0.0860640399817412NN
figure0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.19551803190862
WordScorePoS
economic0.128463821595706JJ
inequality0NN
country0NN
base0NN
population0.0428212738652355NN
figure0NN

social group and education of household head

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.672301108720498
WordScorePoS
social0JJ
education0.244244978014045NN
household0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.40316540364639
WordScorePoS
social0.101310366625194JJ
education0.0121171980355011NN
household0.0330412182586772NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.373025713879798
WordScorePoS
social0.112994637345193JJ
education0.0225244866060403NN
household0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.347759644779339
WordScorePoS
social0.0285529457667019JJ
education0.0512260062633133NN
household0.0465610847355851NN

Such decompositions can follow the conventional decomposition methodology complemented by the Elbers and others measure of feasible group decomposition

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.576336816238525
WordScorePoS
complement0NN
measure0.103895385378356NN
feasible0JJ

Inequity within countries individuals and groups Figure

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.732080791860852
WordScorePoS
country0NN
individual0.064698038783335JJ
figure0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.681217816992765
WordScorePoS
country0NN
individual0JJ
figure0.0602029956716497NN

Between group inequality decompositions education of the household head Sub Saharan Africa Cameroon Madagascar Senegal Burundi Uganda Côte Ivoire Benin Mali Guinea Kenya Tanzania Burkina Faso Nigeria Mauritania Ethiopia Niger High Income Economies Luxembourg France Taiwan China United States Ireland United Kingdom Italy Germany Finland Netherlands Switzerland Sweden Norway Canada Austria Australia Belgium Conventional Feasible East Asia and the Pacific Latin America and the Caribbean Thailand Indonesia Papua New Guinea East Timor Philippines Lao PDR Vietnam Guatemala Brazil Panama Peru Nicaragua Argentina Chile Paraguay Mexico Colombia Ecuador Jamaica Haiti Bolivia Honduras Costa Rica Uruguay Dominican Republic El Salvador R

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.853688024055248
WordScorePoS
inequality0.635305170773079NN
education0.0121171980355011NN
household0.0330412182586772NN
saharan0JJ
africa0IN
income0.166475342664294NN
economy0NN
unite0VB
feasible0JJ
asia0IN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.276391005361852
WordScorePoS
inequality0NN
education0.244244978014045NN
household0NN
saharan0.0299609328954485JJ
africa0IN
income0NN
economy0NN
unite0VB
feasible0JJ
asia0IN

de Venezuela Trinidad Tobago St

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Lucia Guyana Suriname Europe and Central Asia Lithuania Romania Serbia Poland Turkey Hungary Albania Macedonia Estonia Kyrgyzstan Georgia Moldova Bosnia Herzegovina Russia Kazakhstan Ukraine Armenia Tajikistan Azerbaijan

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Conventional Feasible Middle East and North Africa

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.749355860981293
WordScorePoS
feasible0JJ
middle0.0602029956716497JJ
north0RB
africa0IN

Morocco Jordan Israel Yemen South Asia Proportion Bangladesh Sri Lanka Pakistan Nepal

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Proportion Source Authors calculations from household survey data

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.458171841285041
WordScorePoS
proportion0.0428007293971684NN
source0.0613562156822703NN
household0NN
survey0NN
datum0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.429941328738248
WordScorePoS
proportion0NN
source0NN
household0.0330412182586772NN
survey0.064698038783335NN
datum0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.373495849609621
WordScorePoS
proportion0NN
source0.0109843026967392NN
household0NN
survey0NN
datum0.0739231123597559NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.330416119974772
WordScorePoS
proportion0.0285529457667019NN
source0NN
household0.0465610847355851NN
survey0NN
datum0NN

Different population breakdowns contribute to differing extents to overall inequality

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.977607171600601
WordScorePoS
population0.0860640399817412NN
contribute0VB
extent0NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN

In general the conventional calculation of the between group contribution points to fairly low share attributable to between group differences

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.581021810345217
WordScorePoS
contribution0NN
share0.0766240489430275NN

But in some countries even the conventional share is high

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.705044356205516
WordScorePoS
country0NN
share0.0766240489430275NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.352752923304213
WordScorePoS
country0NN
share0.0383371018038178NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.346970225090057
WordScorePoS
country0NN
share0.0377086395700813NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.336242783709333
WordScorePoS
country0NN
share0.0365427838531249NN

For example in Paraguay when inequality is decomposed between groups by language spoken at home the conventional between group share is approximately percent figure

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.975046385922819
WordScorePoS
inequality0.635305170773079NN
share0NN
approximately0RB
figure0NN

And when inequality is decomposed for five broad education groups in Guatemala

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.929250120729048
WordScorePoS
inequality0.635305170773079NN
education0.0121171980355011NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.350566625809805
WordScorePoS
inequality0NN
education0.244244978014045NN

WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT the between group contribution is above percent figure

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.539442727402327
WordScorePoS
world0.00257642711761688NN
development0.0330049940546426NN
report0NN
contribution0NN
figure0.0602029956716497NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.448145307368781
WordScorePoS
world0.0017440716962658NN
development0.0279277626235394NN
report0NN
contribution0.0499016491051341NN
figure0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.382568484053879
WordScorePoS
world0.00464349782489754NN
development0.022306853314744NN
report0.0409791940864438NN
contribution0NN
figure0NN

In most countries the between group share is noticeably higher for decompositions based on the alternative feasible calculation

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.565546174918097
WordScorePoS
country0NN
share0NN
base0.058665107245718NN
alternative0NN
feasible0.0531983120572613JJ

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.49501035401894
WordScorePoS
country0NN
share0.0377086395700813NN
base0NN
alternative0.0602029956716497NN
feasible0JJ

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.478324541903298
WordScorePoS
country0NN
share0.0766240489430275NN
base0.017987180284335NN
alternative0NN
feasible0JJ

Based on this approach observed between group differences are indeed substantial in many countries for the group definitions here

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.869020602639109
WordScorePoS
base0.0442083771593746NN
approach0NN
substantial0.0736315832425121JJ
country0NN
definition0.120266261535276NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.39201415852232
WordScorePoS
base0.0199423462679015NN
approach0.0542519672965169NN
substantial0.0332151194779746JJ
country0NN
definition0NN

To the extent that these circumstances are judged morally irrelevant the findings suggest that in economic life just as in health and education substantial portion of observed inequality in many developing countries can be linked to inequalities of opportunity

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.912764987622091
WordScorePoS
extent0NN
circumstance0NN
suggest0VB
economic0.103276847978089JJ
life0NN
health0.0405241466500776NN
education0.0121171980355011NN
substantial0JJ
inequality0.635305170773079NN
develop0VB
country0NN
opportunity0.029046330719385NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.192307289234974
WordScorePoS
extent0NN
circumstance0NN
suggest0VB
economic0JJ
life0.0125233923809486NN
health0NN
education0.244244978014045NN
substantial0.0499016491051341JJ
inequality0NN
develop0VB
country0NN
opportunity0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.183882117353515
WordScorePoS
extent0NN
circumstance0NN
suggest0VB
economic0JJ
life0.0250390290383647NN
health0.191387734041787NN
education0.0152605842304358NN
substantial0JJ
inequality0.0307735781890304NN
develop0VB
country0NN
opportunity0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.151316215106026
WordScorePoS
extent0NN
circumstance0.049270765107907NN
suggest0VB
economic0.128463821595706JJ
life0.0123650647908625NN
health0NN
education0.0150723186962745NN
substantial0JJ
inequality0NN
develop0VB
country0NN
opportunity0.0361300980868102NN

Spatial differences As with inequalities in health conventional survey data cannot say much about the contribution of finely detailed spatial heterogeneity to overall inequality because of the limited sample size

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.973260570711144
WordScorePoS
inequality0.635305170773079NN
health0.0405241466500776NN
survey0.064698038783335NN
datum0NN
contribution0NN
limited0JJ
size0.0396106020715138NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.173918365740216
WordScorePoS
inequality0.0307735781890304NN
health0.191387734041787NN
survey0NN
datum0NN
contribution0NN
limited0JJ
size0NN

In an exercise analogous to that for health in Cambodia figure

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.830738230593587
WordScorePoS
health0.191387734041787NN
figure0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.424995567362122
WordScorePoS
health0.0377086395700813NN
figure0.0602029956716497NN

variety of studies have applied statistical techniques to combine survey data with population census data to produce tentative estimates of inequality at the community and district levels

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.904165940265989
WordScorePoS
variety0NN
study0NN
statistical0JJ
survey0.064698038783335NN
datum0NN
population0.0860640399817412NN
produce0VB
estimate0NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
community0.0202620733250388NN
level0NN

Elbers and others document the contribution to overall estimated inequality of differences in mean consumption for subdistricts in Ecuador Madagascar and Mozambique

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.82981571525277
WordScorePoS
document0NN
contribution0NN
estimate0NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
consumption0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.459893555163104
WordScorePoS
document0NN
contribution0NN
estimate0.0199423462679015NN
inequality0NN
consumption0.332151194779746NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.193067790425742
WordScorePoS
document0NN
contribution0NN
estimate0NN
inequality0NN
consumption0.147812295323721NN

They demonstrate that the between subdistrict contribution to total estimated inequality ranges from low of percent in Mozambique to more than percent in Ecuador table

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.951549455566361
WordScorePoS
contribution0NN
total0NN
estimate0NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
range0NN

Based on similar approach World Bank reports between commune differences in Morocco accounting for percent of overall estimated consumption inequality

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.752259018818797
WordScorePoS
base0NN
approach0NN
world0.00276879546803864NN
bank0NN
report0NN
accounting0NN
estimate0NN
consumption0NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.556360208189081
WordScorePoS
base0.0199423462679015NN
approach0.0542519672965169NN
world0.00464349782489754NN
bank0NN
report0.0409791940864438NN
accounting0NN
estimate0.0199423462679015NN
consumption0.332151194779746NN
inequality0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.176293885851956
WordScorePoS
base0NN
approach0NN
world0.00172202218602071NN
bank0NN
report0NN
accounting0NN
estimate0NN
consumption0.147812295323721NN
inequality0NN

The general impression is that spatial differences across localiTable

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Decomposition of inequality between and within communities Level of decomposition Number of communities Within group inequality percent Between group inequality percent Ecuador

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.995503411833244
WordScorePoS
inequality0.635305170773079NN
community0.0202620733250388NN
level0NN

Madagascar

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Mozambique

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Source Elbers and others

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.73415387760794
WordScorePoS
source0.0613562156822703NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.32879500351909
WordScorePoS
source0.0274787313211514NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.323029740864511
WordScorePoS
source0.0269969049497485NN

Note Our communities in Ecuador are zonas in urban areas and parroquias in rural areas

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.835569687162623
WordScorePoS
community0NN
urban0.27622591898666JJ
rural0.0373517915079663JJ

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.445650723950186
WordScorePoS
community0.0182713919265625NN
urban0JJ
rural0.148975141598503JJ

Communities in Madagascar are firiasana communes and in Mozambique they are administrative posts

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.713419580592547
WordScorePoS
community0NN
post0.0811931365363091NN

The decompositions are performed using the conventional methodology

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

ties account for larger share of total inequality as the number of localities increases

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.939896574563656
WordScorePoS
account0.0172128079963482NN
share0NN
total0NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
increase0.00285817158600878NN

The analysis confirms that for some countries the spatial dimension of inequality is of considerable importance

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.96558990688985
WordScorePoS
country0NN
dimension0.0488696285210061NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.256417329448919
WordScorePoS
country0NN
dimension0.181686110904276NN
inequality0NN

This conclusion carries over even more powerfully at the global level where the between country contribution to global inequality is dramatic chapter

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.939172745678281
WordScorePoS
conclusion0NN
global0.0133009891881297JJ
level0NN
country0NN
contribution0NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN

Other studies and methodologies corroborate the finding that spatial differences within countries are important

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Using farmhousehold data for rural China Jalan and Ravallion identify spatial poverty traps where poorer areas have lower provisions of essential public goods such as roads and as result households in the area experience lower productivity on their investments

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.446311624364921
WordScorePoS
datum0NN
rural0JJ
identify0VB
poverty0.269969049497485NN
provision0NN
essential0JJ
public0NN
road0NN
result0NN
household0NN
experience0NN
productivity0NN
investment0.0376648791150643NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.410318030207878
WordScorePoS
datum0NN
rural0.148975141598503JJ
identify0VB
poverty0.0261926252110933NN
provision0NN
essential0JJ
public0NN
road0NN
result0NN
household0.0297950283197006NN
experience0NN
productivity0.0595900566394012NN
investment0.0182713919265625NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.334473120217146
WordScorePoS
datum0.0739231123597559NN
rural0JJ
identify0VB
poverty0.0109843026967392NN
provision0NN
essential0JJ
public0.0390556786919513NN
road0NN
result0NN
household0NN
experience0.0299586785922821NN
productivity0NN
investment0.0766240489430275NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.331207986718711
WordScorePoS
datum0.0454743001434393NN
rural0JJ
identify0VB
poverty0NN
provision0NN
essential0JJ
public0.0160169090870187NN
road0.0368585655748969NN
result0NN
household0NN
experience0NN
productivity0.0922368138456871NN
investment0.0377086395700813NN

Various studies find spatial effects on living standards even after controlling for nongeographic household characteristics

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.506354592493311
WordScorePoS
study0NN
effect0NN
live0.0739258553811849VB
standard0NN
control0.0614198493690006NN
household0NN
characteristic0JJ

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.367945626610705
WordScorePoS
study0NN
effect0.0454743001434393NN
live0.00740117451847634VB
standard0.0454743001434393NN
control0NN
household0NN
characteristic0JJ

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.360621344556443
WordScorePoS
study0NN
effect0NN
live0VB
standard0.0409791940864438NN
control0NN
household0.0554128417527413NN
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.348388138816077
WordScorePoS
study0NN
effect0NN
live0VB
standard0NN
control0.0465610847355851NN
household0.0465610847355851NN
characteristic0JJ

Ravallion and Wodon demonstrate that place of residence is an important determinant of poverty in Bangladesh

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.93523444252407
WordScorePoS
poverty0.269969049497485NN

They also note that important spatial differences can be discerned even within urban areas households in the district of Dhaka are markedly better off than their counterparts in other urban districts

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.963986924724652
WordScorePoS
urban0.27622591898666JJ
household0NN

Many studies suggest that spatial differences in incomes are driven by policy

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.701362710391591
WordScorePoS
study0NN
suggest0VB
income0.166475342664294NN
drive0NN
policy0.0848203862485078NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.508315679287918
WordScorePoS
study0NN
suggest0.0602029956716497VB
income0.110649350233433NN
drive0NN
policy0.011275328195446NN

In China Kanbur and Zhang find measurable polarization between inland and coastal regions where factors unrelated to physical geography development of heavy industry in certain provinces trade openness and government investment in coastal regions are associated with widening interregional inequality

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.614477052772192
WordScorePoS
inland0RB
coastal0JJ
region0NN
development0.0177346522508396NN
industry0NN
trade0.0237821918091848NN
government0NN
investment0.0202620733250388NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.54205157351163
WordScorePoS
inland0RB
coastal0.265991560286306JJ
region0NN
development0.0036456034155327NN
industry0.0401833161726777NN
trade0.0391100714971453NN
government0NN
investment0NN
inequality0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.372579684954333
WordScorePoS
inland0RB
coastal0JJ
region0.184259548107002NN
development0.0164833460638534NN
industry0NN
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Escobal and Torero compare coastal Peru with the highlands and find that average per capita expenditures vary markedly and that this variance is associated with fewer and weaker infrastructure services in the highlands

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The role of infrastructure is thus central

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Although it is not disputed that physical geography can also influence poverty directly the association between geographic variation in poverty and geographic variation in infrastructure access is typically strong

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Accordingly it is argued that the influence of regional geographic location on inequality will diminish as access to transport and Inequity within countries individuals and groups communications services improve being geographically isolated will matter less because infrastructure improvements will help compensate for distance

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Figure

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Location education and social groups can make difference regressions of total inequality on shares of between group inequality of different household characteristics Urban rural Overall inequality Social group of the household head Overall inequality The relationship between group differences and inequality As is clear from the discussion here our interest in the contribution of group differences to total inequality extends beyond normative considerations of fairness and justice

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Differences between groups are also thought to explain overall inequality outcomes particularly the reproduction of inequalities over time

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The basic idea is that between group differences in income inequality for example will tend also to be mirrored in between group differences in health and education inequalities and in the agency of groups in influencing their circumstances see below

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These group differences will then reinforce one another

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Group differences in education for example will translate into differences in incomes and in political voice and participation

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These inequalities will in turn affect health inequalities between groups which are passed on to education inequalities and so on

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Inequality traps are the result

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A corollary of this idea is that efforts to moderate overall inequality levels might require focus on reducing between group differences

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It is difficult to systematically document this instrumental role of group differences

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Figure

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illustrates one attempt

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Overall inequality is correlated with the betweengroup share for the sample of countries in figures

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controlling for region and whether the underlying welfare indicator is income or consumption

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Nothing in the mechanics of the calculation forces overall inequality to be correlated with the share attributable to between group differences

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Yet for this sample of countries higher overall inequality is associated with larger between group share of overall inequality which is attributable to the rural urban breakdown to differences across social groups to differences in education and weakly to differences in broad occupation class of the household head

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Between group share Occupation of the household head Overall inequality Between group share Between group share Education of the household head Overall inequality Between group share Source Authors calculations from household survey data

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Note Regressions include as controls regional area dummies and welfare measure C dummy

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The shares of the between component of inequality across gender and age of the household head and regions within the country were not significant

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One interpretation of these findings is that between group differences account for and possibly explain non negligible portion of overall inequality

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This is consistent with the broader theme of this report that group differences reinforce one another and in this way contribute to the replication of inequality over time

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But these simple correlations while suggestive could also be pointing to other processes and on their own cannot exclude other competing explanations

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Inequality and growth economic structure and trade Systematic exploration of the impact of between group shares on overall inequality has not to date been major topic of empirical investigation

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A longer standing question in economics has been how inequality evolves with economic growth more generally

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Pioneering work by Kuznets in the launched an enormous amount of empirical work on this question stimulating much debate

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There is still no WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT BOX

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Revisiting the Kuznets hypothesis for economic growth and inequality The starting point of the literature linking economic development and income inequality dates to the well known works of two Nobel Prize winners W

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Arthur Lewis and Simon Kuznets

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Lewis in his classic article Economic Development with Unlimited Supplies of Labor developed theoretical model in which growth and accumulation in dual economy would start in the modern industrial sector where capitalists would hire at given wage and reinvest share of their profits

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The number of traditional agricultural laborers willing to move to this high productivity high wage sector was assumed to be unlimited

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In this process of development and as long as these assumptions would prevail inequality in the distribution of income would increase as average incomes rose

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There would be turning point after which inequality would fall again as the surplus labor phase ends and the dualistic economy becomes single sector fully industrialized economy

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Although Kuznets did not explicitly model the intersectoral shifts of population as part of the development process he did build on them to articulate his basic idea of an inverted relationship between economic growth and income inequality the Kuznets curve

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In his presidential address at the Annual Meeting of the American Economic Association in he hypothesized that in the process of growth and industrialization inequality would first increase because of the shift from agriculture and the countryside to industry and the city and then decrease as returns across sectors equalized

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The data Kuznets used to make this statement came from long run series of inequality indicators for England Germany and the United States and from single observation in time for three developing countries India Ceylon Sri Lanka today and Puerto Rico

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These were the data available at that time and Kuznets was well aware of the limitations of the empirical backing of his argument in his own words on percent of empirical information and percent speculation some of it possibly tainted by wishful thinking

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Kuznets based his speculation primarily on longitudinal data and called for in depth case studies of the economic growth of nations

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But many subsequent studies simply used aggregate cross country data often of not particularly high quality and reduced form models to explore and support the hypothesis of an inevitable tradeoff between development and equality

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The Kuznets curve became one of the most quoted stylized facts of the study of income distribution for nearly four decades

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Cross country data can be misleading for dynamic processes With the development of much larger data sets such as the Deininger and Squire international inequality database following on from Fields empirical tests of the Kuznets curve were widely conducted

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But it has become understood that the use of cross country data to analyze what are essentially dynamic processes can be strongly misleading

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Moreover numerous studies have shown that the evidence in favor of the Kuznets curve is not at all robust to econometric specifications sample consensus on systematic relationship between the long term growth processes of industrialization and urbanization and overall inequality box

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Cross country studies have also analyzed the relationship between inequality and economic structure

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Bourguignon and Morrison for example argue that developing countries which are comparatively endowed with mineral resources and land climate tend to be less egalitarian than others although the effect of the agricultural comparative advantage may be offset by the distribution of land

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They also find that the labor productivity difference between agriculture and the rest of the economy is powerful explanatory factor for differences in income inequality in number of developing countries in the and s

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composition and period of observation

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See among others Bourguignon and Morrisson Fields and Jakubson Deininger and Squire and Bruno Ravallion and Squire

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Bruno Ravallion and Squire while drawing in part on cross country data also analyzed one country India for which relatively long time series data had become available and again found no sign that growth increased inequality

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Why the Kuznets curve does not hold in practice probably has to do with the fact that developing countries do not generally satisfy the assumptions on migration processes and sectoral development underlying the Kuznets hypothesis

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To explain international differences in inequality of incomes it is important that the link between economic inequalities and other factors such as economic dualism land education and regional differences be more carefully analyzed

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No straightforward relationship between income and inequality To conclude there is today something of consensus that no straightforward relation between income and inequality can be established

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As argued by Kanbur in his exhaustive review of the Kuznets curve literature in the Handbook of Income Distribution it seems to us far better to focus directly on policies or combination of policies which will generate growth without adverse distributional effects rather than rely on the existence or nonexistence of an aggregative reduced form relationship between per capita income and inequality

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Source Authors creation

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large body of literature has also explored the relationship between trade openness and inequality but has not reached consensus

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For example Dollar and Kraay and Dollar and Kraay find no effect of trade openness on inequality but Lundberg and Squire do find such an effect

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Ravallion and Milanovic report that at low incomes openness may be inequality increasing but that this effect reverses at higher incomes

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Trends The discussion above highlights the many mechanisms for hypothesizing how aggregate economic growth and the evolution of different sectors of the economy can influence economic inequality

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Popular lines of argument have emphasized Lewis Kuznets Inequity within countries individuals and groups type processes the race between relative supply and demand for skills along with household adjustments to participation education and fertility the transitions from controlled to market oriented economic systems and various forms of power and bargaining related views of the world

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In the end and perhaps not surprisingly it is difficult to identify single overarching explanation

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Until recently this did not seem to matter much because there was general perception that inequality does not vary markedly over short periods

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In earlier studies few countries having data on inequality over multiple time periods indicated sharp changes

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For countries and regions

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Empirical investigation of how inequality evolves in country is subject to concerns similar to those for comparisons of levels see box

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But there is growing sense that the impression of stable unchanging income inequality may well be misleading

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A few recent examples of changing inequality bear mentioning

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First careful work by Atkinson has documented the evolution of inequality in OECD countries during the second half the twentieth century

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He finds that inequality in the United States has been rising steadily since the early after seeing little change and possibly some decline in the preceding decades and has risen dramatically in the United Kingdom since

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Between and the Gini coefficient in the United Kingdom rose by percentage points but then did not increase further an unprecedented increase over such short time

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Elsewhere in the OECD inequality changes have been less marked

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But to the extent that the early and middle decades of the twentieth century were associated with declining inequality in these countries this trend seems to have halted by the century later decades

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Second inequality in China was markedly higher at the end of the than it had been in the early part of the s

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In general the recent evidence in East Asia suggests that inequality has risen faster in the second round of high growth Asian economies such as China and Vietnam than had been observed in the first round Hong Kong China Republic of Korea Malaysia Singapore and Taiwan China

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A complete picture of the factors behind this process is as yet unclear

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Although it is likely that at least part of the story is linked to intersectoral transfers as emphasized by Lewis box

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Ravallion and Chen indicate that inequality in China grew fastest during periods when economic growth and poverty reduction were slow

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They argue that China provides little support for the view that rising inequality is inevitable with rapid economic growth and poverty reduction

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Third South Asia has generally been perceived as region with relatively low inequality

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This probably is due in part to inequality being measured by consumption

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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.232115129925454
WordScorePoS
due0JJ
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In this region too the prevailing view has been that inequality changes little over time

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.934455696313004
WordScorePoS
region0NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.247356003273618
WordScorePoS
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But the stylized fact of low and stable inequality in South Asia has also been challenged

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.971213243165582
WordScorePoS
stable0JJ
inequality0.635305170773079NN
south0RB
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In India the largest country in the region some uncertainty remains over how inequality has evolved because of wellpublicized issues concerning data comparability over time

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.885636745475719
WordScorePoS
largest0JJS
country0NN
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inequality0.635305170773079NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.234433335445953
WordScorePoS
largest0JJS
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The best available estimates suggest that inequality in India has been rising but with no solid assessment of by how much

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.959334497503975
WordScorePoS
estimate0NN
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In Bangladesh Nepal and Sri Lanka however recent and reliable data show very large increases of inequality in the late and s

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.933077396155891
WordScorePoS
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Label: 7, with a score of: 0.242881563495933
WordScorePoS
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In Bangladesh income inequality as opposed to consumption inequality has been documented to have risen from Gini of

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.955712272278764
WordScorePoS
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.217296155466143
WordScorePoS
income0NN
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.0967000691530533
WordScorePoS
income0NN
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In Sri Lanka the increase in consumption inequality has been very similar from

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.852799194070036
WordScorePoS
increase0.00285817158600878NN
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.45667597667244
WordScorePoS
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.207028468397053
WordScorePoS
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And in Nepal the Planning Commission has produced estimates suggesting that consumption inequality rose from

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.791162120074226
WordScorePoS
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.456027474326928
WordScorePoS
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.16862480235287
WordScorePoS
plan0NN
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Only in Pakistan is the evolution of inequality not clear because of difficulties with data comparability

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.978909037697737
WordScorePoS
inequality0.635305170773079NN
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In other regions of the world the recent picture on inequality trends is more difficult to summarize

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.929522871522608
WordScorePoS
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.27217147570414
WordScorePoS
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For Latin America De Ferranti and others indicate that inequality increased in most countries by sizable margin during the lost decade of WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT the s

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WordScorePoS
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But during the inequality continued to rise in only about half of the countries in the region and less rapidly

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WordScorePoS
inequality0.635305170773079NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.244399918161931
WordScorePoS
inequality0NN
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The authors note that in Argentina inequality has risen sharply in the growth period and during the crisis years

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.942059433646687
WordScorePoS
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.254882462266092
WordScorePoS
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In Brazil and Mexico the witnessed some small declines

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

In Eastern Europe and Central Asia changes in inequality during the early associated with the transition to the market economy have been difficult to document systematically because of data problems according to World Bank

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.857119457715011
WordScorePoS
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.307319497721847
WordScorePoS
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Between and consumption inequality declined in the former Soviet Union countries with the exception of Georgia and Tajikistan while there was no clear trend in eastern and southern European countries World Bank

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.814159107650277
WordScorePoS
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.440352069936634
WordScorePoS
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.182794517099745
WordScorePoS
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In Africa and the Middle East it is difficult to point to broad trends largely because of concerns with data comparability over time

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.772414568188622
WordScorePoS
africa0IN
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To what extent does our examination of levels and trends in income inequality bear on the themes of this report

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WordScorePoS
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This report is most concerned about changes in inequalities in incomes and other specific dimensions if these dimensions are associated with changes in underlying inequalities of opportunities

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.242323239336342
WordScorePoS
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Rising income inequality in Russia during the for example is of concern precisely because of its strong association with rising political influence and state capture

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.92757786397578
WordScorePoS
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But this is not inevitably the case

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

A recent study of income distribution dynamics in six East Asian and Latin American countries by Bourguignon Ferreira and Lustig decomposes income distribution dynamics into the underlying driving forces

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.754534295553251
WordScorePoS
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They show that complex and country specific interactions between powerful underlying social and economic phenomena imply that distributional experiences must be assessed country by country

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WordScorePoS
country0NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.564840248076365
WordScorePoS
country0NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.465731732976196
WordScorePoS
country0NN
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For example improvements in education equalizing opportunities may be associated in one case with falling income inequality Brazil or Taiwan China but in another country with rising inequality Indonesia or Mexico

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.950553007122423
WordScorePoS
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Label: 4, with a score of: 0.154569203804798
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improvement0NN
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Our assessment of the equity implications of changes in income inequality will thus differ across countries

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.98358786376746
WordScorePoS
income0.166475342664294NN
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Across generations

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.742868974909555
WordScorePoS
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.66943684251528
WordScorePoS
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Our assessment will also depend on the degree to which inequalities are transmitted across generations

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.940670886215956
WordScorePoS
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Label: 13, with a score of: 0.243524016112421
WordScorePoS
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The study of intergenerational transmission of welfare is not straightforward because of the scarcity of datasets containing information on various generations of adults in the same family

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.692368168855975
WordScorePoS
study0NN
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Label: 4, with a score of: 0.407274450395902
WordScorePoS
study0NN
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.388034875424852
WordScorePoS
study0NN
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.356079466688693
WordScorePoS
study0NN
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Data from long panels are rare and questions about family background of individuals are not always asked in surveys the Brazil data described in box

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.537062429438211
WordScorePoS
datum0NN
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are rare exception

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Information about education or occupation for various generations can be captured relatively easily in recall questionnaires

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.49368644678445
WordScorePoS
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.350774537687697
WordScorePoS
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But information about other dimensions such as the incomes earnings or even health status of earlier generations is not easily remembered by individuals not least because they often change during lifetime

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.532284428538568
WordScorePoS
information0NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.488480571445058
WordScorePoS
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.298684573529648
WordScorePoS
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Label: 3, with a score of: 0.265150950047584
WordScorePoS
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.405762471449561
WordScorePoS
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The scarcity of intergenerational data is particularly striking in developing countries

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.953105610411516
WordScorePoS
scarcity0.273330690899345NN
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Even though the persistence of inequalities across generations is often thought to be much more acute in developing countries studies on intergenerational mobility in the developing world remain few and far between

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WordScorePoS
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Even when the data exist differences in methodologies and data often limit the scope for comparisons across countries

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WordScorePoS
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The most widespread measure of intergenerational mobility in the economics literature is the intergenerational earnings elasticity or the elasticity of sons earnings with the earnings of their parents

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

This measure generally comes from log linear regression of sons earnings although it could also be income or years of schooling on fathers observed earnings or its predicted value using such other information as education or occupation

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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.376180847216508
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.422896083526655
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The closer the elasticity is to zero the more mobile the society is supposed to be

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.408039073872828
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This elasticity has been widely used in the U

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literature where longitudinal data are relatively abundant

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.523956633971108
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And for comparability it has also been calculated in most other countries recent studies

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WordScorePoS
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Until recently estimates of the intergenerational elasticity of earnings were thought to Inequity within countries individuals and groups be around

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in the United States suggesting reasonably mobile society in incomes

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.349001161051811
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More recently however Mazumder uses new data and recent econometric techniques to correct for transitory fluctuations in earnings he shows that the previous estimates of intergenerational elasticity were biased downward by about percent

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He argues that the true estimate is somewhere around

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for the United States

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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.407537456169018
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An intergenerational elasticity of

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compared to

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Label: 3, with a score of: 0.596465163910542
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paints dramatically different picture of mobility in American society

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.526079469917298
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For example it implies that family whose earnings are half the national average would require five generations instead of three before it substantially closed the gap

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.400353248843801
WordScorePoS
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.46680153945909
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.350874064169818
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Obviously difference of two generations or about fifty years is quite substantial and suggests the need to examine policies that foster greater mobility

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.441585930702568
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.400169449958889
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.350509737961317
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In parallel analyses estimates of intergenerational mobility in Canada Finland or Sweden among others have tended to report elasticities closer to

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or lower suggesting that these societies are considerably more mobile than the United States

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 13, with a score of: 0.423763385404157
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.421263191798792
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.373182893832172
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.302719235453549
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A relatively early study of mobility in the United Kingdom Atkinson Maynard and Trinder reports an elasticity of

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while more recent study by Dearden Machin and Reed estimates an elasticity of

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WordScorePoS
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These studies indicate that people in the United Kingdom are about as mobile as those in the United States

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Label: 15, with a score of: 0.315521188559732
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Because of the data limitations only few exceptional studies on intergenerational earnings elasticities for less developed countries have been carried out

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These provide evidence of relatively low mobility

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.938686683462423
WordScorePoS
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In another literature review of crosscountry differences in intergenerational earnings mobility Solon asks whether there is any link between crosssectional inequality within generation and the intergenerational transmission of inequality

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Although there is greater crosssectional inequality in the United States and the United Kingdom than in Sweden or Finland Canada also has relatively high inequality

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WordScorePoS
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The evidence needed to provide clear answer to this question is therefore still fragmentary and only con tinuing research on international evidence of intergenerational mobility will improve our understanding of why the intergenerational transmission of economic status is strong in some countries and weak in others

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The intergenerational transmission mechanisms of inequalities will differ across countries and within countries across different population groups

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As described above Mazumder points to rather low levels of intergenerational mobility in the United States

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He also highlights an important racial dimension to this limited mobility and finds evidence of substantial immobility at the ends of the distribution

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He shows that of the individuals whose fathers were in the bottom decile of the earnings distribution percent will be below the thirtieth percentile and percent below the sixtieth percentile

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WordScorePoS
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He finds the evidence to be consistent with the hypothesis that such immobility might be due to the inability of families to invest in their children human capital due to the lack of resources

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By contrast more than percent of the individuals whose parents were in the top decile will remain above the eightieth percentile and two thirds will be above the median

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study Hertz confirms the findings of Mazumder and others on the size of the intergenerational elasticity

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He then shows evidence that it is largely driven by the especially low rate of mobility of black families from the bottom of the income distribution

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While only percent of whites born to the bottom decile of family income remain there as adults the corresponding figure is percent for blacks

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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.39453314118219
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He also finds that rags to riches transitions from the bottom quartile to the top were less than half as likely for black as for white families

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He further provides evidence that the black white mobility gap is not appreciably altered by controlling for parents years of schooling

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WordScorePoS
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Last he provides evidence that the incomes of black children are unresponsive to small changes in parents incomes at the bottom of the distribution

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To recap summary measures suggest that even in such developed countries as the WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT United States and United Kingdom there is rather limited intergenerational mobility across generations

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Research in these countries has highlighted important heterogeneities in the patterns of reproduction of different inequalities across populations groups

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For most developing countries relatively little is known about intergenerational income mobility

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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.406408302872692
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But given the acute groupbased inequalities in many developing countries there appears to be little basis for expecting much intergenerational mobility

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Agency and equity inequalities of power The foregoing discussion has raised explicitly the question of how inequalities are determined and reproduced

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It has pointed to the potentially important role of group differences in this process

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This focus on process and the factors that account for the persistence of inequality over time puts the spotlight on how much inequality is rooted in deeper institutions in society institutions of governance access to land control of labor market regulation

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Chapter deals with the emergence and effects of such institutions in more detail

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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.327716268008039
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Here we turn to different kinds of evidence and traditions of analysis to discuss the unequal capacity of people to influence the form taken by these institutions and the consequences of unequal institutions for continuing inequality in such capacities

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For BOX

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poverty the inequalities in capacity to forge the institution or society can be as important as inequalities in health income and education

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recent study of inequalities in governance in four slums of Delhi found that access to formal government by slum dwellers is more available to the better off and to those who have good contact networks

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Community leaders in these slums facilitate access primarily to their caste members and slum dwellers are more likely to delegate custodianship of their interests to better educated community leaders

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The study concludes that because access to bureaucracy and political representation for slum dwellers in Delhi is largely the preserve of the better off and better connected decisions of formal policymakers do not seek to represent slum interests as whole producing interventions that do not target those in most need

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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.45859760167007
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The lack of broadly distributed voice thus results in patterns of resource allocation and income generation that are far from egalitarian

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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.516114203889434
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The nature of this unequal capacity can be captured through the sociological concept of agency

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Agency refers to people capacity to transform or reproduce such societal institutions

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Label: 7, with a score of: 0.359872512494723
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Some of this capacity is conscious for example when interest groups lobby for change in land tenure legislation or when women refuse to accept laws around marriage that systematically disadvantage them

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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.323600491804207
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Some of it is uncon Inequitable agencies and institutions in Pakistan recently completed Human Development Report for Pakistan provides rich documentation of the skewed distributional impact of corruption United Nations Development Programme

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The report notes that corruption raises the costs of getting things done for setting up new business for crossing borders for obtaining driver license

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In Pakistan these costs fall most heavily on those least able to afford them the poor

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According to the Pakistan Human Development Report

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percent of the extremely poor reported paying bribe to run their business enterprise handing over an average of rupees

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percent of the non poor paid bribe of rupees

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In rural areas the contrast is even starker percent of the extremely poor paid bribe while only

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percent of the non poor had to do so

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In urban areas the extremely poor paid on average rupees in bribes while the non poor paid only rupees

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Similar patterns emerge for mediating disputes

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The extremely poor not only pay higher price to seek resolution than the non poor but also they are less likely to receive satisfactory outcome

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percent versus

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percent

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Indeed the fee the extremely poor must pay is often higher than their annual household income leaving many to choose to suffer the consequences of dispute even when they are clearly in the right

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WordScorePoS
poor0JJ
pay0.02794560829783NN
household0.0330412182586772NN
income0.166475342664294NN
leave0NN
suffer0VB

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.417371565714498
WordScorePoS
poor0.150659516460257JJ
pay0NN
household0NN
income0.0442083771593746NN
leave0NN
suffer0VB

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.395519268711527
WordScorePoS
poor0.0548141757796873JJ
pay0NN
household0.0297950283197006NN
income0.0643370113878709NN
leave0NN
suffer0.0357189919948307VB

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.387970015141603
WordScorePoS
poor0JJ
pay0.078760887431929NN
household0.0465610847355851NN
income0NN
leave0NN
suffer0.0558185411034276VB

In addition the extremely poor receive less assistance from the police the most immediate representatives of the formal justice system who are involved in only percent of their disputes but nearly percent of the disputes of the non poor

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.6467244050903
WordScorePoS
addition0NN
poor0JJ
receive0VB
assistance0NN
police0.107490825192354NNS
representative0.107490825192354NN
justice0.214981650384708NN
system0NN
involve0VB

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.531362124509902
WordScorePoS
addition0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
receive0VB
assistance0NN
police0NNS
representative0NN
justice0NN
system0.0519476926891779NN
involve0VB

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.332335635585788
WordScorePoS
addition0.0357189919948307NN
poor0.0548141757796873JJ
receive0VB
assistance0NN
police0NNS
representative0NN
justice0NN
system0.0756001353333673NN
involve0VB

The poor perceive that the police will be slow and inefficient in handling their cases and they frequently experience outright harassment and intimidation

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.615434767160743
WordScorePoS
poor0.150659516460257JJ
police0NNS
slow0JJ
inefficient0JJ
experience0NN

Even to register case of kidnapping with the police requires paying bribe

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.73329259906934
WordScorePoS
police0NNS
require0.104282800328615VB
pay0.0695218668857431NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.453510413987881
WordScorePoS
police0.107490825192354NNS
require0VB
pay0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.332297036527428
WordScorePoS
police0NNS
require0VB
pay0.078760887431929NN

In these situations it is hardly surprising that the poor find it more expedient to take the law into their own hands creating in many urban areas host of new problems related to gang violence and vigilantism

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.610549666770145
WordScorePoS
situation0.0631828116343571NN
poor0.0229054731708393JJ
law0NN
create0.0315914058171786VB
urban0.27622591898666JJ
related0.0112376090361851JJ
violence0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.521252910932507
WordScorePoS
situation0NN
poor0JJ
law0.164686343640793NN
create0VB
urban0JJ
related0.016515769558553JJ
violence0.164686343640793NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.411460841791595
WordScorePoS
situation0.0519476926891779NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
law0NN
create0.0519476926891779VB
urban0JJ
related0.0184786920895884JJ
violence0NN

Source United Nations Development Programme

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.592895562230531
WordScorePoS
source0.0123065238088614NN
unite0.0828215106044499VB
nation0.0671298309154199NN
development0NN
programme0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.45620927732649
WordScorePoS
source0.0109843026967392NN
unite0.036961556179878VB
nation0.0299586785922821NN
development0.0469463607292177NN
programme0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.31567768552566
WordScorePoS
source0NN
unite0VB
nation0.0396106020715138NN
development0.0177346522508396NN
programme0.029046330719385NN

Inequity within countries individuals and groups BOX

Label: 10, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
country0NN
individual0.064698038783335JJ

Legacies of discrimination and the reproduction of inequalities and poverty among the Batwa in Uganda The Batwa who are described in many parts as pygmy peoples live in Eastern Uganda eastern Democratic Republic of Congo and Rwanda

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.79501626031218
WordScorePoS
discrimination0NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
poverty0.05809266143877NN
people0.00571634317201755NNS
live0.0159075630937118VB
eastern0JJ
democratic0JJ

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.505590050719374
WordScorePoS
discrimination0.0736315832425121NN
inequality0NN
poverty0.269969049497485NN
people0.0371911007748996NNS
live0.0739258553811849VB
eastern0JJ
democratic0JJ

Batwa have been subject to negative stereotypes since at least when Edward Tyson concluded that pygmies were not human but rather apes or monkeys

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

They suffer multiple asset depletion and wide ranging forms of discrimination situation that public actions have at times made worse

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.427227668640064
WordScorePoS
suffer0VB
multiple0JJ
asset0.0811931365363091NN
depletion0NN
wide0JJ
range0NN
form0.158049144643351NN
discrimination0NN
situation0NN
public0.0285977592242194NN
action0NN
time0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.608836681417526
WordScorePoS
suffer0.0558185411034276VB
multiple0JJ
asset0NN
depletion0NN
wide0JJ
range0NN
form0.100540298425703NN
discrimination0.111637082206855NN
situation0NN
public0.0727679293221751NN
action0.0409315617631NN
time0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.384404250048085
WordScorePoS
suffer0VB
multiple0JJ
asset0NN
depletion0NN
wide0JJ
range0NN
form0.0884167543187491NN
discrimination0.0736315832425121NN
situation0.0519476926891779NN
public0NN
action0.0269969049497485NN
time0NN

Though longstanding forest dwellers the British sought to expel them to create forest reserves in the s

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.949881595212235
WordScorePoS
forest0.380082214408185NN
seek0VB
create0VB
reserve0NN

In the Uganda National Park authorities increased efforts to enforce this exclusion from forest areas

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.888585855161644
WordScorePoS
national0.00354525553489471JJ
increase0.0068563725919103NN
effort0.032404008418326NN
enforce0VB
exclusion0NN
forest0.380082214408185NN

Although the World Bank which was funding some of the park authorities work required that the government assess the impact on indigenous communities and follow defined compensation procedures these did not take sufficient account of power differences among Batwa and other affected groups nor consider Batwa preferences

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

All communities were viewed as uniform practice that the authorities later recognized did not take into account Batwa realities and left them with nothing Zaninka

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.626983356473693
WordScorePoS
community0.0169905820958638NN
view0NN
practice0.0703006268489394NN
recognize0VB
account0.0577345906651901NN

Non Batwa locals have resisted efforts to provide more appropriate compensation to the Batwa

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.665685029294416
WordScorePoS
local0.0275274877486226JJ
effort0.032404008418326NN
provide0.0445201436316848VB

A Participatory Poverty Assessment PPA highlighted persistent discrimination describing the Batwa as group of people who are despised and who have no means of production such as land credit and training

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.748189222571258
WordScorePoS
participatory0JJ
poverty0.269969049497485NN
persistent0JJ
discrimination0.0736315832425121NN
people0.0371911007748996NNS
means0.120266261535276NNS
production0NN
land0.0319966432858631NN
credit0NN
training0NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.306511718874299
WordScorePoS
participatory0JJ
poverty0.0232260916751625NN
persistent0.0390772412228479JJ
discrimination0NN
people0.0159982027144574NNS
means0NNS
production0.016202004209163NN
land0.123873694868802NN
credit0NN
training0NN

They are regarded by other ethnic groups in Kisoro as people with no rights

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.551917276211631
WordScorePoS
regard0NN
people0.0371911007748996NNS
rights0.0519476926891779NNS

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.487660790259172
WordScorePoS
regard0NN
people0NNS
rights0.078760887431929NNS

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.43598204984214
WordScorePoS
regard0.064698038783335NN
people0.00571634317201755NNS
rights0NNS

This leads to everyday and institutionalized forms of exclusion with the Batwa suffering discrimination in access to both public spaces and services

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.323564949231854
WordScorePoS
lead0NN
form0.158049144643351NN
exclusion0NN
suffer0VB
discrimination0NN
access0.00690021170452351NN
public0.0285977592242194NN
space0NN
service0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.620197360873483
WordScorePoS
lead0NN
form0.100540298425703NN
exclusion0NN
suffer0.0558185411034276VB
discrimination0.111637082206855NN
access0.00780347258345989NN
public0.0727679293221751NN
space0NN
service0.022416649027415NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.505530800570421
WordScorePoS
lead0NN
form0.0884167543187491NN
exclusion0.0908430554521382NN
suffer0VB
discrimination0.0736315832425121NN
access0.00514687440545096NN
public0NN
space0NN
service0.0443555132287109NN

While some Batwa respond to this by organizing themselves others scious for example when people engage in land transactions without questioning them they reproduce the institutions of land tenure and the markets in land

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.539135501772535
WordScorePoS
organize0.107490825192354VB
people0NNS
engage0VB
land0NN
transaction0NN
institution0.274477239401321NN
market0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.362501516014076
WordScorePoS
organize0VB
people0.0257736572183839NNS
engage0VB
land0.0465651203624806NN
transaction0NN
institution0NN
market0.0913569596328122NN

When disadvantaged group accepts its disadvantage as taken for granted the effect is to allow the continuing existence of the relationships that create such disadvantage

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

The internalization of disadvantage leads to pernicious forms of agency that perpetuate inequalities

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.924987396816146
WordScorePoS
lead0NN
form0NN
agency0NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.230115342355509
WordScorePoS
lead0NN
form0.158049144643351NN
agency0NN
inequality0NN

From inequalities in agency come inequalities in power voice and self confidence major part of our story box

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.995217524981962
WordScorePoS
inequality0.635305170773079NN
agency0NN
power0NN
voice0.064698038783335NN
major0JJ

Inequalities of agency are as much products of dominant institutions as sources of those institutional arrangements

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.889258757722313
WordScorePoS
inequality0.635305170773079NN
agency0NN
product0NN
dominant0JJ
institution0.0991236547760315NN
source0NN
institutional0JJ

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.332341651691811
WordScorePoS
inequality0NN
agency0NN
product0NN
dominant0JJ
institution0.274477239401321NN
source0NN
institutional0JJ

Maintaining these arrangements both reflects and produces the distribution of power among people

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.631921347759007
WordScorePoS
maintain0.0881366997038154VB
reflect0VB
produce0.0357189919948307VB
power0NN
people0.0257736572183839NNS

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.47458213674561
WordScorePoS
maintain0VB
reflect0.0401833161726777VB
produce0.0651400632663124VB
power0NN
people0.00705044110169491NNS

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.363949873460641
WordScorePoS
maintain0VB
reflect0.0409791940864438VB
produce0.0332151194779746VB
power0NN
people0.0119834723221875NNS

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.301541500850697
WordScorePoS
maintain0.055245183797332VB
reflect0VB
produce0VB
power0NN
people0.0161552501392041NNS

As for health education and income though this distribution can change and it has

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.639565369219143
WordScorePoS
health0NN
education0.0102677744436108NN
income0NN
change0.402565546215053NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.378386679869359
WordScorePoS
health0NN
education0.244244978014045NN
income0NN
change0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.339457689179276
WordScorePoS
health0.0405241466500776NN
education0.0121171980355011NN
income0.166475342664294NN
change0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.320141571333011
WordScorePoS
health0.191387734041787NN
education0.0152605842304358NN
income0NN
change0NN

Indeed it has often changed in relation to changes in these other distributions

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.933078915983637
WordScorePoS
change0.402565546215053NN
relation0NN

Internalization of disadvantage and inequalities of agency Recent work on urban slum dwellers in India and elsewhere suggests that key form of powerlessness for the poor involves living with negative terms of recognition

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.749285176150996
WordScorePoS
inequality0.635305170773079NN
agency0NN
urban0.0488696285210061JJ
slum0NN
suggest0VB
key0NN
form0NN
poor0JJ
involve0.0488696285210061VB
live0.0159075630937118VB
term0.0396106020715138NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.448853992362553
WordScorePoS
inequality0NN
agency0NN
urban0.27622591898666JJ
slum0.146277152173395NN
suggest0VB
key0NN
form0NN
poor0.0229054731708393JJ
involve0VB
live0.0269743071558856VB
term0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.297411841904894
WordScorePoS
inequality0NN
agency0NN
urban0JJ
slum0NN
suggest0VB
key0NN
form0.0884167543187491NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
involve0VB
live0.0739258553811849VB
term0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.162733287561555
WordScorePoS
inequality0NN
agency0NN
urban0JJ
slum0NN
suggest0VB
key0NN
form0.158049144643351NN
poor0JJ
involve0VB
live0.013214597504793VB
term0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.156893850576513
WordScorePoS
inequality0NN
agency0NN
urban0JJ
slum0NN
suggest0VB
key0NN
form0NN
poor0.0153248097886055JJ
involve0VB
live0VB
term0.149793392961411NN

This concept highlights the conditions and constraints under which the poor negotiate respond in ways that however rational and selfprotecting often reproduce the extent to which they are excluded

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.582513058982758
WordScorePoS
condition0NN
constraint0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
negotiate0VB
extent0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.470062918728081
WordScorePoS
condition0.121575732851624NN
constraint0NN
poor0JJ
negotiate0VB
extent0NN

The same PPA reports some Batwa children saying that they did not attend school because it was so unfriendly to them

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.72624308697038
WordScorePoS
report0NN
child0.076326555629389NN
attend0VB
school0.208127520578185NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.364508596827894
WordScorePoS
report0NN
child0.0546336178945768NN
attend0.0583416713841148VB
school0.0297950283197006NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.351302243078375
WordScorePoS
report0.0307735781890304NN
child0.10682408961305NN
attend0VB
school0NN

When asked what they wanted to do upon completing school one child replied that she wished to be cleaner

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.830371037030849
WordScorePoS
complete0.0815069365350084JJ
school0.208127520578185NN
child0.076326555629389NN
cleaner0JJR

Discrimination and prejudice diminish the capacity to aspire to and imagine different future

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.573125689875064
WordScorePoS
discrimination0.111637082206855NN
diminish0VB
capacity0NN
future0NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.411187929621969
WordScorePoS
discrimination0NN
diminish0.0548233071065585VB
capacity0.025270503924109NN
future0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.378011957212069
WordScorePoS
discrimination0.0736315832425121NN
diminish0VB
capacity0NN
future0NN

Repudiation and discrimination can also lead the Batwa to self exclude from the public sphere

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.829913956386647
WordScorePoS
discrimination0.111637082206855NN
lead0NN
public0.0727679293221751NN
sphere0.0688661930304451NN

The PPA notes that no Batwa attended PPA exercises

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Non Batwa locals explained Batwa would never come to such meetings so there is no point in mobilizing them

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.681723847810598
WordScorePoS
local0.0130185595639838JJ
mobilize0.0898760357768464VB

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.602085363296242
WordScorePoS
local0.0275274877486226JJ
mobilize0.0633470357346975VB

Source Moncrieffe citing Participatory Poverty Assessment reports

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.848334134277936
WordScorePoS
source0.0269969049497485NN
participatory0JJ
poverty0.269969049497485NN
report0NN

the very norms that frame their social lives

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.657258515955096
WordScorePoS
social0.112994637345193JJ
life0.0184786920895884NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.506468509660532
WordScorePoS
social0.101310366625194JJ
life0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.313809213067762
WordScorePoS
social0.0504071033101074JJ
life0.0123650647908625NN

Being so routinely treated with contempt by government officials employers and fellow citizens and encountering such enormous obstacles to advancement means that excluded groups can over time come to subscribe to norms about themselves and their situation whose social effect is to further diminish their dignity exacerbate their inequality and deepen their lack of access to material goods and services

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.821478225528486
WordScorePoS
government0NN
official0.0488696285210061NN
employer0NN
means0NNS
time0.0607862199751165NN
situation0NN
social0.101310366625194JJ
effect0NN
diminish0VB
inequality0.635305170773079NN
lack0NN
access0.00138439773401932NN
material0NN
service0.00795378154685591NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.393683697671871
WordScorePoS
government0NN
official0NN
employer0NN
means0.120266261535276NNS
time0NN
situation0.0519476926891779NN
social0.112994637345193JJ
effect0NN
diminish0VB
inequality0NN
lack0.0753297582301286NN
access0.00514687440545096NN
material0NN
service0.0443555132287109NN

In these circumstances the poor are not only persistently and overtly discriminated against

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.76144890733655
WordScorePoS
circumstance0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.339617025061069
WordScorePoS
circumstance0.0332151194779746NN
poor0.0339811641917276JJ

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.324479024608562
WordScorePoS
circumstance0NN
poor0.0642010940957526JJ

Their problems are further compounded and consolidated by their apparent complicity in it their revealed adaptive preference for menial occupations and ascription to norms and subservient behaviors that only legitimize and perpetuate their powerlessness

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Dire material circumstances rational expectations about their limited prospects for upward mobility and strong beliefs about the legitimacy and immutability of their situation conspire to create vicious circle from which it may be very difficult for the poor to escape see box

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.686249502927565
WordScorePoS
material0NN
circumstance0NN
limited0.120266261535276JJ
prospects0NNS
mobility0NN
strong0JJ
situation0.0519476926891779NN
create0.0519476926891779VB
poor0.150659516460257JJ
escape0NN

Inequality traps may cause crime and violence

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.848337317402522
WordScorePoS
inequality0.635305170773079NN
crime0NN
violence0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.506979231985873
WordScorePoS
inequality0NN
crime0.214981650384708NN
violence0.164686343640793NN

First people who perceive their poverty as permanent may be driven by hostile impulses rather than rational pursuit of their interests

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.894862525520863
WordScorePoS
people0.0371911007748996NNS
poverty0.269969049497485NN
drive0NN

Second sensitivity to inequality especially by those feeling WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT trapped at the bottom may lead to higherrisk tactics like crime when the expected payoffs from socially legitimate activities are poor

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.874063593234388
WordScorePoS
inequality0.635305170773079NN
world0.00276879546803864NN
development0.0177346522508396NN
report0NN
bottom0.064698038783335NN
lead0NN
crime0NN
expect0VB
socially0RB
legitimate0.064698038783335JJ
activity0NN
poor0JJ

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.280309365353082
WordScorePoS
inequality0NN
world0NN
development0.0368309542451156NN
report0NN
bottom0NN
lead0NN
crime0.214981650384708NN
expect0VB
socially0RB
legitimate0JJ
activity0NN
poor0JJ

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.188922505831023
WordScorePoS
inequality0NN
world0.00257343720272548NN
development0.0164833460638534NN
report0NN
bottom0NN
lead0NN
crime0NN
expect0VB
socially0RB
legitimate0JJ
activity0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ

Third people may be particularly sensitive to group based inequalities

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.948008446120184
WordScorePoS
people0.00571634317201755NNS
sensitive0JJ
base0NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN

If for example racial heterogeneity and income inequality are correlated and consolidate status distinctions in society this could spell potential for violence

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.912420620244147
WordScorePoS
income0.166475342664294NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
status0.0488696285210061NN
society0.0237821918091848NN
potential0NN
violence0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.295527372181518
WordScorePoS
income0NN
inequality0NN
status0NN
society0.118536858482514NN
potential0NN
violence0.164686343640793NN

Finally as Merton elegantly states

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

when system of cultural values emphasizes virtually above all else certain common symbols of success for the population at large while its social structure rigorously restricts or completely eliminates access to approved modes of acquiring these symbols for considerable part of the same population

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.574383983439127
WordScorePoS
system0NN
cultural0JJ
value0NN
common0JJ
population0.0860640399817412NN
social0.101310366625194JJ
structure0NN
eliminate0.0558912165956601VB
access0.00138439773401932NN
acquire0NN

antisocial behavior ensues on considerable scale

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

italics reflect original emphasis lack of upward mobility in society combined with high premium on economic affluence results in anomie breakdown of standards and values

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.475136554046979
WordScorePoS
reflect0VB
lack0.0252035516550537NN
mobility0NN
society0.0591643007226199NN
economic0.128463821595706JJ
result0NN
standard0NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.428088525665361
WordScorePoS
reflect0VB
lack0NN
mobility0.064698038783335NN
society0.0237821918091848NN
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result0NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.382463026854652
WordScorePoS
reflect0VB
lack0.0753297582301286NN
mobility0NN
society0NN
economic0.0959899298575892JJ
result0NN
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Changing between group inequalities of agency and institutional power Inequality of agency often leads to institutions that reproduce such inequality

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.954252208389256
WordScorePoS
change0NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
agency0NN
institutional0JJ
power0NN
lead0NN
institution0.0991236547760315NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.231008789501399
WordScorePoS
change0.402565546215053NN
inequality0NN
agency0NN
institutional0.0828215106044499JJ
power0NN
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institution0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.130631119905126
WordScorePoS
change0NN
inequality0NN
agency0NN
institutional0JJ
power0NN
lead0NN
institution0.274477239401321NN

But these relationships are not immutable

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

There are ample cases in which interventions by civil society reformist public officials external actors religious institutions and others have given more selfconfidence and assertiveness to disadvantaged groups worked against the internalization of disadvantage and created new channels for excluded groups to exercise voice with greater effect

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.615965774778451
WordScorePoS
intervention0NN
civil0JJ
society0.118536858482514NN
public0.0285977592242194NN
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institution0.274477239401321NN
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.46859764717517
WordScorePoS
intervention0NN
civil0.0978661089756501JJ
society0.0359743605686701NN
public0.0390556786919513NN
official0.0739231123597559NN
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actor0NN
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voice0NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.465152642390484
WordScorePoS
intervention0NN
civil0JJ
society0.0237821918091848NN
public0.0172128079963482NN
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external0JJ
actor0NN
institution0.0991236547760315NN
disadvantaged0.064698038783335JJ
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voice0.064698038783335NN
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These changes improve the terms of recognition for the powerless they become recognized by more powerful groups who otherwise would not acknowledge them at all leading to empowerment of disadvantaged groups in economic social and political realms

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.652280769012418
WordScorePoS
improve0VB
term0NN
recognize0.0558185411034276VB
acknowledge0VB
lead0NN
empowerment0.273513903975916NN
disadvantaged0JJ
economic0.0727679293221751JJ
social0.0285529457667019JJ
political0.111637082206855JJ

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.293910848309832
WordScorePoS
improve0.0150723186962745VB
term0NN
recognize0VB
acknowledge0VB
lead0.0504071033101074NN
empowerment0NN
disadvantaged0JJ
economic0.128463821595706JJ
social0.0504071033101074JJ
political0JJ

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.202222150774641
WordScorePoS
improve0.0183291958415182VB
term0.149793392961411NN
recognize0VB
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lead0NN
empowerment0NN
disadvantaged0JJ
economic0JJ
social0JJ
political0JJ

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.52905664950008
WordScorePoS
improve0.0121171980355011VB
term0.0396106020715138NN
recognize0VB
acknowledge0.0396106020715138VB
lead0NN
empowerment0NN
disadvantaged0.064698038783335JJ
economic0.103276847978089JJ
social0.101310366625194JJ
political0.0792212041430275JJ

Empowerment can occur in many ways

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.982895836443494
WordScorePoS
empowerment0.273513903975916NN
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Change typically occurs through the interaction between the opportunities for action created by dominant political structures and the capacity of poorer or middle groups to engage

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.668234644056021
WordScorePoS
change0.402565546215053NN
typically0RB
occur0VB
opportunity0NN
action0.0369195714265843NN
create0VB
dominant0JJ
political0JJ
structure0NN
capacity0.025270503924109NN
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engage0VB

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.407075177039031
WordScorePoS
change0.105749654845006NN
typically0RB
occur0VB
opportunity0.0549574626423028NN
action0NN
create0VB
dominant0.122412709674631JJ
political0JJ
structure0NN
capacity0NN
middle0JJ
engage0VB

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.318580776276073
WordScorePoS
change0NN
typically0RB
occur0VB
opportunity0.0135141354781442NN
action0.0135141354781442NN
create0.0520080474473126VB
dominant0JJ
political0.0368585655748969JJ
structure0NN
capacity0NN
middle0.0602029956716497JJ
engage0.0454743001434393VB

The political opportunity structure that shapes the possibilities for action is itself function of the openness of political institution the coherence and positions of elites and the effectiveness of governments to implement approved courses of action

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.534840933713908
WordScorePoS
political0JJ
opportunity0NN
structure0.048933054487825NN
action0.0109843026967392NN
function0.036961556179878NN
institution0.0249900578719309NN
coherence0.146799163463475NN
government0.048933054487825NN
implement0.0458229896037954VB

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.392089576659983
WordScorePoS
political0JJ
opportunity0NN
structure0NN
action0NN
function0NN
institution0.274477239401321NN
coherence0NN
government0NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.468226520300674
WordScorePoS
political0.0792212041430275JJ
opportunity0.029046330719385NN
structure0NN
action0.0145231653596925NN
function0NN
institution0.0991236547760315NN
coherence0NN
government0NN
implement0.0121171980355011VB

The capacity of subordinate groups is influenced by their economic capital their education and economic resources their capacity to aspire and the closely associated capacity to organize

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.443428061279962
WordScorePoS
capacity0.0123650647908625NN
influence0NN
economic0.128463821595706JJ
education0.0150723186962745NN
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Label: 4, with a score of: 0.336915954092204
WordScorePoS
capacity0NN
influence0NN
economic0JJ
education0.244244978014045NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.397850559675005
WordScorePoS
capacity0NN
influence0NN
economic0.0959899298575892JJ
education0.0225244866060403NN
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.310063504955448
WordScorePoS
capacity0NN
influence0NN
economic0.0727679293221751JJ
education0.0512260062633133NN
resource0.0280166088658745NN
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.300299812959951
WordScorePoS
capacity0.00833571598658786NN
influence0.0542519672965169NN
economic0.0433009429988926JJ
education0.0101607690729067NN
resource0.0416785799329393NN
organize0VB

In Indonesia the Kecamatan Development Project KDP illustrates change occurring through action from above and below it aims to improve the terms of recognition and the political agency of marginal groups and to create new institutions for greater agency to lead to material changes in patterns of public investment

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.481335512391231
WordScorePoS
development0NN
project0.0335649154577099NN
change0.402565546215053NN
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action0.0369195714265843NN
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improve0.0102677744436108VB
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institution0NN
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pattern0.0414107553022249NN
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.359319916877346
WordScorePoS
development0.0469463607292177NN
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change0NN
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action0.0109843026967392NN
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improve0.0183291958415182VB
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political0JJ
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institution0.0249900578719309NN
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public0.0390556786919513NN
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.311797027214808
WordScorePoS
development0.0368309542451156NN
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.393848723781675
WordScorePoS
development0.022306853314744NN
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aim0.0277064208763707NN
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term0NN
political0JJ
agency0.0542519672965169NN
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institution0NN
lead0.0169905820958638NN
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pattern0.0819583881728876NN
public0.028867295332595NN
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Consistent with the ongoing process of democratization in Indonesia the source of change comes from public policy rather than nongovernmental action allowing the project to operate on large scale see also focus for examples of change occurring at the local level

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.825201160617023
WordScorePoS
consistent0JJ
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recent study of the efficacy of the KDP on challenging and changing the terms of recognition of participants suggests that it does provide villagers with set of deliberative routines for more equitably managing the conflicts it inevitably triggers

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.637722010187662
WordScorePoS
study0NN
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.379532703238207
WordScorePoS
study0NN
challenge0NN
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term0.149793392961411NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.264567067700186
WordScorePoS
study0NN
challenge0NN
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provide0.0295703421524739VB
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conflict0.147263166485024NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.349452906996587
WordScorePoS
study0NN
challenge0.0528748274225028NN
change0.105749654845006NN
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Label: 15, with a score of: 0.323364332701191
WordScorePoS
study0.0517339898971162NN
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term0NN
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These routines introduce marginal actors to more equitable spaces of engagement with more organized and influential actors

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.533007088672349
WordScorePoS
introduce0VB
actor0NN
equitable0JJ
space0NN
organize0.107490825192354VB

But building this conflict management capacity among marginal groups depends on more than just forging collaborative routines

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.473961257150083
WordScorePoS
building0.149940347231585NN
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capacity0.0451108483130998NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.357839567833636
WordScorePoS
building0NN
conflict0.147263166485024NN
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.46683048531959
WordScorePoS
building0.109790895760528NN
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Label: 11, with a score of: 0.375807570931863
WordScorePoS
building0.0747035830159326NN
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Label: 15, with a score of: 0.310668619403756
WordScorePoS
building0NN
conflict0NN
management0.0486060126274891NN
capacity0.0158976666884135NN
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It also requires set of rules defined by the KDP that limit the unfair exercise of power by dominant groups

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.455962714662215
WordScorePoS
require0VB
set0NN
rule0.162386273072618NN
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power0NN
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.645496944009822
WordScorePoS
require0.0211360962287062VB
set0.0978661089756501NN
rule0.0739231123597559NN
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power0.036961556179878NN
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Label: 7, with a score of: 0.343721364843702
WordScorePoS
require0VB
set0NN
rule0NN
limit0NN
power0NN
dominant0.122412709674631JJ

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.304198016700222
WordScorePoS
require0.0260040237236563VB
set0NN
rule0NN
limit0.0368585655748969NN
power0.0454743001434393NN
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With the KDP cultivating collaboration and tangible points of political power for marginalized groups the results include well functioning school or medical clinic but equally important style of group re definition and defense

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.52824606461253
WordScorePoS
cultivate0VB
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power0NN
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include0VB
function0NN
school0.208127520578185NN
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.519697100082883
WordScorePoS
cultivate0VB
political0.111637082206855JJ
power0NN
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include0VB
function0NN
school0.0931221694711702NN
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Changes in the agency of indigenous peoples in Ecuador since the provide another example in which mobilization from below came to change national and local structures

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.736193444217935
WordScorePoS
agency0NN
indigenous0JJ
people0.0121096729954788NNS
provide0VB
mobilization0NN
change0.402565546215053NN
national0.0112708859309299JJ
local0.0145856516935579JJ
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Label: 15, with a score of: 0.333611104232711
WordScorePoS
agency0NN
indigenous0.0633470357346975JJ
people0.0159982027144574NNS
provide0.0445201436316848VB
mobilization0NN
change0.0446918591208085NN
national0.00354525553489471JJ
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These changes are clear at both local and national levels

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.606054539307528
WordScorePoS
local0JJ
national0.0294647633960925JJ
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Label: 13, with a score of: 0.451096942533871
WordScorePoS
local0.0145856516935579JJ
national0.0112708859309299JJ
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In the in the Andean province of Chimborazo the indigenous Quichua people suffered multiple deprivations

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.543974569362014
WordScorePoS
indigenous0.0357189919948307JJ
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They were subject to everyday forms of violence and to domination and racism in their interactions Inequity within countries individuals and groups with other ethnic groups and with authorities

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.802946905377936
WordScorePoS
form0.158049144643351NN
violence0.164686343640793NN
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.481820825197697
WordScorePoS
form0.100540298425703NN
violence0.0931221694711702NN
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Power was concentrated in the triumvirate of landowner priest and local government authority

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.823161496130532
WordScorePoS
power0.036961556179878NN
local0.0130185595639838JJ
government0.048933054487825NN

Much indigenous labor was tied to large rural estates on which labor relations were sometimes violent and returns to labor manifestly unfair

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.712670887760097
WordScorePoS
indigenous0.0357189919948307JJ
rural0.148975141598503JJ
relation0NN
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Life expectancy was short alcoholism severe and children access to education and health acutely constrained

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.664798958370698
WordScorePoS
life0.0250390290383647NN
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Label: 4, with a score of: 0.586677726626338
WordScorePoS
life0.0125233923809486NN
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At the start of this twenty first century indigenous people now occupy several county mayorships and have majority of councilors in several counties

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.726601531617378
WordScorePoS
century0.219293228426234NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.347981513845636
WordScorePoS
century0NN
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The provincial prefect is also Quichua

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Similarly at national level former leaders of national indigenous people organizations are now ministers

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.451199483852821
WordScorePoS
national0.0294647633960925JJ
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indigenous0JJ
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And the national Confederation of Indigenous Nationalities of Ecuador has control of the directorate of bilingual education the indigenous development council and the office of indigenous health

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.678031001616227
WordScorePoS
national0JJ
indigenous0.0499016491051341JJ
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education0.244244978014045NN
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Label: 3, with a score of: 0.387994684311258
WordScorePoS
national0.00558382296134999JJ
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education0.0152605842304358NN
development0.00837573444202498NN
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It also played big part in negotiating and administering World Bank and International Fund for Agricultural Development supported national Program for the Development of Indigenous and AfroEcuadorian Peoples

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.732633451420886
WordScorePoS
negotiate0VB
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agricultural0.250032943963815JJ
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national0.00399807039435538JJ
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By any calculation power relationships have changed in Ecuador becoming more equitable with indigenous people participating more completely and more equitably in their society

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.770201024049802
WordScorePoS
power0NN
change0.402565546215053NN
equitable0JJ
indigenous0JJ
people0.0121096729954788NNS
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The inequality trap for women Unequal opportunities in health education economic welfare and political agency can be readily observed in most developing countries

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.76230886946312
WordScorePoS
inequality0.635305170773079NN
woman0.0242343960710022NN
opportunity0.029046330719385NN
health0.0405241466500776NN
education0.0121171980355011NN
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welfare0NN
political0.0792212041430275JJ
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develop0VB
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.44166163522702
WordScorePoS
inequality0NN
woman0.221979360474357NN
opportunity0.02046578088155NN
health0.0571058915334038NN
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political0.111637082206855JJ
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Label: 4, with a score of: 0.2519554706858
WordScorePoS
inequality0NN
woman0.0610612445035112NN
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health0NN
education0.244244978014045NN
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welfare0NN
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Label: 3, with a score of: 0.22741827633997
WordScorePoS
inequality0.0307735781890304NN
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health0.191387734041787NN
education0.0152605842304358NN
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welfare0NN
political0JJ
agency0NN
develop0VB
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.185585968881313
WordScorePoS
inequality0NN
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health0NN
education0.0150723186962745NN
economic0.128463821595706JJ
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agency0NN
develop0VB
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The preceding sections have emphasized that these different manifestations of inequity are not generally independent from one another and that this interdependence can replicate inequalities over time

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.982047817623985
WordScorePoS
manifestation0NN
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This interrelationship can be vividly illustrated by examining the nature and implications of the inequality that traps many women in developing countries

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.908251263800749
WordScorePoS
nature0NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.305687550563861
WordScorePoS
nature0NN
inequality0NN
woman0.221979360474357NN
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.224130986241742
WordScorePoS
nature0.162755901889551NN
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Men and women around the world have starkly different access to assets and opportunities reinforced by unequal norms and social structures perpetuating gender differences over centuries

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.67929678952491
WordScorePoS
woman0.221979360474357NN
world0.00585260443759492NN
access0.00780347258345989NN
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opportunity0.02046578088155NN
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social0.0285529457667019JJ
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gender0.196902218579822NN
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Label: 13, with a score of: 0.328789539284635
WordScorePoS
woman0.0102677744436108NN
world0.00351929966767313NN
access0NN
asset0NN
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structure0NN
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century0.219293228426234NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.307110042185761
WordScorePoS
woman0.0450489732120807NN
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opportunity0NN
reinforce0VB
social0.112994637345193JJ
structure0NN
gender0.0519476926891779NN
century0NN

Gender inequity directly affects the well being of women and deci BOX

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.857746649619379
WordScorePoS
gender0.196902218579822NN
affect0VB
woman0.221979360474357NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.366954622541866
WordScorePoS
gender0.10561808200669NN
affect0.0125233923809486VB
woman0.0610612445035112NN

Sex ratios and missing women Gender inequity causes many societies to Juvenile newborn to four years old sex ratios in display some preference for male children

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.741928834575397
WordScorePoS
sex0NN
ratio0.0688661930304451NN
woman0.221979360474357NN
gender0.196902218579822NN
society0.0335134328085675NN
newborn0JJ
child0.0170753354211044NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.39883172067461
WordScorePoS
sex0NN
ratio0.0615471563780609NN
woman0.0381514605760894NN
gender0.0175975629039954NN
society0NN
newborn0.0407408489778079JJ
child0.10682408961305NN

China the Republic of Korea India and Punjab But the son preference is strong enough and Haryana to result in substantial excess female child mortality in parts of East and South Asia China leading to the phenomenon of what Amartya Sen calls missing women

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.65898413157429
WordScorePoS
strong0JJ
result0NN
substantial0JJ
female0NN
child0.10682408961305NN
mortality0.276962203701274NN
south0RB
asia0IN
lead0.025518364538905NN
woman0.0381514605760894NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.486335269625229
WordScorePoS
strong0JJ
result0NN
substantial0JJ
female0.0911713013253052NN
child0.0170753354211044NN
mortality0NN
south0RB
asia0IN
lead0NN
woman0.221979360474357NN

Sen

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

In China and India the practice of female infanticide was noted at least century ago and in the Republic of Korea and India high juvenile sex ratios the proRepublic of Korea portion of male to female children below the age of have been documented since the first modern censuses were taken

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.605505060514875
WordScorePoS
practice0NN
female0NN
century0NN
sex0NN
ratio0NN
child0NN
age0NN
document0NN
modern0.462321869452858JJ

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.287209341201776
WordScorePoS
practice0NN
female0NN
century0.219293228426234NN
sex0NN
ratio0NN
child0NN
age0NN
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modern0JJ

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.522357165594467
WordScorePoS
practice0.0393804437159645NN
female0.0911713013253052NN
century0NN
sex0NN
ratio0.0688661930304451NN
child0.0170753354211044NN
age0NN
document0.0911713013253052NN
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Label: 3, with a score of: 0.337491902995557
WordScorePoS
practice0NN
female0NN
century0NN
sex0NN
ratio0.0615471563780609NN
child0.10682408961305NN
age0.0893142758861673NN
document0NN
modern0JJ

By contrast there seems to be little son pref erence in Southeast Asia or in most other parts of the developing world

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

The reasons for this seem to stem from India rigid patrilineal inheritance systems

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.788191062572584
WordScorePoS
inheritance0.0908430554521382NN
system0.0519476926891779NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.417305405109762
WordScorePoS
inheritance0NN
system0.0756001353333673NN

While most societies deny women inheritance rights in other parts of the world there is some flexibility in these rules

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.697555883111984
WordScorePoS
society0.0335134328085675NN
woman0.221979360474357NN
inheritance0.0688661930304451NN
rights0.078760887431929NNS
world0.00585260443759492NN
flexibility0NN
rule0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.479151027446131
WordScorePoS
society0.118536858482514NN
woman0NN
inheritance0NN
rights0NNS
world0NN
flexibility0NN
rule0.162386273072618NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.324774467863725
WordScorePoS
society0NN
woman0.0450489732120807NN
inheritance0.0908430554521382NN
rights0.0519476926891779NNS
world0.00257343720272548NN
flexibility0NN
rule0NN

In peasant Europe and Japan for instance women could inherit land if their parents had no Punjab and Haryana India sons

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.755929592451161
WordScorePoS
woman0.221979360474357NN
land0.024255976440725NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.38028575772569
WordScorePoS
woman0NN
land0.123873694868802NN

Despite egalitarian laws customary practices in China the Republic of Korea and northwest India permit man if he does not have sons to adopt one from other male kin

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.654190256271527
WordScorePoS
law0.164686343640793NN
practice0NN
adopt0VB

In the past it would also have been possible to take another wife

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

The driving motivation is to use whatever means possible to continue the male famrisen

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.711039778834477
WordScorePoS
drive0NN
means0.120266261535276NNS
continue0VB

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.483119354837497
WordScorePoS
drive0.0414107553022249NN
means0NNS
continue0.0403047273067529VB

In the Republic of Korea stark declines ily line

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.651010657282524
WordScorePoS
decline0.0315914058171786NN
line0.0373517915079663NN

Thus girl children are undervalued

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.805918973397716
WordScorePoS
girl0.393804437159645NN
child0.0170753354211044NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.425929560580119
WordScorePoS
girl0.140824109342254NN
child0.076326555629389NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.313079880561614
WordScorePoS
girl0.0527926887119861NN
child0.10682408961305NN

have become only apparent in the last During pregnancy sex selection may decade perhaps because of lead to aborting female fetuses reflected in improvements in labor market opportunisex ratios at birth that are more masculine ties for women

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.672489025812182
WordScorePoS
sex0NN
decade0NN
lead0NN
female0.0911713013253052NN
reflect0VB
improvement0NN
market0NN
ratio0.0688661930304451NN
birth0NN
woman0.221979360474357NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.352154425435283
WordScorePoS
sex0NN
decade0NN
lead0.025518364538905NN
female0NN
reflect0VB
improvement0NN
market0NN
ratio0.0615471563780609NN
birth0.0748292956291867NN
woman0.0381514605760894NN

India as whole does not than the biological rate of boys for have juvenile sex ratios that are far different every girls

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.854096255600642
WordScorePoS
biological0JJ
rate0NN
boy0.206598579091335NN
sex0NN
ratio0.0688661930304451NN
girl0.393804437159645NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.443093259458184
WordScorePoS
biological0JJ
rate0.0216847879059514NN
boy0.184698660975968NN
sex0NN
ratio0NN
girl0.140824109342254NN

Sex selection can also hapfrom many other parts of the world

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.963749126165862
WordScorePoS
sex0.064698038783335NN
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But pen through infanticide although the data northwest India has seen some particularly make it difficult to distinguish between worrying trends with sex ratios sharply risselective abortion and infanticide

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

The third ing between and much attributand most common mechanism is the negable to the higher incidence of sexlect and other practices that result in higher selection in abortion

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.659905604986393
WordScorePoS
common0JJ
mechanism0.147846224719512NN
incidence0NN
practice0NN
result0NN

Other parts of India mortality rates for girls than boys during especially the south have more equitable early childhood

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.700331067673469
WordScorePoS
mortality0NN
rate0NN
girl0.393804437159645NN
boy0.206598579091335NN
south0RB
equitable0JJ
childhood0NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.535015053673005
WordScorePoS
mortality0NN
rate0.0216847879059514NN
girl0.140824109342254NN
boy0.184698660975968NN
south0RB
equitable0.0299609328954485JJ
childhood0.0815069365350084NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.43520975933233
WordScorePoS
mortality0.276962203701274NN
rate0.0433561464459019NN
girl0.0527926887119861NN
boy0NN
south0RB
equitable0JJ
childhood0NN

labor markets and fewer restrictions on In China intense efforts by the governwomen mobility and inheritance

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.651062898360411
WordScorePoS
market0.0913569596328122NN
restriction0.0583416713841148NN
effort0NN
mobility0NN
inheritance0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.395090740488448
WordScorePoS
market0NN
restriction0NN
effort0NN
mobility0NN
inheritance0.0908430554521382NN

ment resulted in brief improvement in the sex ratio during see figure to the Source Das Gupta and others

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.527648909280239
WordScorePoS
result0.0683326727248364NN
improvement0NN
sex0NN
ratio0NN
figure0NN
source0.0613562156822703NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.48799746391521
WordScorePoS
result0NN
improvement0.0924643738905717NN
sex0NN
ratio0NN
figure0NN
source0.0274787313211514NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.484939222549299
WordScorePoS
result0NN
improvement0.0454743001434393NN
sex0NN
ratio0NN
figure0.0602029956716497NN
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But since the it has steadily sions in the home affecting investments in children and household welfare box

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.405284052159429
WordScorePoS
affect0.0166714319731757VB
investment0NN
child0NN
household0.0554128417527413NN
welfare0.0542519672965169NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.362770645409516
WordScorePoS
affect0.00625975725959118VB
investment0NN
child0.10682408961305NN
household0NN
welfare0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.329459601439752
WordScorePoS
affect0VB
investment0.0182713919265625NN
child0.0546336178945768NN
household0.0297950283197006NN
welfare0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.324623592704916
WordScorePoS
affect0.0184786920895884VB
investment0.0376648791150643NN
child0.0450489732120807NN
household0NN
welfare0NN

Gender inequity is the archetypical inequality trap

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.937702304281275
WordScorePoS
gender0NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.290625155554328
WordScorePoS
gender0.196902218579822NN
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Most societies have norms that preserve the prevalent social order delineating different roles and spheres of influence for men and women

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.707717988344117
WordScorePoS
society0.0335134328085675NN
social0.0285529457667019JJ
sphere0.0688661930304451NN
influence0NN
woman0.221979360474357NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.397456912860309
WordScorePoS
society0.0237821918091848NN
social0.101310366625194JJ
sphere0.0488696285210061NN
influence0NN
woman0.0242343960710022NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.316935461702828
WordScorePoS
society0NN
social0.112994637345193JJ
sphere0NN
influence0NN
woman0.0450489732120807NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.310407489479425
WordScorePoS
society0.0591643007226199NN
social0.0504071033101074JJ
sphere0NN
influence0NN
woman0.0452169560888236NN

The male sphere is typically outside the home in market work and social interactions that enhance the family WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT status and power

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.487048813807156
WordScorePoS
sphere0.0488696285210061NN
typically0RB
market0.0202620733250388NN
social0.101310366625194JJ
enhance0.00994073584907126VB
family0NN
world0.00276879546803864NN
development0.0177346522508396NN
report0NN
status0.0488696285210061NN
power0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.420938988243152
WordScorePoS
sphere0NN
typically0RB
market0.030649619577211NN
social0JJ
enhance0.0601477977507998VB
family0NN
world0.00418824502414673NN
development0.0469463607292177NN
report0NN
status0.036961556179878NN
power0.036961556179878NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.34423233471698
WordScorePoS
sphere0NN
typically0RB
market0.0913569596328122NN
social0JJ
enhance0.0268922747178632VB
family0.0297950283197006NN
world0.0124838525528648NN
development0.0159922815774215NN
report0NN
status0NN
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.343874317018024
WordScorePoS
sphere0.0688661930304451NN
typically0RB
market0NN
social0.0285529457667019JJ
enhance0.0140083044329373VB
family0.0465610847355851NN
world0.00585260443759492NN
development0.0124956749436837NN
report0NN
status0NN
power0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.30444727320975
WordScorePoS
sphere0NN
typically0RB
market0.0377086395700813NN
social0.0188543197850406JJ
enhance0.0185001613201543VB
family0NN
world0.00257642711761688NN
development0.0330049940546426NN
report0NN
status0NN
power0.0454743001434393NN

The female sphere is usually inside the home looking after household work rearing children and contributing to the stability of the household

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.638283724917559
WordScorePoS
female0.0911713013253052NN
sphere0.0688661930304451NN
household0.0465610847355851NN
child0.0170753354211044NN
contribute0VB
stability0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.392648418679604
WordScorePoS
female0NN
sphere0NN
household0.0554128417527413NN
child0NN
contribute0.0554128417527413VB
stability0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.340166130852915
WordScorePoS
female0NN
sphere0NN
household0.0297950283197006NN
child0.0546336178945768NN
contribute0.0297950283197006VB
stability0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.328752578689625
WordScorePoS
female0NN
sphere0.0488696285210061NN
household0.0330412182586772NN
child0.0242343960710022NN
contribute0VB
stability0NN

So women activities serve primarily as inputs into the household collective well being while men are ostensibly at its center its breadwinners and its link to the larger world where economic and social status are determined

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.547654042597877
WordScorePoS
woman0.221979360474357NN
activity0NN
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primarily0RB
input0NN
household0.0465610847355851NN
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economic0.0727679293221751JJ
social0.0285529457667019JJ
status0NN
determine0VB

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.37226858351805
WordScorePoS
woman0.0452169560888236NN
activity0.0295821503613099NN
serve0VB
primarily0RB
input0NN
household0NN
world0.00172202218602071NN
economic0.128463821595706JJ
social0.0504071033101074JJ
status0NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.456970629030286
WordScorePoS
woman0.0242343960710022NN
activity0NN
serve0VB
primarily0RB
input0NN
household0.0330412182586772NN
world0.00276879546803864NN
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social0.101310366625194JJ
status0.0488696285210061NN
determine0VB

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.374039500265225
WordScorePoS
woman0.0450489732120807NN
activity0NN
serve0VB
primarily0RB
input0NN
household0NN
world0.00257343720272548NN
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Marriage and kinship systems preserve these structures of patriarchy

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.599061534014039
WordScorePoS
marriage0.0911713013253052NN
system0NN
structure0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.496747686894161
WordScorePoS
marriage0NN
system0.0756001353333673NN
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.460405108900814
WordScorePoS
marriage0NN
system0.0211360962287062NN
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Most societies are patrilocal with women moving from their parents to their husband home after marriage

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.854271167347311
WordScorePoS
society0.0335134328085675NN
woman0.221979360474357NN
move0NN
marriage0.0911713013253052NN

Marriage can therefore be thought of as framework that serves to exchange women between households and marriage decisions are made with view toward ensuring that this exchange of women promises the maximum gain to both households

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.840992371293723
WordScorePoS
marriage0.0911713013253052NN
framework0NN
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woman0.221979360474357NN
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decision0.0393804437159645NN
view0NN
ensure0.0124956749436837VB
maximum0NN
gain0NN

The man household is the point of reference while the woman is simply an input into the processes for households controlled by men to generate economic and social returns

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.650786841451783
WordScorePoS
household0.0465610847355851NN
woman0.221979360474357NN
input0NN
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.281096517749957
WordScorePoS
household0NN
woman0.0452169560888236NN
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economic0.128463821595706JJ
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.395705689156772
WordScorePoS
household0NN
woman0.0450489732120807NN
input0NN
process0NN
control0.0614198493690006NN
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economic0.0959899298575892JJ
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return0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.369928531467182
WordScorePoS
household0.0330412182586772NN
woman0.0242343960710022NN
input0NN
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generate0VB
economic0.103276847978089JJ
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Inheritance tends to be consistent with this pattern

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.58146898311654
WordScorePoS
inheritance0.0908430554521382NN
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.52459993107418
WordScorePoS
inheritance0NN
consistent0JJ
pattern0.0819583881728876NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.440799299772758
WordScorePoS
inheritance0.0688661930304451NN
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Most societies are not just patrilocal they are also patrilineal with inheritance and property rights primarily passed on to men

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.654044697294559
WordScorePoS
society0.0335134328085675NN
inheritance0.0688661930304451NN
property0.0558185411034276NN
rights0.078760887431929NNS
primarily0RB

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.597360073838265
WordScorePoS
society0NN
inheritance0.0908430554521382NN
property0.0736315832425121NN
rights0.0519476926891779NNS
primarily0RB

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.327180592145498
WordScorePoS
society0.118536858482514NN
inheritance0NN
property0NN
rights0NNS
primarily0RB

The majority of countries outside of Europe and Central Asia and Latin America and Caribbean restrict inheritance rights to women

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.721962713812895
WordScorePoS
majority0NN
country0NN
central0JJ
asia0IN
inheritance0.0688661930304451NN
rights0.078760887431929NNS
woman0.221979360474357NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.510739293860342
WordScorePoS
majority0.0736315832425121NN
country0NN
central0JJ
asia0IN
inheritance0.0908430554521382NN
rights0.0519476926891779NNS
woman0.0450489732120807NN

Some countries have legislation that guarantees equality in inheritance laws

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.742771143176367
WordScorePoS
country0NN
legislation0.0558185411034276NN
guarantee0NN
equality0.18624433894234NN
inheritance0.0688661930304451NN
law0.0465610847355851NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.478911125852263
WordScorePoS
country0NN
legislation0.0658099748168827NN
guarantee0NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.316362533082356
WordScorePoS
country0NN
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guarantee0NN
equality0.0614198493690006NN
inheritance0.0908430554521382NN
law0NN

But these laws often are not enforced and real authority over decisions on inheritance rests in the hands of village elders and chiefs who follow customary practices that discriminate against women

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.704676309493061
WordScorePoS
law0.0465610847355851NN
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woman0.221979360474357NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.539481208393786
WordScorePoS
law0.164686343640793NN
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inheritance0NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.318059900050297
WordScorePoS
law0NN
enforce0VB
decision0.0519476926891779NN
inheritance0.0908430554521382NN
practice0NN
woman0.0450489732120807NN

Most countries that have unequal inheritance laws also have unequal property rights regimes

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.429302223763137
WordScorePoS
country0NN
inheritance0NN
law0.164686343640793NN
property0NN
rights0NNS
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.651714238097261
WordScorePoS
country0NN
inheritance0.0688661930304451NN
law0.0465610847355851NN
property0.0558185411034276NN
rights0.078760887431929NNS
regime0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.564166925326444
WordScorePoS
country0NN
inheritance0.0908430554521382NN
law0NN
property0.0736315832425121NN
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regime0NN

Indeed the vast majority of land owners are men

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.59358606618655
WordScorePoS
vast0.0583416713841148JJ
majority0.0357189919948307NN
land0.0465651203624806NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.522874947146014
WordScorePoS
vast0JJ
majority0NN
land0.123873694868802NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.445860224171464
WordScorePoS
vast0JJ
majority0.0736315832425121NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.334395312685242
WordScorePoS
vast0JJ
majority0.0792212041430275NN
land0NN

Many societies compound this by denying women the right to divorce

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.786483620242339
WordScorePoS
society0.0335134328085675NN
woman0.221979360474357NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.364892083230872
WordScorePoS
society0.118536858482514NN
woman0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.321316886036784
WordScorePoS
society0.0591643007226199NN
woman0.0452169560888236NN

This inequality in property rights regimes persists even in countries where agricultural production depends heavily on women labor such as many in Sub Saharan Africa

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.703996992844318
WordScorePoS
inequality0.635305170773079NN
property0NN
rights0NNS
regime0NN
persist0.0488696285210061VB
country0NN
agricultural0JJ
production0NN
depend0VB
heavily0RB
woman0.0242343960710022NN
saharan0JJ
africa0IN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.443113610449631
WordScorePoS
inequality0NN
property0.0558185411034276NN
rights0.078760887431929NNS
regime0NN
persist0VB
country0NN
agricultural0.0558185411034276JJ
production0NN
depend0VB
heavily0RB
woman0.221979360474357NN
saharan0.0335134328085675JJ
africa0IN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.41405039724041
WordScorePoS
inequality0NN
property0NN
rights0NNS
regime0NN
persist0VB
country0NN
agricultural0.250032943963815JJ
production0.0548141757796873NN
depend0.0357189919948307VB
heavily0RB
woman0.0546336178945768NN
saharan0.0214456704626236JJ
africa0IN

In Cameroon women make up more than percent of the population and do more than percent of the agricultural work but they are estimated to hold fewer than percent of all land certificates

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.725838096075789
WordScorePoS
woman0.221979360474357NN
population0.024255976440725NN
agricultural0.0558185411034276JJ
estimate0NN
hold0.18234260265061NN
land0.024255976440725NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.545499827694209
WordScorePoS
woman0.0546336178945768NN
population0.0310434135749871NN
agricultural0.250032943963815JJ
estimate0NN
hold0NN
land0.0465651203624806NN

So if women work on farms they are usually working on farms owned by men

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.93342871897965
WordScorePoS
woman0.0546336178945768NN
farm0.291708356920574NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.324742265275278
WordScorePoS
woman0.221979360474357NN
farm0NN

In addition to being denied inheritance and property rights women in many societies face restrictions on their mobility

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.754701056000781
WordScorePoS
addition0NN
inheritance0.0688661930304451NN
property0.0558185411034276NN
rights0.078760887431929NNS
woman0.221979360474357NN
society0.0335134328085675NN
restriction0NN
mobility0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.42997636133266
WordScorePoS
addition0NN
inheritance0.0908430554521382NN
property0.0736315832425121NN
rights0.0519476926891779NNS
woman0.0450489732120807NN
society0NN
restriction0NN
mobility0NN

For example in the state of Uttar Pradesh in northern India close to percent of women require their husband permission to visit health center and percent have to seek permission before stepping outside their house

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.673694332178611
WordScorePoS
northern0.0688661930304451JJ
woman0.221979360474357NN
require0VB
health0.0571058915334038NN
seek0VB

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.504010666242398
WordScorePoS
northern0.0307735781890304JJ
woman0.0381514605760894NN
require0VB
health0.191387734041787NN
seek0VB

These mobility restrictions may be socially imposed as with gunghat among Hindus or have religious sanctions as with purdah among Muslims

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Such practices are not just socially enforced they can be internalized by women who treat them as marks of honorable behavior

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.807700330364194
WordScorePoS
practice0.0393804437159645NN
socially0RB
enforce0VB
woman0.221979360474357NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.33218717502467
WordScorePoS
practice0NN
socially0RB
enforce0.107490825192354VB
woman0NN

These norms are transmitted by parents to their children ensuring their continuity over generations in many societies they are enforced by older women in the community

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.488553130914261
WordScorePoS
child0.0170753354211044NN
ensure0.0124956749436837VB
generation0NN
society0.0335134328085675NN
enforce0VB
woman0.221979360474357NN
community0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.528756057373721
WordScorePoS
child0.0603953832457135NN
ensure0.0220985725470694VB
generation0NN
society0.118536858482514NN
enforce0.107490825192354VB
woman0NN
community0NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.302469527936741
WordScorePoS
child0.076326555629389NN
ensure0.0390988676729552VB
generation0NN
society0NN
enforce0VB
woman0.0610612445035112NN
community0NN

Restrictions on mobility and rules of kinship and inheritance help shape social perceptions about women roles

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.620044870408611
WordScorePoS
restriction0NN
mobility0NN
rule0NN
inheritance0.0688661930304451NN
social0.0285529457667019JJ
woman0.221979360474357NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.315238724894133
WordScorePoS
restriction0NN
mobility0NN
rule0.162386273072618NN
inheritance0NN
social0JJ
woman0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.483161007093702
WordScorePoS
restriction0NN
mobility0NN
rule0NN
inheritance0.0908430554521382NN
social0.112994637345193JJ
woman0.0450489732120807NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.369316303797897
WordScorePoS
restriction0NN
mobility0.064698038783335NN
rule0NN
inheritance0NN
social0.101310366625194JJ
woman0.0242343960710022NN

If women are socially and economically directed to focus their attention and energy on activities in the home this is not just what men expect of them it is also what other women expect of them

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.580513043035422
WordScorePoS
woman0NN
socially0RB
economically0RB
direct0JJ
focus0NN
attention0NN
energy0.494617163780726NN
activity0NN
expect0VB

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.521057187158808
WordScorePoS
woman0.221979360474357NN
socially0RB
economically0RB
direct0JJ
focus0NN
attention0NN
energy0NN
activity0NN
expect0VB

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.25859699700809
WordScorePoS
woman0NN
socially0RB
economically0RB
direct0JJ
focus0NN
attention0NN
energy0.133960988253756NN
activity0.0199423462679015NN
expect0.0332151194779746VB

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.323616105900113
WordScorePoS
woman0.0273960270556257NN
socially0RB
economically0RB
direct0.04477822029736JJ
focus0.0373517915079663NN
attention0.08955644059472NN
energy0.0492535935240667NN
activity0NN
expect0VB

In much of the developing world women participation in the labor market is more function of adversity than active choice because husbands cannot earn an adequate income or because of an unanticipated shock such as child illness

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.390188443490064
WordScorePoS
develop0VB
world0.00585260443759492NN
woman0.221979360474357NN
participation0.0465610847355851NN
market0NN
function0NN
active0JJ
choice0NN
adequate0JJ
income0NN
shock0NN
child0.0170753354211044NN
illness0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.318576905766693
WordScorePoS
develop0VB
world0.00276879546803864NN
woman0.0242343960710022NN
participation0NN
market0.0202620733250388NN
function0NN
active0JJ
choice0NN
adequate0JJ
income0.166475342664294NN
shock0NN
child0.0242343960710022NN
illness0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.496006148122137
WordScorePoS
develop0VB
world0.00257343720272548NN
woman0.0450489732120807NN
participation0.0614198493690006NN
market0NN
function0NN
active0JJ
choice0NN
adequate0.0519476926891779JJ
income0.0442083771593746NN
shock0.120266261535276NN
child0.0450489732120807NN
illness0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.430409688080195
WordScorePoS
develop0VB
world0.0124838525528648NN
woman0.0546336178945768NN
participation0NN
market0.0913569596328122NN
function0.0440683498519077NN
active0JJ
choice0NN
adequate0JJ
income0.0643370113878709NN
shock0NN
child0.0546336178945768NN
illness0NN

Bangladeshi women described it this way Men work to support their families women work because of need

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.838550238023621
WordScorePoS
woman0.221979360474357NN
support0NN
family0.0465610847355851NN

Women around the world participate in fair amount of marketbased activity for wage but they have to continue to perform most household chores figure

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.668045535739206
WordScorePoS
woman0.221979360474357NN
world0.00585260443759492NN
fair0JJ
amount0NN
activity0NN
wage0NN
continue0.0335134328085675VB
household0.0465610847355851NN
figure0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.322244670422339
WordScorePoS
woman0.0242343960710022NN
world0.00276879546803864NN
fair0JJ
amount0NN
activity0NN
wage0.064698038783335NN
continue0.0237821918091848VB
household0.0330412182586772NN
figure0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.305877374823077
WordScorePoS
woman0.0546336178945768NN
world0.0124838525528648NN
fair0.0440683498519077JJ
amount0NN
activity0NN
wage0NN
continue0VB
household0.0297950283197006NN
figure0NN

They thus face time squeeze spending more time at work both in and out of the home than men do

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.705813401071326
WordScorePoS
time0.0607862199751165NN
spending0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.568445811424951
WordScorePoS
time0.0188543197850406NN
spending0.0602029956716497NN

Because social and economic factors determine women life chances more in marriage than in labor markets parents invest less in their human capital

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.606230138965314
WordScorePoS
social0.0285529457667019JJ
economic0.0727679293221751JJ
determine0VB
woman0.221979360474357NN
life0.0140083044329373NN
chance0NN
marriage0.0911713013253052NN
market0NN
invest0VB
human0.0170753354211044JJ

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.376522050285278
WordScorePoS
social0.0504071033101074JJ
economic0.128463821595706JJ
determine0VB
woman0.0452169560888236NN
life0.0123650647908625NN
chance0NN
marriage0NN
market0.0252035516550537NN
invest0VB
human0.0150723186962745JJ

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.370784893105098
WordScorePoS
social0.112994637345193JJ
economic0.0959899298575892JJ
determine0VB
woman0.0450489732120807NN
life0.0184786920895884NN
chance0NN
marriage0NN
market0NN
invest0VB
human0JJ

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.338907601677679
WordScorePoS
social0.101310366625194JJ
economic0.103276847978089JJ
determine0VB
woman0.0242343960710022NN
life0NN
chance0NN
marriage0NN
market0.0202620733250388NN
invest0VB
human0JJ

Throughout the developing world women are much less likely to be enrolled in secondary school or university than men

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.703195637000796
WordScorePoS
develop0VB
world0.0017440716962658NN
woman0.0610612445035112NN
enrol0.0615662203253227VB
secondary0.0615662203253227JJ
school0.208127520578185NN
university0.0815069365350084NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.678227933543617
WordScorePoS
develop0VB
world0.00585260443759492NN
woman0.221979360474357NN
enrol0.0688661930304451VB
secondary0.0688661930304451JJ
school0.0931221694711702NN
university0NN

So they typically work in less lucrative occupations

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Moreover labor markets may themselves be discriminatory paying women less than men for the same work

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.735238869655793
WordScorePoS
market0NN
discriminatory0JJ
pay0.078760887431929NN
woman0.221979360474357NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.356912478289509
WordScorePoS
market0.0913569596328122NN
discriminatory0JJ
pay0NN
woman0.0546336178945768NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.34212605082274
WordScorePoS
market0.0252035516550537NN
discriminatory0JJ
pay0.0695218668857431NN
woman0.0452169560888236NN

For these reasons even when women participate in the labor market they earn less Inequity within countries individuals and groups than men

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.703848966842455
WordScorePoS
woman0.221979360474357NN
market0NN
country0NN
individual0JJ

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.462904825663988
WordScorePoS
woman0.0546336178945768NN
market0.0913569596328122NN
country0NN
individual0JJ

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.346232377652976
WordScorePoS
woman0.0242343960710022NN
market0.0202620733250388NN
country0NN
individual0.064698038783335JJ

Low earnings are further disincentive for women to enter the labor market perpetuating traditional social roles

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.656409330098568
WordScorePoS
woman0.221979360474357NN
enter0.0558185411034276VB
market0NN
traditional0JJ
social0.0285529457667019JJ

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.407233909361477
WordScorePoS
woman0.0546336178945768NN
enter0VB
market0.0913569596328122NN
traditional0.0440683498519077JJ
social0JJ

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.338635591941429
WordScorePoS
woman0.0450489732120807NN
enter0VB
market0NN
traditional0JJ
social0.112994637345193JJ

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.312416199877089
WordScorePoS
woman0.0242343960710022NN
enter0VB
market0.0202620733250388NN
traditional0JJ
social0.101310366625194JJ

Figure

Label: 9, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
figure0.0602029956716497NN

Women work longer hours than do men Women Men Nonmarket activity Inequality in the home For long time economists did not adequately recognize that gender inequity has an impact in the home and models of the household assumed that decisions were taken by one person with no room for different choices across spouses

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.647896613597089
WordScorePoS
woman0.0242343960710022NN
activity0NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
time0.0607862199751165NN
recognize0VB
gender0NN
impact0NN
household0.0330412182586772NN
decision0.02794560829783NN
person0.0237821918091848NN
choice0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.611406786047428
WordScorePoS
woman0.221979360474357NN
activity0NN
inequality0NN
time0NN
recognize0.0558185411034276VB
gender0.196902218579822NN
impact0NN
household0.0465610847355851NN
decision0.0393804437159645NN
person0NN
choice0NN

The consequence of this world view is not just academic

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.944856633402667
WordScorePoS
world0.00418824502414673NN
view0.048933054487825NN

It suggests for instance that policy interventions that attempt to alleviate poverty should not bother with targeting by gender or suggests that taxes on household will not affect the allocation of resources within it

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.614587439415488
WordScorePoS
suggest0VB
policy0.0450489732120807NN
intervention0NN
poverty0.269969049497485NN
target0NN
gender0.0519476926891779NN
tax0NN
household0NN
affect0.0184786920895884VB
resource0.0739147683583536NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.408910341414758
WordScorePoS
suggest0VB
policy0.0341506708422088NN
intervention0NN
poverty0NN
target0NN
gender0.196902218579822NN
tax0NN
household0.0465610847355851NN
affect0VB
resource0.0280166088658745NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.348800069815004
WordScorePoS
suggest0VB
policy0.0641521854453136NN
intervention0NN
poverty0.0109843026967392NN
target0.0898760357768464NN
gender0.0211360962287062NN
tax0.036961556179878NN
household0NN
affect0VB
resource0.0375923735942499NN

Economists now question this view developing models of household decision making that allow for inequality between spouses

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.978002079399389
WordScorePoS
view0NN
develop0VB
household0.0330412182586772NN
decision0.02794560829783NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN

The new models start with the assumption that households are efficient in the sense that they make decisions that maximize the use of the household resources

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.65966626586249
WordScorePoS
household0.0554128417527413NN
efficient0.108503934593034JJ
sense0NN
decision0NN
resource0.0416785799329393NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.405692681722201
WordScorePoS
household0.0465610847355851NN
efficient0JJ
sense0NN
decision0.0393804437159645NN
resource0.0280166088658745NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.401160743808491
WordScorePoS
household0.0330412182586772NN
efficient0JJ
sense0.064698038783335NN
decision0.02794560829783NN
resource0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.318101961232199
WordScorePoS
household0NN
efficient0JJ
sense0NN
decision0.0519476926891779NN
resource0.0739147683583536NN

With this assumption the models show that spouse share in household resources is determined by two factors

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.428599206994466
WordScorePoS
share0.0766240489430275NN
household0NN
resource0.0375923735942499NN
determine0VB

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.386999603630555
WordScorePoS
share0.0285529457667019NN
household0.0465610847355851NN
resource0.0280166088658745NN
determine0VB

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.3834855170195
WordScorePoS
share0.0365427838531249NN
household0.0297950283197006NN
resource0.0358563662904843NN
determine0VB

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.365495584989384
WordScorePoS
share0NN
household0NN
resource0.0572167664438909NN
determine0.0401833161726777VB

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.364337329221343
WordScorePoS
share0NN
household0.0554128417527413NN
resource0.0416785799329393NN
determine0VB

The first is the fallback option for the spouse in the event of divorce laws of inheritance property and divorce would matter here

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.460285267685875
WordScorePoS
event0NN
law0.164686343640793NN
inheritance0NN
property0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.713592703543305
WordScorePoS
event0.0908430554521382NN
law0NN
inheritance0.0908430554521382NN
property0.0736315832425121NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.478618480657622
WordScorePoS
event0NN
law0.0465610847355851NN
inheritance0.0688661930304451NN
property0.0558185411034276NN

Second is the relative size of the spouse contribution to the household income which is determined by their opportunities in the labor market

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.603274476165671
WordScorePoS
relative0JJ
size0.0396106020715138NN
contribution0NN
household0.0330412182586772NN
income0.166475342664294NN
determine0VB
opportunity0.029046330719385NN
market0.0202620733250388NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.442740548525918
WordScorePoS
relative0JJ
size0NN
contribution0NN
household0.0297950283197006NN
income0.0643370113878709NN
determine0VB
opportunity0.0261926252110933NN
market0.0913569596328122NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.415653154898051
WordScorePoS
relative0JJ
size0.0368585655748969NN
contribution0NN
household0NN
income0.110649350233433NN
determine0VB
opportunity0.0135141354781442NN
market0.0377086395700813NN

If husbands and wives have different preferences an increase in woman outside options or in her labor market opportunities should reflect consumption choices more in line with her preferences

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.64986352843044
WordScorePoS
increase0.00958677785775002NN
woman0NN
market0.0169905820958638NN
opportunity0NN
reflect0.0409791940864438VB
consumption0.332151194779746NN
choice0.0409791940864438NN
line0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.446191775234041
WordScorePoS
increase0.00711043475673939NN
woman0.0452169560888236NN
market0.0252035516550537NN
opportunity0.0361300980868102NN
reflect0VB
consumption0.147812295323721NN
choice0NN
line0.0410992516792148NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.363463683681935
WordScorePoS
increase0.00402768349408688NN
woman0.221979360474357NN
market0NN
opportunity0.02046578088155NN
reflect0VB
consumption0NN
choice0NN
line0NN

Econometric work confirms that an increase in woman relative worth and an improvement in her fallback options have effects on consumption patterns

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.733497115262064
WordScorePoS
increase0.00958677785775002NN
woman0NN
relative0JJ
worth0.0409791940864438JJ
improvement0NN
effect0NN
consumption0.332151194779746NN
pattern0.0819583881728876NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.356755402845686
WordScorePoS
increase0.00402768349408688NN
woman0.221979360474357NN
relative0JJ
worth0JJ
improvement0NN
effect0NN
consumption0NN
pattern0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.315923402700233
WordScorePoS
increase0.00711043475673939NN
woman0.0452169560888236NN
relative0JJ
worth0JJ
improvement0NN
effect0NN
consumption0.147812295323721NN
pattern0NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.305161734028486
WordScorePoS
increase0.00323105002784081NN
woman0.0273960270556257NN
relative0.0731385760866977JJ
worth0JJ
improvement0NN
effect0NN
consumption0.08955644059472NN
pattern0NN

The health of Brazilian children improves when additional nonlabor income is in the hands of women

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.504690040220508
WordScorePoS
health0.191387734041787NN
child0.10682408961305NN
improve0VB
additional0JJ
income0NN
woman0.0381514605760894NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.44436865076685
WordScorePoS
health0.0571058915334038NN
child0.0170753354211044NN
improve0VB
additional0JJ
income0NN
woman0.221979360474357NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.401493660986089
WordScorePoS
health0.0405241466500776NN
child0.0242343960710022NN
improve0.0121171980355011VB
additional0JJ
income0.166475342664294NN
woman0.0242343960710022NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.359392402624667
WordScorePoS
health0NN
child0.0546336178945768NN
improve0.0218534471578307VB
additional0.0440683498519077JJ
income0.0643370113878709NN
woman0.0546336178945768NN

In the United Kingdom when legislation ensured that child support payments were made directly to mothers expenditures on children clothing tended to rise

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.610301567162122
WordScorePoS
unite0VB
legislation0NN
ensure0.00837573444202498VB
child0.10682408961305NN
support0.00625975725959118NN
mother0.162963395911232NN
expenditure0NN
rise0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.325547535322552
WordScorePoS
unite0VB
legislation0.0658099748168827NN
ensure0.0220985725470694VB
child0.0603953832457135NN
support0NN
mother0NN
expenditure0NN
rise0NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.317804842447222
WordScorePoS
unite0.0828215106044499VB
legislation0NN
ensure0VB
child0NN
support0NN
mother0NN
expenditure0NN
rise0.120914181920259NN

In Bangladesh and South Africa women bringing more assets into the marriage increase household expenditures on children education

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.598615551883732
WordScorePoS
south0RB
africa0IN
woman0.221979360474357NN
bring0VB
asset0NN
marriage0.0911713013253052NN
increase0.00402768349408688NN
household0.0465610847355851NN
expenditure0NN
child0.0170753354211044NN
education0.0512260062633133NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.548728655377376
WordScorePoS
south0RB
africa0IN
woman0.0610612445035112NN
bring0VB
asset0NN
marriage0NN
increase0.0144029596227568NN
household0NN
expenditure0NN
child0.076326555629389NN
education0.244244978014045NN

The patterns seem to indicate that when women are better off children seem to Market Market activity activity Nonmarket activity Australia Austria Bangladesh Canada Colombia Denmark Finland France Germany Guatemala Indonesia Israel Italy Kenya rural Kenya urban Nepal rural Nepal urban Netherlands Norway Philippines United Kingdom United States R

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.609413255869076
WordScorePoS
pattern0NN
woman0.0273960270556257NN
child0.0273960270556257NN
market0NN
activity0NN
rural0.0373517915079663JJ
urban0.27622591898666JJ
unite0VB

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.527184353122742
WordScorePoS
pattern0NN
woman0.0546336178945768NN
child0.0546336178945768NN
market0.0913569596328122NN
activity0NN
rural0.148975141598503JJ
urban0JJ
unite0VB

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.213628037166608
WordScorePoS
pattern0NN
woman0.221979360474357NN
child0.0170753354211044NN
market0NN
activity0NN
rural0JJ
urban0JJ
unite0VB

de Venezuela Minutes day Source United Nations Development Programme

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.738570941660956
WordScorePoS
minute0NN
day0.25973846344589NN
source0.0269969049497485NN
unite0VB
nation0NN
development0.0164833460638534NN
programme0.0269969049497485NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.362911193002109
WordScorePoS
minute0NN
day0NN
source0.0123065238088614NN
unite0.0828215106044499VB
nation0.0671298309154199NN
development0NN
programme0NN

Note Data refers to rural Bangladesh in urban Colombia rural Guatemala urban Indonesia rural Kenya urban Kenya rural Nepal urban Nepal rural Philippines urban Venezuela Australia Austria Canada Denmark Finland France Germany Israel Italy the Netherlands Norway the United Kingdom and the United States

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.869753035959848
WordScorePoS
datum0NN
rural0.0373517915079663JJ
urban0.27622591898666JJ
unite0VB

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.41320405549063
WordScorePoS
datum0NN
rural0.148975141598503JJ
urban0JJ
unite0VB

benefit more than when men are better off

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.608887623717382
WordScorePoS
benefit0.0446918591208085NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.536524218657653
WordScorePoS
benefit0.0393804437159645NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.354282156161533
WordScorePoS
benefit0.0260040237236563NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.343328648374308
WordScorePoS
benefit0.0252000451111224NN

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.313061044380487
WordScorePoS
benefit0.0229784274580034NN

The most obvious way to explain bargaining and sharing is to assume that women intrinsically care more about children than men do but this risks being tautological

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.599563868285418
WordScorePoS
share0.0285529457667019NN
woman0.221979360474357NN
care0.0931221694711702NN
child0.0170753354211044NN
risk0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.530865756210104
WordScorePoS
share0NN
woman0.0381514605760894NN
care0.104031537001265NN
child0.10682408961305NN
risk0.0703902516159815NN

Perhaps the explanation can benefit from understanding that social and economic differences outside the household can matter not only for determining bargaining power but also for socially determined perceptions of what men and women consider important

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.620592407435879
WordScorePoS
benefit0.0393804437159645NN
social0.0285529457667019JJ
economic0.0727679293221751JJ
household0.0465610847355851NN
determine0VB
power0NN
socially0RB
woman0.221979360474357NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.339816826560847
WordScorePoS
benefit0NN
social0.0504071033101074JJ
economic0.128463821595706JJ
household0NN
determine0VB
power0NN
socially0RB
woman0.0452169560888236NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.397100437235938
WordScorePoS
benefit0NN
social0.101310366625194JJ
economic0.103276847978089JJ
household0.0330412182586772NN
determine0VB
power0NN
socially0RB
woman0.0242343960710022NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.385227756006408
WordScorePoS
benefit0NN
social0.112994637345193JJ
economic0.0959899298575892JJ
household0NN
determine0VB
power0NN
socially0RB
woman0.0450489732120807NN

If men and women occupy different outside and inside spheres of influence it seems to make sense that improvements in women incomes would have greater impact on investments in the household

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.657186385790294
WordScorePoS
woman0.221979360474357NN
occupy0VB
sphere0.0688661930304451NN
influence0NN
sense0NN
improvement0NN
income0NN
impact0NN
investment0NN
household0.0465610847355851NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.44856982842206
WordScorePoS
woman0.0242343960710022NN
occupy0VB
sphere0.0488696285210061NN
influence0NN
sense0.064698038783335NN
improvement0NN
income0.166475342664294NN
impact0NN
investment0.0202620733250388NN
household0.0330412182586772NN

Improvements in the income of men by contrast are more likely to result in socializing activities outside the home and in purchases that reflect social status

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.677965895683756
WordScorePoS
improvement0NN
income0.166475342664294NN
result0NN
activity0NN
reflect0VB
social0.101310366625194JJ
status0.0488696285210061NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.374631601305082
WordScorePoS
improvement0.0454743001434393NN
income0.110649350233433NN
result0NN
activity0NN
reflect0VB
social0.0188543197850406JJ
status0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.336575038556775
WordScorePoS
improvement0NN
income0.0442083771593746NN
result0NN
activity0NN
reflect0VB
social0.112994637345193JJ
status0NN

Another consequence of this separation between inside and outside roles is that WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT Table

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Percentage of women who have ever experienced physical or sexual violence by an intimate partner Physical violence Sexual violence Bangladesh rural Brazil urban Ethiopia rural Namibia urban Peru rural Samoa Serbia and Montenegro Tanzania urban Thailand rural Source Unpublished data from the WHO Multi Country Study on Women Health and Domestic Violence Against Women obtained from presentation by Claudia Garcia Moreno at the World Bank Conference on Gender Based Violence

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.68961583557058
WordScorePoS
percentage0NN
woman0.221979360474357NN
experienced0JJ
sexual0.13773238606089JJ
violence0.0931221694711702NN
rural0JJ
urban0JJ
source0NN
datum0NN
multus0NN
country0NN
study0NN
health0.0571058915334038NN
domestic0.0393804437159645JJ
obtain0VB
world0.00585260443759492NN
bank0NN
conference0.18234260265061NN
gender0.196902218579822NN
base0NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.4093407908828
WordScorePoS
percentage0NN
woman0.0273960270556257NN
experienced0JJ
sexual0JJ
violence0NN
rural0.0373517915079663JJ
urban0.27622591898666JJ
source0NN
datum0NN
multus0NN
country0NN
study0NN
health0.0229054731708393NN
domestic0.0315914058171786JJ
obtain0VB
world0.00626002771693937NN
bank0NN
conference0NN
gender0NN
base0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.340265935651825
WordScorePoS
percentage0.0583416713841148NN
woman0.0546336178945768NN
experienced0JJ
sexual0JJ
violence0NN
rural0.148975141598503JJ
urban0JJ
source0.0130963126055467NN
datum0NN
multus0NN
country0NN
study0NN
health0NN
domestic0JJ
obtain0VB
world0.0124838525528648NN
bank0.0881366997038154NN
conference0NN
gender0NN
base0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.300673681853776
WordScorePoS
percentage0NN
woman0NN
experienced0JJ
sexual0JJ
violence0.164686343640793NN
rural0JJ
urban0JJ
source0NN
datum0NN
multus0NN
country0NN
study0NN
health0NN
domestic0JJ
obtain0VB
world0NN
bank0NN
conference0NN
gender0NN
base0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.206824093703881
WordScorePoS
percentage0NN
woman0.0381514605760894NN
experienced0JJ
sexual0.0615471563780609JJ
violence0.020806307400253NN
rural0JJ
urban0JJ
source0NN
datum0NN
multus0NN
country0NN
study0NN
health0.191387734041787NN
domestic0JJ
obtain0VB
world0.00087176582269799NN
bank0NN
conference0NN
gender0.0175975629039954NN
base0.0149758277542848NN

The final published comparative report is forthcoming

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.979460097425996
WordScorePoS
final0.108503934593034JJ
report0.0409791940864438NN

Note Data refer to different time periods

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.507139655433528
WordScorePoS
datum0.0739231123597559NN
time0NN
period0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.44131791943874
WordScorePoS
datum0.0454743001434393NN
time0.0188543197850406NN
period0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.427673486087685
WordScorePoS
datum0NN
time0.0182713919265625NN
period0.0440683498519077NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.417015756902433
WordScorePoS
datum0NN
time0.0607862199751165NN
period0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.397693919806588
WordScorePoS
datum0NN
time0.0169905820958638NN
period0.0409791940864438NN

Brazil Peru and Thailand refer to

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Reference period for Bangladesh Ethiopia Namibia Samoa Serbia and Montenegro and Tanzania are unknown

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

inequalities in the home are also manifested in differences in access to information which can be used to manipulate intrahousehold bargaining

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.983042842297064
WordScorePoS
inequality0.635305170773079NN
access0.00138439773401932NN
information0NN

In an ethnographic study of Bangladeshi garment workers Kabeer found that men and women tried to control information about their incomes from their spouses so that they could make purchases without consulting them

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.534645141651963
WordScorePoS
study0NN
garment0NN
worker0NN
woman0.221979360474357NN
control0.0465610847355851NN
information0.02046578088155NN
income0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.352802210040494
WordScorePoS
study0NN
garment0NN
worker0NN
woman0.0242343960710022NN
control0NN
information0NN
income0.166475342664294NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.525193961242676
WordScorePoS
study0NN
garment0.0602029956716497NN
worker0.0454743001434393NN
woman0NN
control0NN
information0.0675706773907211NN
income0.110649350233433NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.308557023186229
WordScorePoS
study0NN
garment0NN
worker0.121575732851624NN
woman0.0452169560888236NN
control0NN
information0NN
income0NN

Women may also hesitate to share information with their husbands or to collaborate efficiently in farming their plots of land to retain control over their property

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.637746996464802
WordScorePoS
woman0.0546336178945768NN
share0.0365427838531249NN
information0.0130963126055467NN
farm0.291708356920574NN
land0.0465651203624806NN
control0NN
property0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.57302423092135
WordScorePoS
woman0.221979360474357NN
share0.0285529457667019NN
information0.02046578088155NN
farm0NN
land0.024255976440725NN
control0.0465610847355851NN
property0.0558185411034276NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.305650028369847
WordScorePoS
woman0.0450489732120807NN
share0NN
information0NN
farm0NN
land0.0319966432858631NN
control0.0614198493690006NN
property0.0736315832425121NN

In studying the farms owned by men and those owned by women in Ghana Udry found keeping other things constant that women owned farms were less productive than those owned by men

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.826035514196722
WordScorePoS
study0NN
farm0.291708356920574NN
woman0.0546336178945768NN
productive0.0714379839896614JJ

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.479930825442556
WordScorePoS
study0NN
farm0NN
woman0.221979360474357NN
productive0JJ

When wives and husbands are not sharing information or manipulating the flow of information they clearly are not using their resources optimally

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.522344599141908
WordScorePoS
share0.0377086395700813NN
information0.0675706773907211NN
flow0NN
resource0.0185001613201543NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.43172526257741
WordScorePoS
share0.0766240489430275NN
information0.0219686053934784NN
flow0NN
resource0.0375923735942499NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.353374324613259
WordScorePoS
share0NN
information0.0241291244414115NN
flow0.0811931365363091NN
resource0NN

In other words intrahousehold behavior is not efficient contradicting an important assumption in economic models

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.494589317874267
WordScorePoS
efficient0JJ
economic0.128463821595706JJ

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.584453038416279
WordScorePoS
efficient0.108503934593034JJ
economic0.0433009429988926JJ

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.397618762692911
WordScorePoS
efficient0JJ
economic0.103276847978089JJ

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.369563923456022
WordScorePoS
efficient0JJ
economic0.0959899298575892JJ

The widespread domestic violence in the family is another type of inefficiency

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.488962791174994
WordScorePoS
domestic0JJ
violence0.164686343640793NN
family0NN
type0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.736117451004865
WordScorePoS
domestic0.0393804437159645JJ
violence0.0931221694711702NN
family0.0465610847355851NN
type0.0688661930304451NN

Recent World Health Organization WHO data show that both physical and sexual violence are widespread in diverse parts of the world table

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.609883829817957
WordScorePoS
world0.00585260443759492NN
health0.0571058915334038NN
organization0NN
datum0NN
sexual0.13773238606089JJ
violence0.0931221694711702NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.596485274100049
WordScorePoS
world0.00087176582269799NN
health0.191387734041787NN
organization0.0175975629039954NN
datum0NN
sexual0.0615471563780609JJ
violence0.020806307400253NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.335172002487512
WordScorePoS
world0NN
health0NN
organization0NN
datum0NN
sexual0JJ
violence0.164686343640793NN

An important reason for domes tic violence is that it allows husbands to institute regime of terror to control their wives behavior

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.690024144885071
WordScorePoS
violence0.164686343640793NN
regime0NN
control0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.585262966606455
WordScorePoS
violence0.0931221694711702NN
regime0NN
control0.0465610847355851NN

In India Bloch and Rao find that husbands systematically use violence as means of extracting larger dowry from their wives

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.719278555223326
WordScorePoS
violence0.164686343640793NN
means0NNS

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.525270893304213
WordScorePoS
violence0NN
means0.120266261535276NNS

This instrumental use of violence has widespread acceptance among both men and women

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.816048583392803
WordScorePoS
violence0.0931221694711702NN
woman0.221979360474357NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.426503982559024
WordScorePoS
violence0.164686343640793NN
woman0NN

Surveys have found that large percentages of respondents in developing countries report that men have the right to beat their wives when they answer back or disobey them

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Gender inequity is thus the result of an overlapping set of economic social cultural and political inequalities that reinforce each other

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.835613186013186
WordScorePoS
gender0NN
result0NN
set0NN
economic0.103276847978089JJ
social0.101310366625194JJ
cultural0JJ
political0.0792212041430275JJ
inequality0.635305170773079NN
reinforce0VB

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.372624854303791
WordScorePoS
gender0.196902218579822NN
result0NN
set0NN
economic0.0727679293221751JJ
social0.0285529457667019JJ
cultural0JJ
political0.111637082206855JJ
inequality0NN
reinforce0VB

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.162620708854745
WordScorePoS
gender0NN
result0NN
set0NN
economic0.128463821595706JJ
social0.0504071033101074JJ
cultural0JJ
political0JJ
inequality0NN
reinforce0VB

They cause women to have less access to property rights wealth and education and limit their access to labor markets and to spheres of activity outside the home

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.672079109762727
WordScorePoS
woman0.221979360474357NN
access0.00780347258345989NN
property0.0558185411034276NN
rights0.078760887431929NNS
education0.0512260062633133NN
limit0NN
market0NN
sphere0.0688661930304451NN
activity0NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.4839503576692
WordScorePoS
woman0.0610612445035112NN
access0.00697628678506322NN
property0NN
rights0.0352060273355634NNS
education0.244244978014045NN
limit0NN
market0NN
sphere0NN
activity0NN

This in turn constrains their ability to influence household decisions

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.720769377753134
WordScorePoS
ability0.0409791940864438NN
influence0.0542519672965169NN
household0.0554128417527413NN
decision0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.411194741880144
WordScorePoS
ability0NN
influence0NN
household0.0465610847355851NN
decision0.0393804437159645NN

Also limiting this influence are asymmetries of information in the household and the use of violence to control women behavior

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.766469402153103
WordScorePoS
limit0NN
influence0NN
information0.02046578088155NN
household0.0465610847355851NN
violence0.0931221694711702NN
control0.0465610847355851NN
woman0.221979360474357NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.337589993665204
WordScorePoS
limit0NN
influence0NN
information0.0241291244414115NN
household0NN
violence0.164686343640793NN
control0NN
woman0NN

All of this maintains clear demarcation between the roles of women and men readily reproduced across generations

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.696441669651029
WordScorePoS
maintain0VB
woman0.221979360474357NN
generation0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.447929925342396
WordScorePoS
maintain0.0881366997038154VB
woman0.0546336178945768NN
generation0NN

There are some signs that changes in labor markets and interventions by the state can break this inequality trap

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.979851786298441
WordScorePoS
market0.0202620733250388NN
intervention0NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN

The development of the garment industry in Bangladesh has resulted in sharp and visible increase in women access to lucrative labor market expanding their ability to influence household choices

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.517175651916595
WordScorePoS
development0.0330049940546426NN
garment0.0602029956716497NN
industry0.181897200573757NN
result0NN
increase0.0159575617614215NN
woman0NN
access0.0128821355880844NN
market0.0377086395700813NN
expand0VB
ability0NN
influence0NN
household0NN
choice0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.443325803607243
WordScorePoS
development0.0124956749436837NN
garment0NN
industry0NN
result0NN
increase0.00402768349408688NN
woman0.221979360474357NN
access0.00780347258345989NN
market0NN
expand0VB
ability0NN
influence0NN
household0.0465610847355851NN
choice0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.367580952084965
WordScorePoS
development0.022306853314744NN
garment0NN
industry0NN
result0NN
increase0.00958677785775002NN
woman0NN
access0.00232174891244877NN
market0.0169905820958638NN
expand0VB
ability0.0409791940864438NN
influence0.0542519672965169NN
household0.0554128417527413NN
choice0.0409791940864438NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.321148198238838
WordScorePoS
development0.0159922815774215NN
garment0NN
industry0NN
result0NN
increase0.0128868286091919NN
woman0.0546336178945768NN
access0.00749031153171887NN
market0.0913569596328122NN
expand0VB
ability0NN
influence0NN
household0.0297950283197006NN
choice0NN

Higher wages for women seem to compensate for restrictive practices such as purdah by reducing limits on women physical mobility and increasing their say in household decision making

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.774950237901473
WordScorePoS
woman0.221979360474357NN
practice0.0393804437159645NN
reduce0VB
limit0NN
mobility0NN
increase0.00402768349408688NN
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Globalization has expanded opportunities for women in Mumbai and increased their access to schooling

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comparative study of the Philippines Sumatra and Ghana found that patterns of land inheritance and investments in schooling have became more egalitarian because of changes in labor market opportunities for women

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And although China Republic of Korea and India started out with similar discriminatory social structures intervention by the state has improved gender equity much more in China than in Republic of Korea or India

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Equity from global perspective chapter In examining the inequality of opportunities within countries the previous chapter emphasized people predetermined circumstances or life chances beyond their control as distinct from their efforts and talents as individuals

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One of these circumstances is person place of birth

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In many countries access to basic public health services for example is significantly lower in rural areas than in urban areas

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That can mean much for surviving the first year of life the infant mortality rate in Rio de Janeiro was

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percent in less than half the

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percent in northeast Brazil

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But just as being born in village or city is one circumstance that should be irrelevant to person chances in life being born in specific country is another

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Why is it objectionable for say Turkish women to have inferior opportunities and outcomes compared with Turkish men but not so objectionable if the comparison is between Turkish men and English women

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After all in many dimensions of well being major differences in opportunities and outcomes exist between citizens of different countries in some cases differences larger than those between various groups within countries

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This chapter tries to answer two questions

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First how much does one country of birth determine one opportunities in life

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Second does one country of birth mean less for life chances today than in the near or distant past

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To answer these questions we discuss inequalities in health education income and power in the global arena

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We show that the inequalities between countries are staggering despite some improvements over time

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Examples and concepts There is no doubt that we live in world with massive inequalities in the opportuni ties to live free healthy and fulfilled life

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As Angus Deaton writes We are living with appalling inequalities in which the poor of the world die of AIDS and more broadly where poor people around the world die of diseases that are readily preventable elsewhere including in the first world hospitals and clinics that serve the rich in poor countries

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In the life expectancy of child born in Sierra Leone years or Botswana years was less than half that for child born in the United States years

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The average educational attainment unconditional on quality of schooling of an individual born in Sub Saharan country between and is less than years but more than years in OECD countries

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Inequalities in income are also high among individuals in different parts of the world

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How do we view large average improvements in the world set against this picture of unacceptable inequalities between countries

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Sen describes the current state of the world while making the case for fairer distribution of the fruits of globalization Even though the world is incomparably richer than ever before ours is also world of extraordinary deprivation and staggering inequality

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He argues that whether there have been some gains for all is not as important as whether the distribution of gains has been fair

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Inequalities in affluence and in political social and economic power among countries are central to the debate on globalization

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As long as the sharing of potential gains from globalization is viewed as unfair by many the inequalities described in this chapter will be deemed unacceptable

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This despite the WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT fact that absolute poverty has declined in the last two decades though by no means uniformly

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To put global inequalities in well being in perspective it helps to examine two countries at opposite ends of the spectrum Mali one of the world poorest countries and the United States one of the richest

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A baby born in Mali in had an approximately percent chance of dying before reaching age one with this chance declining only slightly to percent even if the baby were born to family in the top quintile of the asset distribution

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By contrast baby born in the United States the same year had less than percent chance of dying in its first year

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The picture for under five mortality is even more egregious percent of children will not reach age five in Mali compared with less than percent of American children

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Even child born into the richest quintile in Mali is more than times likely to die before age five than an average American child

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The picture does not improve for education

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The average American born between and has completed more than years of schooling roughly the same for men and women and in urban and rural areas while the average school attainment for the same cohort in Mali is less than two years with women attainment less than half that for men and virtually zero in rural areas

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If one considers the quality of the education received the inequalities in learning achievement are possibly much larger

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It is not surprising then that many citizens of Mali having survived immense hardships as children and without much education can barely eke out living as adults on average living on less than day month in

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By comparison the average American earned month more than times that for the average Malian

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While there is probably some consensus that inequalities in health education income and voice are large globally there is much less agreement on whether things have been getting better or worse

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Is one country of origin more or less pertinent today to the life chances that she faces at birth than it was or years ago

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The debate on inequalities in various dimensions of well being and their relation to globalization rages on as you read this report

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It is indeed harder to assert whether inequalities increased or decreased over time

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Various questions have to be answered first inequality of what over which time period using which concept of inequality

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While there is some evidence of convergence in opportunities in health and education and some divergence in incomes or at least lack of convergence these results cannot be stated without many qualifications and caveats

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Box

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introduces some underlying concepts that need to be clarified

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Global inequalities in health The unweighted and weighted international distributions of life expectancy at birth ignoring the distribution of life expectancy at birth within countries both show clear twin peakedness in

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Data show that countries had life expectancies between and years countries had life expectancies between and years and there was relatively little mass in the middle of the distribution

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By the left hand mode of the distribution had decreased considerably in size

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The distributions began to look more right skewed unimodal especially in the weighted international distribution countries had life expectancy between and compared with countries between and and countries between and

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But by the two modes become evident once again especially in the unweighted distribution although there is more mass in the right mode of the distribution

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In the average life expectancy in four regions Middle East and North Africa East Asia excluding China and Japan South Asia and Sub Saharan Africa was below the world average

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Between and rapid increases in life expectancy in the first three of these regions were globally inequality reducing while the decline of life expectancy in Sub Saharan Africa in the boosted inequality by stretching the bottom tail of the distribution

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By only South Asia and Sub Saharan Africa were below the world average with the difference in life expectancy at birth between Equity from global perspective BOX

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Three competing concepts of inequality global international and intercountry On the welfare gains from globalization the two sides of the debate often make statements that are diametrically opposed all the while examining the same data

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While there are some differences in and problems with data the wide discrepancy in views on the topic seems to stem from the fact that the two sides do not share the same values about what constitutes just distribution of the gains from globalization

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Considered here are three different concepts of inequality drawing from Milanovic and Ravallion

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Both authors and the globalization debate in general discuss these competing concepts in the domain of incomes

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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.502955471427553
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But these concepts can be extended to other dimensions such as health and education especially for inequality between countries

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The conclusions one would draw in each of these dimensions of well being then depend on the concept of inequality adopted

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It is impossible for the two sides to communicate without first making these concepts clear

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Has global income inequality increased or not

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Before we can answer this we have to define what we mean by global inequality and how that differs from what we will call international and intercountry inequality

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Global inequality forget country boundaries each person has his or her real income Global inequality is easy to define simply forget countries line up all citizens of the world and calculate the inequality in the distribution of their real incomes adjusted for purchasing power parity

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The global inequality measures that belong to the general entropy class such as mean log deviation or Theil index can be neatly decomposed into inequality attributable to inequalities between persons within each country and the mean differences of income between countries Shorrocks

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Within country inequality is what the overall inequality in the world would be if there were no differences in mean consumption across countries but each country had its actual inequality level

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Between country inequality can be interpreted as measuring what the level of inequality in the world would be if everyone within each country had the same the countryaverage consumption level

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Total inequality in the world is the sum of these two parts and the ratios of the respective parts to total inequality provide measure of the percentage contribution of between country and within country inequality to total inequality

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International inequality each person has his or her country mean income Throughout the rest of the report we will refer to this between country inequality as interna tional inequality the inequality in the distribution of all of the world citizens but with each person assigned the mean income of his her country instead of his her own income

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Global inequality is calculated by simply adding international inequality to within country inequality

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Intercountry inequality each country has one representative at its mean income These two concepts however are not enough to settle the debate

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Think of the following statement in support of the argument that inequality in the world has been increasing The GDP per capita of the richest country in the world was about times that of the poorest around compared with times by

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Notice that while this statement seems to be referring to something akin to international inequality there is subtle but very important difference the size of the richest or the poorest country plays no role in this statement

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The statement remains the same whether the richest country is Palau and the poorest country is Jamaica or whether they are China and India

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This is why third concept is needed

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In this concept all countries of the world instead of all citizens line up together and each of them is assigned her mean income

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We will call the inequality in this distribution of roughly or so countries of the world intercountry inequality

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Milanovic refers to our intercountry international and global inequality concepts as Concept Concept and Concept inequality respectively see figure below

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Why use intercountry inequality The implicit value judgment in using intercountry inequality instead of international inequality is that countries not people should get equal weight in assessing the fairness of Three concepts of inequality illustrated Intercountry inequality Three countries and three representatives with mean incomes height International inequality Entire population included but with mean incomes Global inequality All individuals with their actual income Sources Milanovic and Ravallion

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the division of the gains from globalization

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The measures most widely quoted by the critics of globalization treat each country as one observation while decompositions of world inequality into between country and withincountry components described above give people equal weight whether they live in China or Chad

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Note that in the globalization debate the choice of the measure of inequality can also depend on the question one is trying to answer

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If one is interested in the impact of some globalizing policies on growth or distributional outcomes at the country level it might be preferable to use measure of intercountry inequality

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Why use international inequality as we do in this report

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Alternatively if we are trying to determine whether world poverty or inequality decreased as result of globalizing policies then we might be more inclined to examine measures of international inequality

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No right or wrong choice Arguments can be made in favor of each of these two concepts when assessing trends in inequality between countries

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This choice is not matter of what is right or wrong

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When it comes to judging inequality intelligent people can disagree about whether countries or people should be weighted equally something that Ravallion argues in detail

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The point the judgments or the questions of interest that affect the choice of the inequality concept employed in empirical work matter greatly to the assessment one can make about the distributive justice of current globalization processes

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WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT Figure

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Vanishing twin peaks in life expectancy at birth Estimated density unweighted

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WordScorePoS
life0.0250390290383647NN
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µ

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

µ

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

µ

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Estimated density weighted

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WordScorePoS
estimate0NN
density0.0731385760866977NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.559409804202933
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µ

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

µ

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

µ

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Source Schady

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WordScorePoS
source0.0613562156822703NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.32879500351909
WordScorePoS
source0.0274787313211514NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.323029740864511
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these two regions having increased from

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region0.184259548107002NN
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Label: 3, with a score of: 0.573291833845237
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Between country inequality declined until the early and then increased back to its level by

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WordScorePoS
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The large decline in life expectancy at birth in Sub Saharan Africa more than offset the inequality reducing effect of growth in South Asia in the s

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.896649563415138
WordScorePoS
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.240093748410565
WordScorePoS
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Over longer period Bourguignon Levin and Rosenblatt show tremendous gains in life expectancy at birth rising from approximately years to years unequally distributed at first then equalizing in three waves between late nineteenth century and

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WordScorePoS
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Decades of Table

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WordScorePoS
decade0.124232265906675NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.406327891210439
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Increases in life expectancy at birth slowed down dramatically in the Mean

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.810431286673099
WordScorePoS
increase0.0143984997539974NN
life0.0250390290383647NN
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slow0.0307735781890304JJ

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.350131901913689
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Coefficient of variation

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Theil

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Theil

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Source Schady

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WordScorePoS
source0.0613562156822703NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.32879500351909
WordScorePoS
source0.0274787313211514NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.323029740864511
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source0.0269969049497485NN

Note Theil and Theil are two inequality measures that belong to the general entropy class with parameters and respectively unweighted

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.923366376361355
WordScorePoS
inequality0.635305170773079NN
measure0NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.325801421351511
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consistent improvements in life expectancy at birth came to screeching halt in the table

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.709726195611935
WordScorePoS
consistent0JJ
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life0.00794883334420673NN
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halt0.206935959588465NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.464407055136408
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consistent0JJ
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life0.0250390290383647NN
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birth0.0748292956291867NN
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Label: 7, with a score of: 0.36751444921661
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consistent0JJ
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Between country inequality among developing countries is as high as it has ever been since

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.998828889740146
WordScorePoS
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So there is some convergence in life expectancy at birth over long period although there are significant losses in the in Sub Saharan Africa mainly caused by AIDS and in some European and Central Asian countries

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WordScorePoS
life0.0250390290383647NN
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birth0.0748292956291867NN
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With the developed countries reaching biological limit at the top of the distribution and many regions catching up to them the inequality of life expectancy in the world will become more function of changes in health and population growth in Sub Saharan Africa barring major health catastrophe elsewhere in the world

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.714653898712672
WordScorePoS
develop0VB
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major0JJ

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.502499214610936
WordScorePoS
develop0VB
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.236245897529312
WordScorePoS
develop0VB
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.224252942061135
WordScorePoS
develop0VB
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life0.0123650647908625NN
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We revisit this issue at the end of the chapter

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But for now there remain two worlds with significantly different life expectancies the gap in life expectancy between Sub Saharan Africa and Europe and North America in is higher than it was in

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Health outcomes of even the rich citizens in poor countries remain well below Equity from global perspective the average in OECD countries

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.505804551091307
WordScorePoS
health0.0405241466500776NN
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Label: 13, with a score of: 0.477929416110231
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health0NN
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Label: 3, with a score of: 0.380340459647078
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health0.191387734041787NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.279048773117142
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health0NN
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poor0.150659516460257JJ
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.368163893877699
WordScorePoS
health0.0339811641917276NN
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For example for all countries with average per capita GDP below the day threshold the child mortality rate of the richest percent of the population is more than times the OECD average of six years

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WordScorePoS
country0NN
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Label: 3, with a score of: 0.449494914494339
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country0NN
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Label: 13, with a score of: 0.366176204768022
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country0NN
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oecd0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.362328644758842
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country0NN
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While this is also certainly the case with many other indicators it is difficult to make statements about how large differences between countries are in comparison with inequalities within countries

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WordScorePoS
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Unlike the income inequality literature there are no accepted practices for decomposing inequalities in health into within country and betweencountry components

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WordScorePoS
income0.166475342664294NN
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Label: 3, with a score of: 0.163703052487003
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income0NN
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Consider however simple thought experiment

Label: 17, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
simple0.048933054487825JJ

In the developing countries for which Demographic Health Survey was available in

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.821013833186178
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develop0VB
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health0.191387734041787NN
survey0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.451381433775955
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develop0VB
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million infant deaths could be prevented by bringing their infant mortality levels to the OECD average

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infant0NN
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Label: 13, with a score of: 0.329348756545139
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infant0NN
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level0.0415277415054218NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.31076105866175
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infant0NN
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mortality0.0488696285210061NN
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But if one eliminated the infant mortality gap between the rich and the poor within each of the same countries by lowering the infant mortality rate for everyone to the level of the top decile

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eliminate0VB
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gap0NN
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rate0.0433561464459019NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.31172785322924
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eliminate0VB
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poor0.150659516460257JJ
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million infant deaths could be prevented

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.741249816774528
WordScorePoS
infant0NN
death0.193573191943949NN
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.434000392741471
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infant0.0583416713841148NN
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.388003554357226
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infant0NN
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While the average infant mortality rate for the rich in these poor countries is almost five times larger than the OECD average it seems that eliminating within country differences between the rich and the poor by improving the health of the poor at least in this particular case would get us about twothirds of the way to the number of total preventable deaths by moving everyone to the OECD average

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Label: 13, with a score of: 0.374848300247412
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average0.1656430212089NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.352549195488429
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average0NN
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.312781081748062
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average0NN
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So while large differences in health outcomes remain between countries and within them it is not possible to make definitive statements about the relative weight of these components in global health inequalities

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WordScorePoS
health0.0405241466500776NN
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Label: 3, with a score of: 0.448887192860085
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One can say however that there is no clear presumption that inequalities between countries dwarf those within them

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This finding as we will see later in this chapter stands in sharp contrast to that in incomes but is congruent with that in education

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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.499012009471449
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.37217905466133
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While technical change in private and public health knowledge may be more important to account for the overall better health income may be important in the poorest countries through its impact on Figure

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Label: 3, with a score of: 0.4132971244339
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technical0JJ
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.321877897628835
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technical0JJ
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.369838186919276
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Life expectancy is highly correlated with income particularly in poor countries Life expectancy Argentina Mexico Japan Spain Germany Rep

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life0.0184786920895884NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.42986355621818
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of Korea China United States Brazil Russia Pakistan India Gabon South Africa Namibia Botswana GDP per capita current PPP Source Deaton

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Note The curve is nonparametrically fitted weighted by population

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WordScorePoS
population0.0860640399817412NN

The figure plots country life expectancy using circles whose size is proportional to population against GDP per capita in purchasing power parity PPP dollars at the turn of the twenty first century

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figure0NN
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the adoption of even inexpensive techniques adequate nutrition and water and sanitation infrastructure

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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.341056065967137
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.224223660008232
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.178618628927363
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adoption0NN
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Life expectancy increases steeply with income among the poorest countries figure

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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.557415511337136
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.319329836145551
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But differences in income growth explain less than sixth of the variation in improvements in life expectancy at birth

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.630300970555192
WordScorePoS
income0.166475342664294NN
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.43808325246263
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income0NN
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.361140829733117
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income0.110649350233433NN
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Label: 7, with a score of: 0.309868159793997
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birth0NN

More important determinants are clean water health systems demand for adequately operated and equipped health systems and basic sanitary knowledge the latter two having much to do with education particularly women education

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.480811411625366
WordScorePoS
clean0JJ
water0NN
health0NN
system0NN
demand0NN
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basic0.0433695758119029JJ
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education0.244244978014045NN
woman0.0610612445035112NN

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WordScorePoS
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health0NN
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basic0.0181797964452808JJ
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woman0.0127979231406811NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.402608140804785
WordScorePoS
clean0.020806307400253JJ
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health0.191387734041787NN
system0NN
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operate0VB
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WordScorePoS
clean0JJ
water0NN
health0.0571058915334038NN
system0NN
demand0NN
operate0VB
basic0JJ
knowledge0NN
education0.0512260062633133NN
woman0.221979360474357NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.260555685928876
WordScorePoS
clean0JJ
water0.186896403054502NN
health0.0339811641917276NN
system0NN
demand0NN
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basic0.0144336476662975JJ
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Label: 7, with a score of: 0.0947398967005773
WordScorePoS
clean0.125032076213024JJ
water0NN
health0NN
system0NN
demand0NN
operate0VB
basic0JJ
knowledge0NN
education0NN
woman0NN

While life expectancy at birth continued to increase and the infant and child mortality rates declined the last decade of the twentieth century has seen divergence between rich and poor countries

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.669193123908061
WordScorePoS
life0.0250390290383647NN
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Label: 13, with a score of: 0.46661841611402
WordScorePoS
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.301543520325395
WordScorePoS
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The difficulties faced by Europe and Central Asia countries during transition and the spread of HIV AIDS and civil conflicts were major factors in this but they are not solely responsible

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WordScorePoS
difficulty0NN
face0NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.20796430128195
WordScorePoS
difficulty0NN
face0NN
central0JJ
asia0IN
country0NN
spread0NN
hiv0NN
aid0NN
civil0JJ
conflict0.147263166485024NN
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Cornia and Menchini cite changes in health spending public health programs and the structure and stability of households as possible reasons for the slowdown in health progress in developing countries

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.78087920144608
WordScorePoS
health0.191387734041787NN
spending0NN
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stability0NN
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progress0.0449274832628543NN
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.395040946347168
WordScorePoS
health0.0571058915334038NN
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public0.0727679293221751NN
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country0NN

WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT Figure

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.635258118363613
WordScorePoS
world0.00257642711761688NN
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figure0.0602029956716497NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.45051999587721
WordScorePoS
world0.00464349782489754NN
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.339133175358608
WordScorePoS
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The distribution of years of schooling improved greatly in the second half of the twentieth century Estimated density unweighted

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WordScorePoS
schooling0NN
improve0.0102677744436108VB
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Label: 3, with a score of: 0.349239822352366
WordScorePoS
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Label: 11, with a score of: 0.348859655080369
WordScorePoS
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µ

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Estimated density weighted µ

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WordScorePoS
estimate0NN
density0.0731385760866977NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.559409804202933
WordScorePoS
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µ

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

µ

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

µ

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

µ

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Source Schady

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WordScorePoS
source0.0613562156822703NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.32879500351909
WordScorePoS
source0.0274787313211514NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.323029740864511
WordScorePoS
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Global inequalities in education The unweighted distribution of adult school attainment was clearly left skewed in figure

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.708897657495008
WordScorePoS
global0.0133009891881297JJ
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Label: 4, with a score of: 0.6662478889213
WordScorePoS
global0.00558555252470789JJ
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This reflects the fact that many countries particularly in Africa and Asia had mean years of schooling close to zero

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

The weighted distribution like that for life expectancy at birth was bimodal with one peak around two years of mean schooling and smaller peak around eight years

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.896262908594283
WordScorePoS
life0.0250390290383647NN
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Figure

Label: 9, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
figure0.0602029956716497NN

Mean years of schooling increased while inequality declined across birth cohorts Inequality in years of schooling

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.978277051211796
WordScorePoS
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Mean years of schooling Inequality in years of schooling

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.984745707613366
WordScorePoS
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Mean years of schooling

Label: 3, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
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Year of birth Source Araujo Ferreira and Schady

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.484053942676462
WordScorePoS
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Label: 6, with a score of: 0.451295083934467
WordScorePoS
birth0NN
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Note Inequality in years of schooling is measured using GE

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.970168035283328
WordScorePoS
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that is the general entropy class inequality measure with an inequality aversion parameter of

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WordScorePoS
class0NN
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Many of these countries saw large increases in enrollments in the and s

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

As these younger cohorts aged the mean years of schooling in their countries increased and the skewness in the unweighted international distribution of schooling disappeared

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Note that the bimodal distribution of schooling across persons weighted by population persisted until the and then gave way to unimodal distribution only by

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.659877883601218
WordScorePoS
schooling0NN
person0.0237821918091848NN
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Label: 11, with a score of: 0.528006342639782
WordScorePoS
schooling0NN
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By any measure the international distribution of years of schooling has undergone dramatic changes between and

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 13, with a score of: 0.456989644352704
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.366859056066448
WordScorePoS
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As mean levels have risen inequality has fallen decade after decade figure

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.807825685626968
WordScorePoS
level0NN
rise0.0237821918091848NN
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Label: 13, with a score of: 0.503637010473836
WordScorePoS
level0.0415277415054218NN
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The mean years of educational attainment for the world almost doubled from

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.969557298471973
WordScorePoS
educational0.0683326727248364JJ
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table

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Sub Saharan Africa the Middle East and North Africa and South Asia started with high inequalities not shown here and reduced them over time the Middle East and North Africa region was particularly successful

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.881342540258263
WordScorePoS
saharan0JJ
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asia0IN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.296902695343757
WordScorePoS
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Latin America and the Caribbean and East Asia also had some inequalities which they essentially eliminated for their youngest cohorts

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WordScorePoS
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Despite the progress mean levels of educational attain Equity from global perspective ment in Sub Saharan Africa and South Asia remain low even for the youngest cohorts

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

While significant disparities remain in educational attainment across countries despite evidence of significant catch up by poorer countries in the past half century there is also large variation within countries chapter

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WordScorePoS
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In fact less than percent of the inequality in educational attainment between adults born between and is attributable to that between countries share that has been steadily declining over time

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WordScorePoS
inequality0.635305170773079NN
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Label: 4, with a score of: 0.210335145547158
WordScorePoS
inequality0NN
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While both inequality within and between countries is declining the rate of convergence in country means has been faster

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WordScorePoS
inequality0.635305170773079NN
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The story remains the same when decomposing inequality in educational attainment into inequalities between men and women

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WordScorePoS
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inequality0.635305170773079NN
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woman0.0242343960710022NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.167442343524947
WordScorePoS
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Roughly quarter of global inequality in educational attainment is attributable to differences between men and women but this gap is again declining over time from percent in the oldest cohort in our sample to percent in the youngest

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WordScorePoS
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time0.0607862199751165NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.265047656819699
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quarter0NN
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But there are large differences in this convergence by region figure

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WordScorePoS
region0.184259548107002NN
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Label: 3, with a score of: 0.526521028646158
WordScorePoS
region0.124837844401518NN
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While Latin America and the Caribbean East Asia and Europe and Central Asia seem to have reached gender parity in education along with other developed countries the progress in South Asia Sub Saharan Africa and the Middle East and North Africa has been slower

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.687063641186656
WordScorePoS
asia0IN
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north0RB

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.607309644187416
WordScorePoS
asia0IN
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Women still lag far behind men in educational attainment

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.841754681575561
WordScorePoS
woman0.221979360474357NN
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Label: 6, with a score of: 0.307650489409817
WordScorePoS
woman0.0127979231406811NN
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It should not be assumed that high attainment necessarily implies high achievement and vice versa

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WordScorePoS
achievement0.0736315832425121NN

An analysis of the relationship between attainment measured by the percentage of to year olds with upper secondary education and achievement measured by reading proficiency of year olds in OECD countries plus Brazil shows rank correlation coefficient between these two variables of

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WordScorePoS
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percentage0NN
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education0.244244978014045NN
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oecd0NN
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It is clear that the rankings of countries according to these two indicators are not the same

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

The Republic of Korea and Japan at the top of the OECD distribution and Mexico Portugal and Turkey at the bottom have similar ranks for both attainment and achievement

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

But the Czech Republic Norway and the United States do worse in achievement than attainment

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WordScorePoS
unite0.0828215106044499VB
achievement0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.547029059012235
WordScorePoS
unite0VB
achievement0.0736315832425121NN

And achievement rankings Table

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.84032823544338
WordScorePoS
achievement0.0736315832425121NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.420652279993953
WordScorePoS
achievement0.0368585655748969NN

Mean years of schooling increased continuously while inequality declined Mean

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WordScorePoS
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Coefficient of variation

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Theil

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Theil

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Source Schady

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WordScorePoS
source0.0613562156822703NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.32879500351909
WordScorePoS
source0.0274787313211514NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.323029740864511
WordScorePoS
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Note Theil and Theil are two inequality measures that belong to the general entropy class with parameters and respectively unweighted

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inequality0.635305170773079NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.325801421351511
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Figure

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WordScorePoS
figure0.0602029956716497NN

Gender disparities in years of schooling declined but remained significant in some regions Male to female schooling ratio OECD East Asia Europe and Central Asia South Asia Latin America and the Caribbean Middle East and North Africa Sub Saharan Africa Year of birth Source Araujo Ferreira and Schady

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WordScorePoS
gender0.196902218579822NN
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Label: 3, with a score of: 0.530506201584903
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of Australia Finland and Ireland are much higher than their rankings in attainment

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Achievement differences between developing countries and OECD countries remain strikingly large

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.673722141178694
WordScorePoS
achievement0NN
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oecd0.108503934593034NN
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Using internationally comparable assessments of reading mathematics and science Pritchett shows that developing countries do not just constitute the lower tail of the learning distribution but that most actually do far worse than the poorest performing OECD countries

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WordScorePoS
internationally0RB
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For example children in Argentina Mexico and Chile perform about two OECD standard deviations below children in Greece one of the poorest performing countries in the OECD

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WordScorePoS
child0NN
oecd0.108503934593034NN
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In reading competence based on PISA the WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT average Indonesian student performed at the level of French student at the seventh percentile

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WordScorePoS
base0NN
world0.00351929966767313NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.481215017865148
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base0NN
world0.00276879546803864NN
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Considering children who have never attended school those who enrolled but dropped out and those who completed grade nine but whose test scores remain more than one standard deviation below the OECD mean in mathematics Pritchett finds that percent of to year olds in Morocco lack achievement in adequate learning

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Global inequalities in income and expenditure The answers to basic questions such as whether income inequality has been increasing or decreasing depends among other things on which concept of inequality is under the microscope intercountry inequality in the distribution of unweighted country means international inequality in the distribution of country means weighted by their population size or global inequality in the distribution of individual incomes

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WordScorePoS
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We start the discussion by presenting the median and mean incomes of selected countries by region for range of years between and as well as the dispersion of those incomes within each country figure

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WordScorePoS
income0.166475342664294NN
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Large differences across countries and across people within countries are striking

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For example an individual in the tenth percentile in the U

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distribution enjoys level of income higher than an individual earning the mean income in Brazil or Argentina

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While Chinese individual living in rural area has mean income similar to an average Cambodian an urban Chinese enjoys similar income to an average Brazilian

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South African at the bottom of the income distribution in her country earns as much as the average individual in Mali while South African at the ninetieth percentile of that income distribution enjoys standard of living in income comparable to that of median Irish individual

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The difference in the evolution of intercountry unweighted and international weighted inequality between and borrowing from Milanovic who calls this the mother of all inequality disputes could hardly be more dramatic figure

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When countries are the unit of Figure

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Incomes range broadly across countries and individuals Sub Saharan Africa South Asia East Asia Latin America and the Caribbean Middle East and North Africa Europe and Central Asia OECD countries Mali Ethiopia South Africa Cambodia India rural Pakistan India urban China rural Indonesia China urban Nicaragua Argentina Brazil Yemen Morocco Israel Russia Albania Poland Ireland Denmark United States Income per capita PPP Source Authors calculations

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Note Years range from to as measured by adjusted PPP monthly per capita income blue box or consumption orange box

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The lowest point of each line represents the income level at the tenth percentile followed by that at the median the mean the two edges of each box and the ninetieth percentile top of each line

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Equity from global perspective Figure

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Since intercountry inequality increased while international inequality declined Figure

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Unlike relative inequality absolute inequality has been steadily increasing Gini index

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Indexes Kolm index

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Kolm index

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Absolute Gini index Gini index Theil index Mean logarithmic deviation International inequality weighted International inequality without China and India

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Absolute measures Relative measures Intercountry inequality unweighted

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Source Milanovic

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observation intercountry inequality has been undeniably increasing especially since the s

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But international inequality has been steadily declining thanks mostly to the income growth in some populous countries mainly China and India

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Note that intercountry inequality and international inequality without China and India track each other quite closely from onward coinciding with the period of rapid growth in these two countries the slower average growth in other developing countries and the declines in measured output in Eastern Europe and former Soviet Union countries

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If Luxembourg and Nicaragua at opposite ends of the world income distribution grew at the same annual rate of percent per capita year for the next years the per capita yearly incomes in Luxembourg would increase from PPP adjusted to an increase of more than dollars

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That of Nicaragua by contrast would increase by mere from to during the same period

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Atkinson and Brandolini note that with annual per capita growth rates of percent in China and percent in the United States the absolute income gap between the two countries would widen for further years before starting to narrow to finally disappear in years

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The evaluative judgments drawn about the distributional changes associated with globalization may depend crucially on whether one thinks about inequality in Source Atkinson and Brandolini

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absolute terms or relative terms

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There is no economic theory that tells us that inequality is relative not absolute

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Again as with intercountry and international inequality it is not that one concept is right and the other one wrong

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Nor are they two ways of measuring the same thing

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Instead they are two different concepts

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The revealed preferences for one concept over another reflect implicit value judgments about what constitutes fair division of the gains from growth

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Those judgments need to be brought into the open and critically scrutinized before one can take well considered position in this debate

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An examination of international inequality using absolute rather than relative measures of inequality reveals steady increase over the long run as well as in recent decades this latter finding contrasts with relative international inequality trends

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Atkinson and Brandolini find that absolute indexes of inequality such as the Absolute Gini and the Kolm Index with various parameters of inequality aversion have been increasing steadily since figure

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WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT What happened to global inequality in the past years or so has been the subject of fierce debate in the context of globalization and is perhaps the hardest question to answer

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Some authors claim that global inequality increased slightly while others argue that they have declined

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Examining global inequality requires knowledge of the distribution of inequality within each country

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Household surveys that collect such data are relatively new phenomenon having become more common since the even in developing countries

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So if we want to know about the distribution of income for everyone in the world we are confined to much shorter time period

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We have selected three waves similar to those used by Milanovic and current

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Global inequality measured by the mean log deviation did not change significantly over this period although there is slight decrease between and figure

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The mean log deviation for the world would have increased without China and India consistent with the consensus in the literature that international inequality declined in this period thanks largely to these two countries

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But if global inequality stayed roughly the same while international inequality declined inequality within countries must have increased by approximately the same amount subject that we discuss below

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Figure

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The inequality decline between countries was neutralized by increases within countries Mean log deviation Percent

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Between country share right axis Global inequality left axis

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Between country

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inequality left axis Within country

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inequality left axis

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Source Authors calculations

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Most of the world income inequality can be explained by the differences in country means that is by international or between country inequality

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Our estimates show that the share of global inequality which can be attributed to inequality between countries declined steadily from percent around to percent around and to percent by around

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With global inequality staying roughly the same during this period within group inequality increased at somewhat steady pace figure

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These results are consistent with the evidence in chapter of increasing inequality within countries in many parts of the world including Bangladesh China the United Kingdom and the United States

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The between country share of global inequality is also consistent with Milanovic who puts this figure at about percent in

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It is possible that the Milanovic figures overestimate betweencountry inequality because he assigns all households in decile the same income instead of estimating Lorenz curve for percentiles

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Our results use slightly improved data from Milanovic in three aspects

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First for many countries we calculate our welfare measures using raw data at the household level while Milanovic and many others use grouped data

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Second we incorporate more recent data for the current period possibly providing an improvement in data quality especially for Eastern European countries

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Third for the countries with grouped data we estimate Lorenz curves instead of assigning everyone in the group with the same income

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That most of the global inequality in incomes is explained by between country inequality seems to be robust finding in the literature in stark contrast with the picture in health and education

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Over much longer period Bourguignon and Morrisson estimate that global inequality has been steadily increasing because of rapid increase in international inequality until World War II and then to smaller increases in both within country and international inequality between and figure

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They also argue that international Equity from global perspective inequality was essentially negligible at the turn of the nineteenth century accounting for roughly percent of global inequality but that it increased very rapidly until World War II and then continued to increase but at much slower pace

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Within country inequality however reached its peak around and declined dramatically between the two world wars mainly because of equalizing forces in the nowdeveloped countries and started creeping back up only since the s

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The combined effect of these changes is an increase in the share of international inequality from roughly percent in to more than percent by

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In summary while the world got richer income inequality relative and absolute international and global increased tremendously over long period of time

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But the story is less clear cut for more recent time frame

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In the post World War II era intercountry inequality unweighted has continued to increase while international inequality weighted for population declined

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International inequality declined in the final decades of the twentieth century because the inequalityreducing effects of income growth in China and South Asia more than offset the inequality boosting effects of continued steady income growth in the now developed countries and the declining incomes in SubSaharan Africa

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Pritchett examining the period between and argues that while there was convergence of incomes for today developed countries what Maddison calls the advanced capitalist countries the growth rates between developed and developing economies show considerable divergence

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He provides evidence that the growth rates of developed countries are bunched in narrow group while those of less developed countries are all over with some in explosive growth and others in implosive decline

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Further evidence of convergence among rich countries and divergence between rich and poor countries comes from Schultz who estimates that international inequality accounted for about two thirds of total inequality measured by log vari Figure

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Inequality between countries became much more important over the long run Mean log deviation

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Global inequality

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Within country inequality

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Between country inequality Source Authors manipulation of data from Bourguignon and Morrisson

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ance between and however there also were large differences by region

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Inequality between the countries of OECD and the rest of Europe including Turkey decreased by percent during this period at the end accounting for only onethird of total inequality

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During the same period international inequality in SubSaharan Africa nearly doubled causing its share in total inequality to increase from percent to percent

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In both SubSaharan Africa and Latin America and the Caribbean overall inequality levels remain high while high income countries show signs of convergence

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One can also examine inequality trends by focusing on the mobility of countries rather than by taking an anonymous approach to inequality comparisons

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Poor countries mobility from the bottom has been limited in the past years

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With the exception of China the six countries that occupied the bottom decile populationweighted in all in Sub Saharan Africa had no growth worth noting

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While there is significant upward mobility between and the

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percent entry in the first row of table

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is China there is also troubling stagnation and downward mobility

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Note that approximately percent of each of the second and third income ranges fell into the bottom range over these two decades

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It is clear that no Pareto improvement has taken place in the world between and which leaves room for different value judgments WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT Table

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Mobility matrix in absolute country per capita incomes to Income in Income in < > <

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>

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Source Bourguignon Levin and Rosenblatt

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Note Incomes are per capita constant PPP dollars

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Figure

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Absolute poverty declined globally but not in every region Headcount per day in AFR EAP ECA LAC MENA SAR NGA ZAM MDG CAF NER MWI BF TZA LSO WA GHA NIC MOZ UZB ARG BGD CIV GAM VEN YEM MYS ZAF MEX RUS UKR COL BWA MON MAU GTM Global inequalities in power CHN LAO SEN PHL AK THA TUR VNM EGY SLE JOR ETH CMR BRA KHM IND KEN NAM MLI BDI ZWE LKA MAR While some populous countries almost exclusively in Asia such as Bangladesh China India and Pakistan made significant headway against extreme poverty almost all increases in extreme poverty especially in countries with high initial headcount rates took place in Sub Saharan Africa

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Among the larger countries with rising headcount rates are Nigeria South Africa and Tanzania

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If the poverty trends discussed here continue the Millennium Development Goal of halving the proportion of people living on less than day will be met

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But only East and South Asia will reach this goal

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We cannot be satisfied if this were to happen

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Other things equal we would prefer to see the poverty rate falling at the same pace in all countries

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Currently hundreds of millions of people in numerous developing countries lack the opportunity to avoid hunger poor health and low access to vital services such as education and clean water

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Headcount per day in Source PovcalNet http iresearch

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worldbank

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org PovcalNet jsp index

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jsp

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about the evolution of world welfare inequality and relative poverty

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Milanovic also point out the downward mobility of many countries in the past years or so

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Those who do not share the view that inequality between countries fell in the past to years that is those who take the unweighted view of the world may have such mobility concerns in mind

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Absolute poverty rates have declined in the past years or so and variety of studies have confirmed this trend figure

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Overall while there are roughly million fewer people who live on less than day in than there were in the number of poor people in SubSaharan Africa almost doubled from approximately million to million

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One of the main arguments in the concluding chapter of this report is that the rules and processes in global markets can be unfair to developing countries

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A country power in decision making in multilateral banks is usually correlated with its economic strength

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Even when each country has equal representation in an international body such as the United Nations system or the World Trade Organization WTO powerful forces can chisel away at developingcountry interests through separate bilateral agreements for example

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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.365190443723872
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And the capacity of developing countries to make informed decisions can be limited

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decision0.0519476926891779NN
limited0.120266261535276JJ

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.322799501644444
WordScorePoS
capacity0.0451108483130998NN
develop0VB
country0NN
decision0.0211360962287062NN
limited0JJ

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.30671144639693
WordScorePoS
capacity0.016515769558553NN
develop0VB
country0NN
decision0.0464294830712827NN
limited0JJ

Poor countries lack the financial and human capital resources that would allow them to be equal participants in the international bodies in which decisions are taken that affect them and beyond that in setting the rules under which the international system operates

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.588122846767311
WordScorePoS
poor0.150659516460257JJ
country0NN
lack0.0753297582301286NN
financial0.0184786920895884JJ
human0JJ
resource0.0739147683583536NN
equal0.0376648791150643JJ
international0.00531301439641424JJ
decision0.0519476926891779NN
affect0.0184786920895884VB
set0NN
rule0NN
system0.0519476926891779NN
operate0VB

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.396873238994764
WordScorePoS
poor0JJ
country0NN
lack0NN
financial0.016515769558553JJ
human0JJ
resource0NN
equal0.033663879505068JJ
international0.0189945307832458JJ
decision0.0464294830712827NN
affect0.033031539117106VB
set0NN
rule0.162386273072618NN
system0NN
operate0VB

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.354746421519003
WordScorePoS
poor0.0153248097886055JJ
country0NN
lack0NN
financial0.0150369494376999JJ
human0JJ
resource0.0375923735942499NN
equal0JJ
international0.00648516099948979JJ
decision0.0211360962287062NN
affect0VB
set0.0978661089756501NN
rule0.0739231123597559NN
system0.0211360962287062NN
operate0VB

In the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development IBRD the market lending arm of the World Bank country voting power depends on the percentage of IBRD shares it holds

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.367662268274079
WordScorePoS
international0.00402768349408688JJ
bank0NN
development0.0124956749436837NN
market0NN
arm0NN
world0.00585260443759492NN
country0NN
power0NN
depend0VB
percentage0NN
share0.0285529457667019NN
hold0.18234260265061NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.680667536119744
WordScorePoS
international0.00515473144367677JJ
bank0.0881366997038154NN
development0.0159922815774215NN
market0.0913569596328122NN
arm0NN
world0.0124838525528648NN
country0NN
power0NN
depend0.0357189919948307VB
percentage0.0583416713841148NN
share0.0365427838531249NN
hold0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.434657462569001
WordScorePoS
international0.00648516099948979JJ
bank0.036961556179878NN
development0.0469463607292177NN
market0.030649619577211NN
arm0NN
world0.00418824502414673NN
country0NN
power0.036961556179878NN
depend0VB
percentage0NN
share0.0766240489430275NN
hold0NN

The largest shareholders are the United States with

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.659973093599833
WordScorePoS
largest0JJS
unite0.0828215106044499VB

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.56926210292594
WordScorePoS
largest0.0714379839896614JJS
unite0VB

Equity from global perspective percent of the vote Japan with

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.857196705142896
WordScorePoS
global0.0375696197697663JJ
perspective0.0548233071065585NN

percent Germany with

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

percent France and the United Kingdom with

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.91318849194418
WordScorePoS
unite0.0828215106044499VB

percent

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Each has representative on the Board of Directors

Label: 16, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
representative0.107490825192354NN

By contrast all Sub Saharan countries together have two representatives and

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.815443361103019
WordScorePoS
saharan0JJ
country0NN
representative0.107490825192354NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.335372136135714
WordScorePoS
saharan0.0442083771593746JJ
country0NN
representative0NN

percent of the vote

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

China and India both have

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

percent of the vote

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Country influence in setting the agenda for the institutions is not limited to board membership

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.80720555805939
WordScorePoS
country0NN
influence0NN
set0NN
agenda0.0811931365363091NN
institution0.274477239401321NN
limited0JJ

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.446597014070514
WordScorePoS
country0NN
influence0NN
set0.0978661089756501NN
agenda0.0739231123597559NN
institution0.0249900578719309NN
limited0JJ

A study by Filmer and others shows that roughly two thirds of the senior management level positions at the World Bank are occupied by citizens of Part mainly OECD countries although these countries account for less than one fifth of the global population and smaller share of the number of member countries

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.45436111436126
WordScorePoS
study0NN
third0JJ
management0.0339811641917276NN
level0.00513687014008325NN
world0.00464349782489754NN
bank0NN
occupy0VB
oecd0.108503934593034NN
country0NN
account0.0577345906651901NN
global0.022306853314744JJ
population0.0144336476662975NN
share0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.407778801222541
WordScorePoS
study0NN
third0.0357189919948307JJ
management0NN
level0.00552410547653725NN
world0.0124838525528648NN
bank0.0881366997038154NN
occupy0VB
oecd0NN
country0NN
account0NN
global0.0119942111830662JJ
population0.0310434135749871NN
share0.0365427838531249NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.366392149105882
WordScorePoS
study0NN
third0JJ
management0.0687164195125178NN
level0.00692515656684925NN
world0.00626002771693937NN
bank0NN
occupy0.0731385760866977VB
oecd0NN
country0NN
account0.0194583992186006NN
global0.00501208088147356JJ
population0.0194583992186006NN
share0NN

At the WTO each member country has one vote

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Moreover because decisions are by consensus each country effectively has veto power

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.648140242088976
WordScorePoS
decision0.02794560829783NN
consensus0.064698038783335NN
country0NN
effectively0RB
power0NN

So the WTO is at least on paper perhaps the most democratic of international organizations

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.856156693980098
WordScorePoS
democratic0.0804764811724088JJ
international0.00355521737836969JJ
organization0.0347609334428716NN

In practice the ability of countries to influence the agenda and decisions depends crucially on their capacity to be present to follow negotiations to be informed and to understand fully the impact of the complex issues at hand

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.557415604297386
WordScorePoS
practice0.0703006268489394NN
ability0.0409791940864438NN
country0NN
influence0.0542519672965169NN
agenda0NN
decision0NN
depend0VB
capacity0.00833571598658786NN
negotiation0NN
fully0RB
impact0.0866018859977851NN
issue0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.443182056753699
WordScorePoS
practice0NN
ability0NN
country0NN
influence0NN
agenda0.0739231123597559NN
decision0.0211360962287062NN
depend0VB
capacity0.0451108483130998NN
negotiation0.036961556179878NN
fully0RB
impact0NN
issue0.0299586785922821NN

A rough indicator of country capacity is the size of its representation in Geneva

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.601178655702494
WordScorePoS
country0NN
capacity0NN
size0.0396106020715138NN
representation0.0488696285210061NN

A study by Blackhurst Lyakurwa and Oyejide found that only of the Sub Saharan countries had close to five the WTO average resident delegates listed in the WTO directory

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.691199290252507
WordScorePoS
study0NN
saharan0JJ
country0NN
average0.1656430212089NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.611773178889741
WordScorePoS
study0NN
saharan0JJ
country0NN
average0.146608885563018NN

Worse of the countries half of the Sub Saharan WTO membership had no delegate resident in Geneva

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Only Nigeria had delegation that deals solely with the WTO

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Even when country representation in the international arena is considered adequate it is debatable whether the representatives of some countries are fully accountable to their citizens

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.873876971461344
WordScorePoS
country0NN
representation0NN
international0.0189945307832458JJ
adequate0JJ
representative0.107490825192354NN
fully0RB
accountable0.162386273072618JJ

There are considerable differences among countries in the extent to which their political and legal institutions provide citizens with fair transparent and inclusive environments to enhance and leverage their assets

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.806275264955142
WordScorePoS
country0NN
extent0NN
political0JJ
legal0.0811931365363091JJ
institution0.274477239401321NN
provide0.013214597504793VB
fair0JJ
transparent0.0811931365363091JJ
inclusive0.0857932776726581JJ
environment0NN
enhance0VB
asset0.0811931365363091NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.332365002008181
WordScorePoS
country0NN
extent0NN
political0.0792212041430275JJ
legal0JJ
institution0.0991236547760315NN
provide0VB
fair0JJ
transparent0JJ
inclusive0.0172128079963482JJ
environment0NN
enhance0.00994073584907126VB
asset0.0488696285210061NN

While there are numerous problems with trying to measure such things Kaufmann Kraay and Mastruzzi in the most comprehensive compar Figure

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.674683700569215
WordScorePoS
measure0.103895385378356NN
figure0NN

There is no one to one relationship between voice and income Denmark Ireland United States Poland South Africa Israel India Brazil Mail Argentina Nicaragua Albania Morocco Indonesia Russia Cambodia Voice and accountability Income category Yemen Pakistan Ethiopia Source Kaufmann Kraay and Mastruzzi

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.784095346985605
WordScorePoS
voice0.064698038783335NN
income0.166475342664294NN
unite0VB
south0RB
africa0IN
accountability0NN
source0NN

Note Voice and accountability refers broadly to the extent to which citizens have freedom of expression free press and open elections based on statistical compilation of responses on the quality of governance given by large number of enterprise citizen and expert survey respondents in industrial and developing countries as reported by number of survey institutes think tanks nongovernmental organizations and international organizations

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.604415939238628
WordScorePoS
voice0NN
accountability0NN
extent0NN
freedom0NN
free0JJ
base0NN
statistical0JJ
response0NN
quality0.022550656390892NN
governance0NN
enterprise0.0909486002868787NN
survey0NN
industrial0.318320101004075JJ
develop0VB
country0NN
report0NN
organization0NN
international0.00265959362690358JJ

Countries relative positions on these indicators are subject to margins of error that are clearly indicated

Label: 11, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
country0NN
relative0.0731385760866977JJ

Consequently precise country rankings should not be inferred from these data

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.851744941703599
WordScorePoS
country0NN
datum0.0739231123597559NN

ative assessment to date integrate data collected by separate sources constructed by commercial and advocacy organizations

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.583858127437267
WordScorePoS
integrate0VB
datum0.0739231123597559NN
source0.0109843026967392NN
commercial0JJ
organization0.0422721924574123NN

The authors used the data to provide common empirical basis to assess the relative differences among countries of the quality of their governance

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.562577529522132
WordScorePoS
datum0NN
provide0.0269743071558856VB
common0.055245183797332JJ
basis0NN
relative0.0731385760866977JJ
country0NN
quality0.0136980135278128NN
governance0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.459351730697147
WordScorePoS
datum0.0739231123597559NN
provide0.00601568197638796VB
common0JJ
basis0.048933054487825NN
relative0JJ
country0NN
quality0.00916459792075908NN
governance0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.401678296768986
WordScorePoS
datum0NN
provide0.013214597504793VB
common0JJ
basis0NN
relative0JJ
country0NN
quality0NN
governance0.107490825192354NN

Figure

Label: 9, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
figure0.0602029956716497NN

summarizes information on voice and accountability which refers broadly to the extent to which citizens have freedom of expression free press and open elections using standardized measures for selected countries the same ones as in figure

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

The upper bar for each country represents the country percentile rank in the voice and accountability distribution with the intersecting black rule line representing the confidence interval

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.6250636583135
WordScorePoS
country0NN
represent0VB
voice0NN
accountability0NN
rule0.162386273072618NN
line0NN

The lower bar is the average percentile score for the income category to which the country belongs

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.75658188348148
WordScorePoS
average0.146608885563018NN
income0.166475342664294NN
country0NN
belong0VB

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.400283686218786
WordScorePoS
average0.1656430212089NN
income0NN
country0NN
belong0VB

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.397460238202057
WordScorePoS
average0NN
income0.0442083771593746NN
country0NN
belong0.120266261535276VB

The top of the voice rankings is WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT filled with wealthy countries such as Denmark the United States Ireland and Israel

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

The voice ranking of such countries as South Africa Poland and especially Mali and India exceed their ranks in incomes

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.799291532338376
WordScorePoS
voice0.064698038783335NN
country0NN
south0RB
africa0IN
exceed0VB
income0.166475342664294NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.382574707115933
WordScorePoS
voice0NN
country0NN
south0RB
africa0IN
exceed0VB
income0.110649350233433NN

The opposite is true for China Ethiopia Pakistan and the Russian Federation

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Cambodia and the Republic of Yemen are both quite poor and rank low in freedom of expression

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.7218952537201
WordScorePoS
poor0.150659516460257JJ
freedom0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.515049552447534
WordScorePoS
poor0JJ
freedom0.107490825192354NN

It is clear that there is no oneto one relationship between citizens voice and average income at the country level

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.817108760006805
WordScorePoS
voice0.064698038783335NN
average0.146608885563018NN
income0.166475342664294NN
country0NN
level0NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.448091559115961
WordScorePoS
voice0NN
average0.1656430212089NN
income0NN
country0NN
level0.0415277415054218NN

glimpse of the future Despite improvements over time inequalities among countries in various dimensions remain unacceptably high

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.952084361488443
WordScorePoS
future0NN
improvement0NN
time0.0607862199751165NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
country0NN
dimension0.0488696285210061NN
remain0.0396106020715138VB

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.220477646892222
WordScorePoS
future0NN
improvement0NN
time0NN
inequality0NN
country0NN
dimension0.181686110904276NN
remain0VB

million child deaths are preventable in the sense that these children would not have died if they had been born in rich countries

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.815467404840046
WordScorePoS
child0.10682408961305NN
death0.193573191943949NN
preventable0.0307735781890304JJ
sense0NN
die0.0748292956291867VB
bear0.0814816979556159NN
country0NN

The mean educational attainment level for adults born in in SubSaharan Africa remains at

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.774904600544374
WordScorePoS
educational0JJ
level0.0231525547935232NN
adult0.163013873070017JJ
bear0NN
africa0IN
remains0NNS

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.339161809841761
WordScorePoS
educational0JJ
level0NN
adult0JJ
bear0.0814816979556159NN
africa0IN
remains0NNS

years compared with

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.802638965065347
WordScorePoS
compare0.0414107553022249VB

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.596465163910542
WordScorePoS
compare0.0307735781890304VB

years in Latin America and Caribbean and

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

years in developed countries

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Developing countries also face massive challenges in influencing the global rules and processes that determine outcomes which matter greatly to the wellbeing of their citizens

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.533407188979851
WordScorePoS
develop0VB
country0NN
challenge0NN
influence0NN
global0.00736619084902312JJ
rule0.162386273072618NN
process0NN
determine0VB
outcome0NN

International inequalities in educational attainment have been steadily declining

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.986181832391687
WordScorePoS
international0.00571634317201755JJ
inequality0.635305170773079NN
educational0JJ
decline0.02794560829783NN

This is also true in health one country of birth years ago was much more pertinent to survival than it is today

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.896074228886797
WordScorePoS
health0.191387734041787NN
country0NN
birth0.0748292956291867NN

In this sense opportunities across countries are equalizing

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.764377090252738
WordScorePoS
sense0.064698038783335NN
opportunity0.029046330719385NN
country0NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.448114650565527
WordScorePoS
sense0NN
opportunity0.0549574626423028NN
country0NN

But improvements in life expectancy at birth have reversed since the early because of the devastating effects of HIV AIDS and the difficult circumstances facing citizens of some transition economies

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.87089453348116
WordScorePoS
improvement0NN
life0.0250390290383647NN
expectancy0.0407408489778079NN
birth0.0748292956291867NN
reverse0NN
effect0NN
hiv0.448149338755887NN
aid0.123094312756122NN
circumstance0NN
face0NN
economy0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.303668783923435
WordScorePoS
improvement0.0454743001434393NN
life0NN
expectancy0NN
birth0NN
reverse0NN
effect0.0454743001434393NN
hiv0NN
aid0NN
circumstance0.0368585655748969NN
face0.120405991343299NN
economy0NN

The world distribution of incomes by contrast was becoming secularly more unequal from the early nineteenth century until about the end of World War II

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.687349772244876
WordScorePoS
world0.00351929966767313NN
income0NN
century0.219293228426234NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.522388087891623
WordScorePoS
world0.00276879546803864NN
income0.166475342664294NN
century0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.351681067811817
WordScorePoS
world0.00257642711761688NN
income0.110649350233433NN
century0NN

Since the war international inequality between countries has decreased immensely because of the fast growth in China and India in more recent times and global inequality has leveled off

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.975279438160198
WordScorePoS
international0.00571634317201755JJ
inequality0.635305170773079NN
country0NN
decrease0NN
growth0.11178243319132NN
time0.0607862199751165NN
global0.0133009891881297JJ
level0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.161280031889083
WordScorePoS
international0.00355521737836969JJ
inequality0NN
country0NN
decrease0NN
growth0.208565600657229NN
time0NN
global0.0220597476338268JJ
level0.00761994916892276NN

Because China and India are only two countries intercountry inequality in incomes has continued to increase

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.971754221023082
WordScorePoS
country0NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
income0.166475342664294NN
continue0.0237821918091848VB
increase0.00285817158600878NN

What explains the convergence in health and education and the lack of it in incomes

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.523579885854069
WordScorePoS
health0NN
education0.244244978014045NN
lack0.0255262687343935NN
income0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.425268042959186
WordScorePoS
health0.0405241466500776NN
education0.0121171980355011NN
lack0NN
income0.166475342664294NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.401069069431997
WordScorePoS
health0.191387734041787NN
education0.0152605842304358NN
lack0NN
income0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.441483511323666
WordScorePoS
health0.0377086395700813NN
education0.022550656390892NN
lack0.0565629593551219NN
income0.110649350233433NN

Deaton points out that while gains in income were undoubtedly important for improving nutrition and funding better water and sanitation schemes some countries made progress in reducing child mortality even in the absence of economic growth

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.681832956829947
WordScorePoS
gain0.041835863322702NN
income0NN
improve0.0511916925627245VB
nutrition0NN
water0.556409482163189NN
sanitation0.334686906581616NN
country0NN
progress0NN
reduce0.00936547854413134VB
child0.0255958462813622NN
mortality0NN
economic0JJ
growth0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.340343262164611
WordScorePoS
gain0NN
income0NN
improve0VB
nutrition0NN
water0.0382775468083574NN
sanitation0.0249430985430622NN
country0NN
progress0.0449274832628543NN
reduce0.01675146888405VB
child0.10682408961305NN
mortality0.276962203701274NN
economic0JJ
growth0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.333054212687259
WordScorePoS
gain0NN
income0.166475342664294NN
improve0.0121171980355011VB
nutrition0NN
water0NN
sanitation0NN
country0NN
progress0NN
reduce0.0310356414389692VB
child0.0242343960710022NN
mortality0.0488696285210061NN
economic0.103276847978089JJ
growth0.11178243319132NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.309106045672711
WordScorePoS
gain0NN
income0NN
improve0.0150723186962745VB
nutrition0NN
water0NN
sanitation0NN
country0NN
progress0.0591643007226199NN
reduce0.0055149369084567VB
child0.0452169560888236NN
mortality0NN
economic0.128463821595706JJ
growth0.208565600657229NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.233533522730128
WordScorePoS
gain0NN
income0.0643370113878709NN
improve0.0218534471578307VB
nutrition0.175025014152344NN
water0NN
sanitation0NN
country0NN
progress0NN
reduce0.00799614078871077VB
child0.0546336178945768NN
mortality0NN
economic0JJ
growth0.0252000451111224NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.213387454058238
WordScorePoS
gain0.0664302389559493NN
income0NN
improve0VB
nutrition0NN
water0.186896403054502NN
sanitation0NN
country0NN
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reduce0.022306853314744VB
child0NN
mortality0NN
economic0.0433009429988926JJ
growth0NN

These improvements came from the globalization of knowledge facilitated by local political economic and education conditions

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.472936304068276
WordScorePoS
improvement0NN
knowledge0NN
facilitate0VB
local0.0214106369326177JJ
political0JJ
economic0.128463821595706JJ
education0.0150723186962745NN
condition0.121575732851624NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.471860061621901
WordScorePoS
improvement0NN
knowledge0.0416255041156371NN
facilitate0VB
local0JJ
political0JJ
economic0JJ
education0.244244978014045NN
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.388934407453403
WordScorePoS
improvement0NN
knowledge0NN
facilitate0VB
local0JJ
political0.111637082206855JJ
economic0.0727679293221751JJ
education0.0512260062633133NN
condition0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.367360699861622
WordScorePoS
improvement0NN
knowledge0NN
facilitate0.02794560829783VB
local0JJ
political0.0792212041430275JJ
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education0.0121171980355011NN
condition0NN

A possible explanation for the disconnect between the convergence in education and the divergence in incomes is that education is not translating into human capital and that the rise in per worker schooling explains only small part of the growth in output per worker

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.567205025105142
WordScorePoS
education0.244244978014045NN
income0NN
human0.0152653111258778JJ
rise0NN
worker0NN
schooling0NN
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.559524620499513
WordScorePoS
education0.0150723186962745NN
income0NN
human0.0150723186962745JJ
rise0NN
worker0.121575732851624NN
schooling0NN
growth0.208565600657229NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.367369774056112
WordScorePoS
education0.0121171980355011NN
income0.166475342664294NN
human0JJ
rise0.0237821918091848NN
worker0NN
schooling0NN
growth0.11178243319132NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.344663931857611
WordScorePoS
education0.022550656390892NN
income0.110649350233433NN
human0.011275328195446JJ
rise0.0221298700466866NN
worker0.0454743001434393NN
schooling0NN
growth0.0260040237236563NN

We have seen that the story of income inequality in the world has been story of falling international inequalities and rising within country inequality

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.98736527544058
WordScorePoS
income0.166475342664294NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
world0.00276879546803864NN
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international0.00571634317201755JJ
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For global inequality these two effects are offsetting and the conclusion drawn depends on knowing which effect dominated

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.947260708227536
WordScorePoS
global0.0133009891881297JJ
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The decline in international inequality is largely due to fast income growth in China and South Asia

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.939709600874651
WordScorePoS
decline0.02794560829783NN
international0.00571634317201755JJ
inequality0.635305170773079NN
due0JJ
income0.166475342664294NN
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.210437848132557
WordScorePoS
decline0NN
international0.00355521737836969JJ
inequality0NN
due0JJ
income0NN
growth0.208565600657229NN
south0RB
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But as China and South Asia catch up to the world average their equalizing effect will diminish

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.801154007362591
WordScorePoS
south0RB
asia0IN
world0.00351929966767313NN
average0.1656430212089NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.534295565506439
WordScorePoS
south0RB
asia0IN
world0.00276879546803864NN
average0.146608885563018NN
effect0NN
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And if they continue to develop at similar rates to that in the past two decades the effect of their growth will increase international inequality

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.891212264887059
WordScorePoS
continue0.0237821918091848VB
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rate0.0172128079963482NN
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growth0.11178243319132NN
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inequality0.635305170773079NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.278345038789781
WordScorePoS
continue0.0295821503613099VB
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growth0.208565600657229NN
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Without the offsetting effect of declining international inequality global inequality would also be on the rise again unless inequality within countries starts to decline and Sub Saharan African economies begin to experience healthy growth

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.960384908887486
WordScorePoS
effect0NN
decline0.02794560829783NN
international0.00571634317201755JJ
inequality0.635305170773079NN
global0.0133009891881297JJ
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saharan0JJ
african0IN
economy0NN
experience0NN
healthy0JJ
growth0.11178243319132NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.143567996442533
WordScorePoS
effect0NN
decline0NN
international0.00355521737836969JJ
inequality0NN
global0.0220597476338268JJ
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country0NN
saharan0JJ
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This suggests that the future of world income inequality will increasingly be function of economic growth in Africa and some other low income countries under stress especially if the population growth rates in Africa remain above the world average

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.858323299446014
WordScorePoS
suggest0VB
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.346070603301007
WordScorePoS
suggest0VB
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world0.00172202218602071NN
income0NN
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population0.0428212738652355NN
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Label: 13, with a score of: 0.0932103153593389
WordScorePoS
suggest0VB
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world0.00351929966767313NN
income0NN
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africa0IN
country0NN
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That both population growth and economic growth in Africa have been stunted by the AIDS tragedy is doubly disturbing

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.76978777709328
WordScorePoS
population0.0428212738652355NN
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economic0.128463821595706JJ
africa0IN
stunt0NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.489599144307707
WordScorePoS
population0.0860640399817412NN
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economic0.103276847978089JJ
africa0IN
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On whether today poor countries with stagnant economies will take off some researchers are optimistic

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.622795884282842
WordScorePoS
poor0.150659516460257JJ
country0NN
economy0NN
researcher0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.364737870128246
WordScorePoS
poor0.0339811641917276JJ
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Label: 13, with a score of: 0.347216683993541
WordScorePoS
poor0JJ
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.339791941382897
WordScorePoS
poor0JJ
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Lucas suggests that the countries that have not yet joined the industrial revolution which he Equity from global perspective attributes to socialist planning lawlessness and corruption will become the miracle economies of the future

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.62875697690355
WordScorePoS
suggest0.0602029956716497VB
country0NN
industrial0.318320101004075JJ
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perspective0NN
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corruption0NN
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future0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.547888265179311
WordScorePoS
suggest0VB
country0NN
industrial0JJ
global0.00736619084902312JJ
perspective0NN
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corruption0.322472475577062NN
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Label: 13, with a score of: 0.410236146668721
WordScorePoS
suggest0VB
country0NN
industrial0.0414107553022249JJ
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perspective0.0548233071065585NN
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future0NN

He reckons that the growth rates in these catch up countries may be quite high and that they will also go through similar demographic transition experienced by today developed countries

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.71205957604235
WordScorePoS
growth0.208565600657229NN
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experienced0JJ
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.440400029832954
WordScorePoS
growth0.11178243319132NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.395831739645953
WordScorePoS
growth0.0519476926891779NN
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country0NN
experienced0JJ
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The world population will stop rising and world production growth will stabilize until all countries economically start resembling countries like the United States thanks to free trade and the diffusion of technology

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.507464461829839
WordScorePoS
world0.00172202218602071NN
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production0.0504071033101074NN
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economically0RB
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trade0.0591643007226199NN
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.484555430255457
WordScorePoS
world0.00418824502414673NN
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economically0RB
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.3494692842518
WordScorePoS
world0.00276879546803864NN
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rise0.0237821918091848NN
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growth0.11178243319132NN
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economically0RB
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trade0.0237821918091848NN
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Pritchett who calls this idea advantage to backwardness remains more cautious

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.7803998012427
WordScorePoS
idea0.0731385760866977NN
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Conceding that such rapid gains in productivity are possibility he argues that the cases in which backward countries and especially the most backward of countries actually gain significantly on the leader are historically rare

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

He observes that there are also forces for implosive declines in these countries suggesting that backwardness may also carry severe disadvantages

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

On health in Sub Saharan Africa the UN Population Division projects that life expectancy at birth in Africa will decline over the next to years and then start climbing again reaching years by about

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.71451913953345
WordScorePoS
health0.191387734041787NN
saharan0.0299516555085695JJ
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life0.0250390290383647NN
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.353533569018946
WordScorePoS
health0.0339811641917276NN
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expectancy0NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.349293949095629
WordScorePoS
health0.0405241466500776NN
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population0.0860640399817412NN
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birth0.0396106020715138NN
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These projections assume that HIV AIDS prevalence rates in Africa will peak sometime before and then decline over the next decades

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.951143485452598
WordScorePoS
projection0NN
hiv0.448149338755887NN
aid0.123094312756122NN
prevalence0.0407408489778079NN
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africa0IN
decline0.0351951258079907NN
decade0NN

But the Joint United Nations Programme on HIV AIDS estimated that percent of pregnant females in were HIV positive in Botswana and percent in South Africa

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.972787642961552
WordScorePoS
unite0VB
nation0NN
programme0.00914534810831654NN
hiv0.448149338755887NN
aid0.123094312756122NN
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pregnant0JJ
female0NN
positive0JJ
south0RB
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Thus millions of babies are being infected at birth which is mostly preventable with proper interventions

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.863246536885615
WordScorePoS
million0CD
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preventable0.0307735781890304JJ
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Life expectancy in Africa would not improve much and certainly not soon if these assumed improvements in HIV AIDS prevalence rates do not materialize

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.946372487495737
WordScorePoS
life0.0250390290383647NN
expectancy0.0407408489778079NN
africa0IN
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hiv0.448149338755887NN
aid0.123094312756122NN
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rate0.0433561464459019NN

Because South Asia has almost caught up to the world average in life expectancy SubSaharan Africa will be the only region significantly affecting health inequalities between countries barring major catastrophe elsewhere

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.81660428422392
WordScorePoS
south0RB
asia0IN
world0.00276879546803864NN
average0.146608885563018NN
life0NN
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health0.0405241466500776NN
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Label: 3, with a score of: 0.426259065696874
WordScorePoS
south0RB
asia0IN
world0.00087176582269799NN
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life0.0250390290383647NN
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africa0IN
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major0.0108390366114755JJ

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.23794444779157
WordScorePoS
south0RB
asia0IN
world0.00351929966767313NN
average0.1656430212089NN
life0.00842350130803634NN
expectancy0NN
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significantly0RB
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major0.0291713033871158JJ

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.221457373525696
WordScorePoS
south0RB
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world0.00257343720272548NN
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life0.0184786920895884NN
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So improvements in life expectancy in Sub Saharan Africa are the key to future declines in international health inequalities

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.824982351544977
WordScorePoS
improvement0NN
life0NN
expectancy0NN
saharan0JJ
africa0IN
key0NN
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Label: 3, with a score of: 0.410563678306057
WordScorePoS
improvement0NN
life0.0250390290383647NN
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saharan0.0299516555085695JJ
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Chapter documented within country inequalities in health opportunities for children born to poor or rich parents educated or uneducated mothers in rural or urban areas and so on

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.68734754044737
WordScorePoS
document0NN
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rural0.0330412182586772JJ
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Label: 3, with a score of: 0.520515769535751
WordScorePoS
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health0.191387734041787NN
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Label: 11, with a score of: 0.341717806560341
WordScorePoS
document0NN
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health0.0229054731708393NN
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.241214261733814
WordScorePoS
document0NN
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child0.0546336178945768NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.165864715095328
WordScorePoS
document0NN
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inequality0NN
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child0.0450489732120807NN
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Steep gradients in health opportunities and outcomes exist along these dimensions in many countries

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.516539977105883
WordScorePoS
health0.191387734041787NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.490356082832672
WordScorePoS
health0NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.408835812282957
WordScorePoS
health0.0405241466500776NN
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.335024247283422
WordScorePoS
health0.0571058915334038NN
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A confident assessment of past and future trends in health inequality awaits future research

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.882042440176186
WordScorePoS
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Label: 3, with a score of: 0.312915551050881
WordScorePoS
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If the trends that brought about the catching up of many poor countries outside of Africa continue in health education and incomes the biggest challenges will remain in Africa and some poor countries in other regions

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.601389829732385
WordScorePoS
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Label: 3, with a score of: 0.360942017060216
WordScorePoS
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Label: 4, with a score of: 0.320284491055367
WordScorePoS
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education0.244244978014045NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.307613268594742
WordScorePoS
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Label: 11, with a score of: 0.316203707290548
WordScorePoS
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Growth with equity needs to be revived in stagnating economies around the world and the AIDS tragedy along with the folly of preventable diseases needs to be addressed urgently especially in SubSaharan Africa

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.635498940084433
WordScorePoS
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.606517343675133
WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.307743541313253
WordScorePoS
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These remain the biggest global challenges in development today

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.45774717351533
WordScorePoS
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Label: 11, with a score of: 0.450381298437282
WordScorePoS
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Label: 4, with a score of: 0.342121687466828
WordScorePoS
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Label: 7, with a score of: 0.320081196229175
WordScorePoS
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focus on empowerment Popular participation and equitable transitions at the local level Promoting equity through public action requires changes in the existing configurations of power and influence

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.649294220284345
WordScorePoS
focus0NN
empowerment0.273513903975916NN
participation0.0465610847355851NN
equitable0JJ
local0JJ
level0.0172651853471334NN
promote0.00624783747184187VB
public0.0727679293221751NN
action0.0409315617631NN
require0VB
exist0VB
power0NN
influence0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.316662623216401
WordScorePoS
focus0NN
empowerment0NN
participation0NN
equitable0.017987180284335JJ
local0.0130185595639838JJ
level0.0138997399903163NN
promote0.0100599344419752VB
public0.0390556786919513NN
action0.0109843026967392NN
require0.0211360962287062VB
exist0.0599173571845643VB
power0.036961556179878NN
influence0NN

Because established institutions privilege certain interests and marginalize others making governance institutions more democratic and more equity enhancing calls for reforms that increase the possibilities for effective participation by traditionally marginalized groups

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.840362187335885
WordScorePoS
establish0VB
institution0.274477239401321NN
marginalize0VB
governance0.107490825192354NN
democratic0JJ
enhance0VB
reform0NN
increase0NN
effective0.0482582488828229JJ
participation0.0548954478802642NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.357683929428879
WordScorePoS
establish0VB
institution0.0991236547760315NN
marginalize0.0488696285210061VB
governance0NN
democratic0JJ
enhance0.00994073584907126VB
reform0NN
increase0.00285817158600878NN
effective0.0145231653596925JJ
participation0NN

ocal government is critical domain for the exercise of democratic rights and for making effective public choices

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.540995626423636
WordScorePoS
government0NN
critical0JJ
democratic0JJ
rights0.078760887431929NNS
effective0.02046578088155JJ
public0.0727679293221751NN
choice0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.462121953788406
WordScorePoS
government0.048933054487825NN
critical0.036961556179878JJ
democratic0JJ
rights0NNS
effective0.0219686053934784JJ
public0.0390556786919513NN
choice0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.419292529080547
WordScorePoS
government0NN
critical0JJ
democratic0.0804764811724088JJ
rights0.0347609334428716NNS
effective0.0180650490434051JJ
public0NN
choice0NN

But several factors have conspired against good governance democracy and equity at the local level in much of the developing world

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.84058592066047
WordScorePoS
governance0.107490825192354NN
local0JJ
level0.0610668815653026NN
develop0VB
world0NN

The social and economic power of local elites has often translated into disproportionate influence over the political process and top down insulated and nontransparent decision making structures have made it difficult for ordinary citizens to have voice

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.303232416929371
WordScorePoS
social0.0504071033101074JJ
economic0.128463821595706JJ
power0NN
local0.0214106369326177JJ
influence0NN
political0JJ
process0NN
decision0NN
structure0NN
voice0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.569959954032154
WordScorePoS
social0.101310366625194JJ
economic0.103276847978089JJ
power0NN
local0JJ
influence0NN
political0.0792212041430275JJ
process0NN
decision0.02794560829783NN
structure0NN
voice0.064698038783335NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.466559045642528
WordScorePoS
social0.0285529457667019JJ
economic0.0727679293221751JJ
power0NN
local0JJ
influence0NN
political0.111637082206855JJ
process0.0558185411034276NN
decision0.0393804437159645NN
structure0NN
voice0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.395059430811265
WordScorePoS
social0.112994637345193JJ
economic0.0959899298575892JJ
power0NN
local0JJ
influence0NN
political0JJ
process0NN
decision0.0519476926891779NN
structure0NN
voice0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.31331067224816
WordScorePoS
social0.0188543197850406JJ
economic0.0320338181740375JJ
power0.0454743001434393NN
local0JJ
influence0NN
political0.0368585655748969JJ
process0.0737171311497939NN
decision0NN
structure0NN
voice0NN

Democratic deepening in the developing world often begins with the democratization of local government and that is precisely what two participatory governance initiatives in the Indian state of Kerala and in variety of municipalities in Brazil have tried to do

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.62710170521203
WordScorePoS
democratic0JJ
develop0VB
world0NN
local0JJ
government0NN
participatory0.0811931365363091JJ
governance0.107490825192354NN
initiative0NN
variety0NN

In the state government of Kerala launched what is widely viewed to be the most ambitious initiative for democratic decentralization in India the People Campaign of Decentralized Planning

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.638517194286581
WordScorePoS
government0.048933054487825NN
widely0RB
view0.048933054487825NN
initiative0.036961556179878NN
democratic0JJ
people0.00432344066632653NNS
plan0.0130185595639838NN

The government not only devolved significant resources and authority to Kerala panchayats village councils and municipalities but it also promoted direct citizen participation by mandating village assemblies and citizen committees to plan and budget local development expenditures

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

In Brazil the city of Porto Alegre launched participatory budgeting initiative in that has since been copied in at least municipalities throughout the country

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.979648277737864
WordScorePoS
city0.607697021770652NN
participatory0.055245183797332JJ
initiative0NN
country0NN

The process begins with neighborhood assemblies in which citizens deliberate and set budgeting priorities and ends with citywide budget formulated by delegates directly elected by neighborhood assemblies

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

The success in Porto Alegre has seen its steady diffusion with at least municipalities including São Paulo implementing variations of participatory budgeting in and some estimated municipalities in

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

These two initiatives have much in common

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.714316291243638
WordScorePoS
initiative0.0924643738905717NN
common0JJ

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.475471088276645
WordScorePoS
initiative0NN
common0.0615471563780609JJ

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.426786373375391
WordScorePoS
initiative0NN
common0.055245183797332JJ

They were both conceived as direct and conscious efforts to break with the elite dominated and clientelistic politics of local government by promoting redistributive policies through broad popular participation

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Thus they both shifted the political opportunity structure and involved action to strengthen the agency of subordinate groups

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.541873898451208
WordScorePoS
political0.111637082206855JJ
opportunity0.02046578088155NN
structure0NN
involve0VB
action0.0409315617631NN
strengthen0.0112083245137075VB
agency0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.528260669660016
WordScorePoS
political0.0792212041430275JJ
opportunity0.029046330719385NN
structure0NN
involve0.0488696285210061VB
action0.0145231653596925NN
strengthen0.00795378154685591VB
agency0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.47565540178795
WordScorePoS
political0JJ
opportunity0NN
structure0NN
involve0.0819583881728876VB
action0.0121782716594324NN
strengthen0.0133391461156567VB
agency0.0542519672965169NN

Both have in effect complemented representative forms of democracy with participatory forms of democracy by opening institutions to the direct engagement of civil society

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.863236181992028
WordScorePoS
effect0NN
complement0NN
representative0.107490825192354NN
form0.158049144643351NN
participatory0.0811931365363091JJ
institution0.274477239401321NN
direct0JJ
civil0JJ
society0.118536858482514NN

And both have strengthened public authority and public action by increasing both the depth and scope of democratic decision making

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.601137434635159
WordScorePoS
strengthen0.0112083245137075VB
public0.0727679293221751NN
action0.0409315617631NN
increase0.00402768349408688NN
democratic0JJ
decision0.0393804437159645NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.357237647411185
WordScorePoS
strengthen0.0396437925143789VB
public0.0285977592242194NN
action0NN
increase0NN
democratic0JJ
decision0.0464294830712827NN

Deepening democracy The evidence shows that these initiatives have deepened democracy expanding the range of social actors participating in the political arena

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.732334935779761
WordScorePoS
evidence0.12939607756667NN
initiative0NN
expand0VB
range0NN
social0.101310366625194JJ
actor0NN
political0.0792212041430275JJ

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.33125813616358
WordScorePoS
evidence0NN
initiative0NN
expand0VB
range0NN
social0.0285529457667019JJ
actor0NN
political0.111637082206855JJ

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.324811447770391
WordScorePoS
evidence0NN
initiative0.0924643738905717NN
expand0.0449973847138318VB
range0NN
social0JJ
actor0NN
political0JJ

In Porto Alegre an estimated adults have participated at some point in the budgeting assemblies

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.936515515904963
WordScorePoS
estimate0.0299609328954485NN
adult0.163013873070017JJ

Other cities that have adopted some form of the process have also experienced active participation including municipalities without established civil societies

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.750765358510636
WordScorePoS
city0.607697021770652NN
adopt0.0229054731708393VB
form0NN
process0NN
experienced0JJ
active0JJ
participation0NN
include0VB
establish0VB
civil0JJ
society0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.394646060554093
WordScorePoS
city0NN
adopt0VB
form0.158049144643351NN
process0NN
experienced0JJ
active0JJ
participation0.0548954478802642NN
include0VB
establish0VB
civil0JJ
society0.118536858482514NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.315480097601782
WordScorePoS
city0NN
adopt0.0285529457667019VB
form0.100540298425703NN
process0.0558185411034276NN
experienced0JJ
active0JJ
participation0.0465610847355851NN
include0VB
establish0VB
civil0JJ
society0.0335134328085675NN

In Kerala nearly one in four households attended village assemblies in the first two years of the campaign and despite routinization of the process in subsequent years these assemblies continue to draw large numbers

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.627024859535319
WordScorePoS
household0.0465610847355851NN
attend0VB
process0.0558185411034276NN
continue0.0335134328085675VB

Hundreds of thousands of citizens have undergone training in planning and budgeting and the committees that actually design and budget specific projects have been composed primarily of civil society actors

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.534093904138401
WordScorePoS
hundred0CD
undergo0VB
training0NN
plan0.0144336476662975NN
specific0.0542519672965169JJ
project0.0664302389559493NN
primarily0RB
civil0JJ
society0NN
actor0.0542519672965169NN

redesign of institutional incentives and new mobilizational efforts saw women account for percent of the participants in village assemblies level otherwise unheard of in India and the participation rate of dalits scheduled castes has exceeded their representation in the population

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.582614864155774
WordScorePoS
institutional0JJ
incentive0NN
effort0NN
woman0.221979360474357NN
account0NN
level0.0172651853471334NN
participation0.0465610847355851NN
rate0NN
exceed0VB
representation0.0688661930304451NN
population0.024255976440725NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.360718157173026
WordScorePoS
institutional0.0828215106044499JJ
incentive0NN
effort0.0171695137813101NN
woman0.0102677744436108NN
account0NN
level0.0415277415054218NN
participation0NN
rate0NN
exceed0.0828215106044499VB
representation0NN
population0NN

Moreover both these initiatives have created new cadre of grassroots politicians who either did not exist before delegates in Brazil or who previously had no powers the elected panchayat councilors in Kerala

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

The local public sphere the sine qua non of any vibrant democracy has become more extensive more inclusive and more meaningful

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.505795882892584
WordScorePoS
local0JJ
public0.0727679293221751NN
sphere0.0688661930304451NN
inclusive0JJ
meaningful0JJ

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.486421254587345
WordScorePoS
local0.0194583992186006JJ
public0.0583751976558017NN
sphere0NN
inclusive0.0583751976558017JJ
meaningful0JJ

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.408506894674763
WordScorePoS
local0JJ
public0.0285977592242194NN
sphere0NN
inclusive0.0857932776726581JJ
meaningful0JJ

Extending democracy These initiatives have been marked by the extension of democracy specifically public decision making in arenas of authority previously dominated by private and state elites

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.582623077650614
WordScorePoS
extend0VB
initiative0.036961556179878NN
extension0NN
public0.0390556786919513NN
decision0.0211360962287062NN
private0.0898760357768464JJ

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.52324082626444
WordScorePoS
extend0VB
initiative0NN
extension0NN
public0.0727679293221751NN
decision0.0393804437159645NN
private0.0558185411034276JJ

Municipal budgets in Brazil have long been the preserve of oligarchic parties and narrow sectoral interests

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Panchayats in Kerala have long been little more than passive recipients of top down projects designed and delivered by state bureaucracies

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.806308272400795
WordScorePoS
project0.0664302389559493NN
deliver0.0332151194779746VB

In both cases citizens now have voice in determining how public resources are allocated

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.419506441586365
WordScorePoS
voice0NN
determine0VB
public0.0583751976558017NN
resource0.0449504361447405NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.409189485968311
WordScorePoS
voice0NN
determine0VB
public0.0727679293221751NN
resource0.0280166088658745NN

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.395448453261559
WordScorePoS
voice0NN
determine0.0401833161726777VB
public0NN
resource0.0572167664438909NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.332561500916635
WordScorePoS
voice0.064698038783335NN
determine0VB
public0.0172128079963482NN
resource0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.311194332774963
WordScorePoS
voice0NN
determine0VB
public0.0390556786919513NN
resource0.0375923735942499NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.300097084471314
WordScorePoS
voice0NN
determine0VB
public0NN
resource0.0739147683583536NN

In the most successful participatory budgeting cases the entire budget of the municipality is discussed and approved by delegates acting on priorities established by neighborhood assemblies with citizens deliberating on capital and operational segments of the budget

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

In some municipalities direct participation has been extended to thematic areas such as economic development public transportation education social services and urban planning

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.601092382904422
WordScorePoS
direct0.04477822029736JJ
participation0NN
extend0VB
economic0.0389167984372011JJ
development0.0100241617629471NN
public0.0583751976558017NN
transportation0.04477822029736NN
education0NN
social0.0458109463416786JJ
service0.0269743071558856NN
urban0.27622591898666JJ
plan0.0583751976558017NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.270746434451833
WordScorePoS
direct0JJ
participation0NN
extend0VB
economic0JJ
development0.0279277626235394NN
public0NN
transportation0NN
education0.244244978014045NN
social0JJ
service0NN
urban0JJ
plan0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.218096309130873
WordScorePoS
direct0JJ
participation0NN
extend0VB
economic0.128463821595706JJ
development0.0055149369084567NN
public0NN
transportation0NN
education0.0150723186962745NN
social0.0504071033101074JJ
service0.0197870712294258NN
urban0JJ
plan0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.444865962955838
WordScorePoS
direct0.0396106020715138JJ
participation0NN
extend0.064698038783335VB
economic0.103276847978089JJ
development0.0177346522508396NN
public0.0172128079963482NN
transportation0NN
education0.0121171980355011NN
social0.101310366625194JJ
service0.00795378154685591NN
urban0.0488696285210061JJ
plan0.0344256159926965NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.351913862088045
WordScorePoS
direct0JJ
participation0.0614198493690006NN
extend0VB
economic0.0959899298575892JJ
development0.0164833460638534NN
public0NN
transportation0NN
education0.0225244866060403NN
social0.112994637345193JJ
service0.0443555132287109NN
urban0JJ
plan0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.305180512694502
WordScorePoS
direct0JJ
participation0.0465610847355851NN
extend0VB
economic0.0727679293221751JJ
development0.0124956749436837NN
public0.0727679293221751NN
transportation0NN
education0.0512260062633133NN
social0.0285529457667019JJ
service0.022416649027415NN
urban0JJ
plan0NN

In Kerala panchayats have been given authority for up to percent of the development budget fivefold increase in their resources base

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.478995947063169
WordScorePoS
development0.0164833460638534NN
increase0NN
resource0.0739147683583536NN
base0.0442083771593746NN

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.442063367118249
WordScorePoS
development0.0036456034155327NN
increase0.00470029406779661NN
resource0.0572167664438909NN
base0.058665107245718NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.380222435940999
WordScorePoS
development0.0469463607292177NN
increase0.00432344066632653NN
resource0.0375923735942499NN
base0.017987180284335NN

Panchayats have ranked designed and implemented hundreds of projects year across all development sectors

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.522884046276977
WordScorePoS
implement0.0458229896037954VB
hundred0CD
project0NN
development0.0469463607292177NN
sector0.0459744293658165NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.475041997641721
WordScorePoS
implement0.0203215381458133VB
hundred0CD
project0.0664302389559493NN
development0.022306853314744NN
sector0.0169905820958638NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.337554980823696
WordScorePoS
implement0VB
hundred0CD
project0NN
development0.0330049940546426NN
sector0.0565629593551219NN

These have included housing for the poor small scale irrigation local roads and infrastructure agricultural projects support services in health and education Focus on empowerment and range of projects specifically targeted at women and dalits

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.528467980895019
WordScorePoS
include0VB
housing0NN
poor0JJ
scale0NN
irrigation0NN
local0JJ
road0NN
infrastructure0.024255976440725NN
agricultural0.0558185411034276JJ
project0NN
support0NN
service0.022416649027415NN
health0.0571058915334038NN
education0.0512260062633133NN
focus0NN
empowerment0.273513903975916NN
range0NN
target0NN
woman0.221979360474357NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.388069662966195
WordScorePoS
include0VB
housing0NN
poor0JJ
scale0.0368585655748969NN
irrigation0.0454743001434393NN
local0JJ
road0.0368585655748969NN
infrastructure0.192202909044225NN
agricultural0.0368585655748969JJ
project0NN
support0.0277502419802315NN
service0.0148023490369527NN
health0.0377086395700813NN
education0.022550656390892NN
focus0.030745604615229NN
empowerment0NN
range0.0368585655748969NN
target0NN
woman0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.363081151130261
WordScorePoS
include0VB
housing0NN
poor0.0548141757796873JJ
scale0.0357189919948307NN
irrigation0NN
local0.0155217067874935JJ
road0NN
infrastructure0.0155217067874935NN
agricultural0.250032943963815JJ
project0NN
support0.00896409157262106NN
service0.0143446978608332NN
health0NN
education0NN
focus0NN
empowerment0NN
range0NN
target0.0357189919948307NN
woman0.0546336178945768NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.346507042920207
WordScorePoS
include0VB
housing0.219415728260093NN
poor0.0229054731708393JJ
scale0NN
irrigation0NN
local0.0194583992186006JJ
road0.04477822029736NN
infrastructure0.0194583992186006NN
agricultural0JJ
project0NN
support0.0224752180723703NN
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health0.0229054731708393NN
education0NN
focus0.0373517915079663NN
empowerment0NN
range0NN
target0NN
woman0.0273960270556257NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.265767587489375
WordScorePoS
include0VB
housing0NN
poor0JJ
scale0NN
irrigation0NN
local0JJ
road0NN
infrastructure0NN
agricultural0JJ
project0NN
support0NN
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education0.244244978014045NN
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range0NN
target0.0499016491051341NN
woman0.0610612445035112NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.232663328382081
WordScorePoS
include0VB
housing0NN
poor0JJ
scale0NN
irrigation0NN
local0JJ
road0.0249430985430622NN
infrastructure0NN
agricultural0JJ
project0NN
support0.00625975725959118NN
service0.0100171139310145NN
health0.191387734041787NN
education0.0152605842304358NN
focus0NN
empowerment0NN
range0.0249430985430622NN
target0NN
woman0.0381514605760894NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.210295302393336
WordScorePoS
include0VB
housing0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
scale0NN
irrigation0NN
local0JJ
road0NN
infrastructure0NN
agricultural0JJ
project0NN
support0.0184786920895884NN
service0.0443555132287109NN
health0NN
education0.0225244866060403NN
focus0NN
empowerment0NN
range0NN
target0NN
woman0.0450489732120807NN

Enhancing equity These initiatives have generally had equityenhancing effects

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.615248638916321
WordScorePoS
enhance0.0188084899376888VB
initiative0.0924643738905717NN
effect0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.536935922886876
WordScorePoS
enhance0.0601477977507998VB
initiative0.036961556179878NN
effect0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.392354669244304
WordScorePoS
enhance0.0268922747178632VB
initiative0NN
effect0.0440683498519077NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.35372685654635
WordScorePoS
enhance0.0185001613201543VB
initiative0NN
effect0.0454743001434393NN

In Porto Alegre the best known and most documented case there is clear evidence that expenditures on poorer areas of the city increased steadily with the introduction of participatory budgeting

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.936214866323127
WordScorePoS
document0NN
evidence0NN
expenditure0NN
city0.607697021770652NN
increase0.00323105002784081NN
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participatory0.055245183797332JJ

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.276789346274688
WordScorePoS
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In other large cities with participatory budgeting such as Belém and Belo Horizonte expenditures have also targeted the poor

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.932390743677375
WordScorePoS
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.204817400348666
WordScorePoS
city0NN
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A statistical analysis of all Brazilian municipalities in revealed that participatory budgeting cities had significantly higher expenditures on sectors that affect the poor most directly

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.910355924098564
WordScorePoS
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.220885410788454
WordScorePoS
statistical0JJ
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In Kerala large survey of key respondents found that disadvantaged groups were the prime beneficiaries of targeted schemes

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.654871234969031
WordScorePoS
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Case studies show that panchayats have emphasized the need to bring all households up to certain basic level of well being with heavy emphasis on providing sanitation facilities decent housing and safe water to needy families

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.788678070371827
WordScorePoS
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Label: 11, with a score of: 0.414614460688928
WordScorePoS
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.242389784577069
WordScorePoS
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.18103599627465
WordScorePoS
study0NN
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In both cases there is also strong evidence that the incidence of rent seeking has fallen sharply

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.642031045246449
WordScorePoS
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Label: 3, with a score of: 0.590058864627736
WordScorePoS
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.43314373412573
WordScorePoS
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The greater transparency of the budgeting process alone has raised the transaction costs of predation and patronage

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.522454472746155
WordScorePoS
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.441738472031173
WordScorePoS
transparency0NN
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Empowering the most marginal groups The Kerala and Porto Alegre cases illustrate the value of improving the accessibility transparency and accountability of local government

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.627123302397968
WordScorePoS
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However even when such initiatives have been undertaken and where the economy is otherwise growing the most marginalized social groups widows slum dwellers sex workers the very poor may continue to be excluded

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.434770623787653
WordScorePoS
initiative0NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.393011250679981
WordScorePoS
initiative0NN
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.422986865353637
WordScorePoS
initiative0NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.416161087466846
WordScorePoS
initiative0NN
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Label: 13, with a score of: 0.334334333390796
WordScorePoS
initiative0NN
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The challenge is greater when the extent of commitment from above and mobilization from below is less than in these two cases

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.544992814673865
WordScorePoS
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.503954098324156
WordScorePoS
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Label: 11, with a score of: 0.430734527407588
WordScorePoS
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.41286798889632
WordScorePoS
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As discussed in chapter the most marginal groups are often stuck in more severe forms of an inequality trap situation characterized by dire material circumstances rational expectations about limited mobility opportunities and internalized beliefs regarding the legitimacy and immutability of their circumstances

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.852843195068805
WordScorePoS
form0NN
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.184886115481996
WordScorePoS
form0.158049144643351NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.304886175667766
WordScorePoS
form0.0884167543187491NN
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Breaking out of such inequality traps and improving the terms by which the poor are recognized by others starts with building both capacity to aspire and equally important capacity to engage

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.763735042097271
WordScorePoS
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.470902255167454
WordScorePoS
inequality0NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.16747951994026
WordScorePoS
inequality0NN
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This includes being able to envision and enact alternative futures believing that it is desirable and possible to move out of poverty and being able to more meaningfully participate in forums where decisions affecting their welfare are made

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.764590703979403
WordScorePoS
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.340942139902662
WordScorePoS
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Acquiring capacity to aspire is largely product of developing more broadly accessible and equitable mechanisms for interaction between the poor and elites mechanisms that are reciprocally linked to attaining greater voice in associational interactions

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.766643949512808
WordScorePoS
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.26188867066897
WordScorePoS
acquire0NN
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It thrives in and through group organizing and public dialogue and the opportunities these afford for practice repetition exploration conjecture and refutation

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.510219993525474
WordScorePoS
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.469372998778847
WordScorePoS
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.457389599374977
WordScorePoS
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An association of sex workers in Calcutta slum for example gave its individual members voice public presence and capacity to realize their interests and aspirations that would have been denied them otherwise

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.573760231987644
WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.561580124294515
WordScorePoS
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.355967936312788
WordScorePoS
sex0NN
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.353732277110811
WordScorePoS
sex0NN
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Young female often illegal immigrants contractually bound to work long hours for ruthless bosses and facing sure rejection by their families if they managed to escape and return home the sex workers had virtually no capacity to exercise their voices and realize their interests

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.487401585154697
WordScorePoS
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Persistent efforts to organize the women into union however eventually gave them the confidence and competence to bring about change in condom use by clients

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.747368701233803
WordScorePoS
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.385812401805434
WordScorePoS
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In Indonesia the Kecamatan Development Project KDP which operates in villages across the country seeks to improving the terms of recognition and political agency of marginalized groups

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.48446495823478
WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.445009120030909
WordScorePoS
development0.0177346522508396NN
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.444305726370965
WordScorePoS
development0.022306853314744NN
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The project allocates grant money at the subdistrict level for which several groups of poor villagers two of whom must be women are invited to compete for funds on the basis of the presentation of formal subproject proposal

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.514889805757896
WordScorePoS
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.445701253107022
WordScorePoS
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KDP procedures institutions and norms are largely decentralized they focus on joint public problem solving they invite broad public participation and scrutiny and they occur in more or less continuous and institutionalized way

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.743592077521765
WordScorePoS
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Recent work assessing the impact of KDP on local decision making finds that KDP helps marginalized groups cultivate access to more constructive spaces and procedures for addressing project and nonproject conflicts

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.464787714972428
WordScorePoS
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.509551560650056
WordScorePoS
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The beginning stage of such transformation in which unequal groups build the capacity to peacefully engage one another is humble but nontrivial outcome for development project

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.557721748668945
WordScorePoS
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.498815239720373
WordScorePoS
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.395743220316878
WordScorePoS
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Why does equity matter

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

II PART IN THE FIRST PART OF THIS REPORT WE SUMMARIZED some of the evidence on inequalities in several dimensions

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.972142992817866
WordScorePoS
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.217098331112154
WordScorePoS
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In addition to affecting well being directly such dimensions as health education income voice and access to services shape the opportunities people face for future progress and achievement

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.420258219659756
WordScorePoS
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Label: 4, with a score of: 0.335625355897541
WordScorePoS
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Label: 3, with a score of: 0.311586044655079
WordScorePoS
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.374568173778233
WordScorePoS
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We emphasized the interconnections between these various dimensions

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WordScorePoS
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Not only is there inequality in the distributions of income health status and educational attainment but even more important these indicators tend to be correlated

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 3, with a score of: 0.235943953869727
WordScorePoS
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The rich tend to be both healthier and better educated than others

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WordScorePoS
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The poorest of the poor tend to have the lowest attainment in years of schooling and some of the worst health indicators

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.437828863219436
WordScorePoS
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These correlations generally also extend to public services with the poor gaining access to infrastructure electricity water sanitation and garbage disposal much later than others if at all

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.845265034786502
WordScorePoS
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.299810062637591
WordScorePoS
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.280745040136853
WordScorePoS
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.158726298679552
WordScorePoS
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Because education and wealth help person gain influence in society voice and political power are also generally thought to be correlated with economic well being

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.412572761829514
WordScorePoS
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.349494545653713
WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.461730998034503
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WordScorePoS
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The interaction between these mutually reinforcing economic social and political inequalities perpetuates them across generations

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mutually0RB
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Chapter discussed evidence indicating that percent difference in economic status between two families in one generation tends to imply on average percent to percent difference in the next generation depending on the country and measurement details

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Opportunities clearly are not independent from social and family background or from group identity

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Do such disparities matter

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Are people concerned with the large observed differences in access to education and health and in economic opportunities or merely with the fact that some people have low absolute levels of income years of schooling and access to services

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Should policymakers worry about the unequal opportunities WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT that arise from discrimination unequal access to justice or other unfair processes

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Should an institution like the World Bank whose primary objective is to assist its client countries in eradicating extreme poverty care about inequalities in opportunities outcomes and processes at all

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Opinions on these questions are wideranging

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Support for equal opportunities has long been theme in domestic policy in the United States for instance

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Franklin D

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Roosevelt once said that We know that equality of individual ability has never existed and never will but we do insist that equality of opportunity still must be sought

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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.448910035183604
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Some participants in the consultations for this report were even offended that the question Does inequality matter

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was asked at all because they considered its answer to be Obviously yes

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One participant felt that the very question indicated that we are suffering [from] terrible tolerance to horror

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The next three chapters in this report address the following question should good development policy be concerned with equity

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Equity as discussed in chapter is understood here as the pursuit of equal opportunities and the avoidance of severe deprivation

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Equity is not the same as equality in incomes or in health status or in any other specific outcome

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WordScorePoS
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It is the quest for situation in which personal effort preferences and initiative rather than family background caste race or gender account for the differences among people economic achievements

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A situation in which all institutions are color blind and nonmarket institutions are equally responsive to the rich and the poor

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In which personal and property rights are enforced equally for all

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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.468518293768727
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And in which all have access to the public services and the infrastructure to leverage their productivity and their chances of success in the markets

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The evidence we review here has been assembled in disciplines ranging from economics and history to sociology and anthropology

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On balance this evidence suggests that the pursuit of sustainable long term prosperity is inseparable from broadening of economic opportunities and political voice to most or all of society

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One set of reasons for this arises from failures in capital land and labor markets

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Those failures imply that productive opportunities are not necessarily seized by those with the highest potential returns on their talents or ideas but instead by those with greater wealth better connections or larger land parcels

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This would not happen if markets worked perfectly as resources would flow to those with the most productive investment projects

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But given that markets are not perfect scope arises for efficient redistribution schemes

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Chapter documents cases in which aggregate efficiency could be improved by redistributing wealth or power toward poorer or marginal groups

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Sometimes the evidence of inefficiency is seen in differences in marginal products of capital across firms

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We know that smaller entrepreneurs pay interest rates much higher than the marginal product of capital accruing to other firms

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We know that some farmers allocate effort between plots in way that is not socially efficient because they own one plot and sharecrop in another

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We have experimental evidence suggesting that groups discriminated against perform below their own capacity either because they internalize the stereotype or because they expect to be treated unfairly

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Each of these pieces of carefully researched empirical evidence and others discussed in chapter provide reasons why more equitable economies would in most cases also be more efficient

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Chapter complements this picture by looking at historical evidence suggesting that large inequalities in political rights and power give rise to exclusionary institutions that generally impair development processes

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Greater political equality by contrast establishes limits on predation by the most powerful in each society

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This tends to lead to institutions that level the playing field and provide opportunities for advancement and mobility to those from underprivileged backgrounds

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Such institutions seem to be associated with more sustained growth

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One example comes from contrasting the exploitative Why does equity matter

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

labor practices of the Spanish conquistadores in the mining centers of their American colonies from the sixteenth to the eighteenth century with the greater freedom and opportunity afforded to early settlers in North America

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Another example of inequitable treatment of citizens by the state which was also enormously costly for efficiency was the very high taxation of poor African farmers by state owned or parastatal agricultural marketing boards in Ghana Nigeria and Zambia which prevailed few decades ago

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Equity and fairness matter not only because they are complementary to longterm prosperity

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WordScorePoS
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It is evident that many people if not most care about equity for its own sake

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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.54460849574645
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Some see equal opportunities and fair processes as matters of social justice and thus as an intrinsic part of the objective of development

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In chapter we briefly review arguments and evidence suggesting that most societies exhibit pervasive and long standing concern for equity

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Equity and well being chapter People from many cultures seem to share concern for equity that is reflected in religious and philosophical traditions as well as in legal institutions both national and international

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Religions from Islam to Buddhism and secular philosophical traditions from Plato to Sen have shown both concern for equity and an aversion to absolute deprivation

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In modern legal institutions equity remains fundamental tenet of theory and practice

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That concern with equity is so pervasive across cultures religions and philosophical traditions suggests that fundamental preference for fairness is deeply rooted in human beings

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We review experimental evidence showing that many people place monetary value on fairness and are prepared to give up real money if they feel that process they are involved in is unfair

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Complementing this evidence are data from opinion surveys and surveys on subjective well being suggesting that higher inequality in incomes is on average associated with lower aggregate levels of subjective well being

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An empirical link between income inequality and poverty reduction reinforces the conceptual link between the aversion to inequality and the quest to avoid absolute deprivation

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We highlight the obvious fact that if inequality falls during growth spell poverty generally falls by more than if inequality had not changed

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We also document the less obvious fact that higherincome inequality reduces the effectiveness of future economic growth in reducing absolute income poverty

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Ethical and philosophical approaches to equity Perhaps the oldest manifestations of concern with equity and the avoidance of deprivation come from religion

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WordScorePoS
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Several major world religions endorse the notions of social justice and duty toward the poor

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WordScorePoS
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WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.37515980618206
WordScorePoS
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Buddhists see duty to care for the poor

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.360432689811988
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Christians are to love their neighbor as themselves

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The Hebrew word for charity is the same as the one for justice

Label: 16, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
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One of Islam five pillars of faith is zakat providing for the poor and needy

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.332898804894922
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The World Faiths Development Dialogue states that all religions would see the extreme material poverty in the world today as moral indictment to contemporary humanity and breach of trust within the human family

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And religious views on equity are not restricted to poverty

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WordScorePoS
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Despite varying interpretations and wealth of differences in perspective belief in the fundamental dignity of human beings is theological tenet in most major religions

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While there are important differences in how this belief manifests itself across faiths and even among different groups within the main religions some analysts see growing emphasis on this principle of equality within various faiths

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.7270073980873
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Equity is also key theme in secular philosophical traditions

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Western political and ethical philosophy for instance has long been concerned with distribution

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.38583481651472
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In ancient Greece Plato argued that if state is to avoid

Label: 14, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
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civil disintegration

Label: 17, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
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extreme poverty and wealth must not be allowed to rise in any section of the citizen body because both lead to disasters

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 11, with a score of: 0.279816024305213
WordScorePoS
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Roman law while discriminating against slaves as in all ancient empires also laid the foundations for some of the principles of equality that underlie modern legal principles in many countries

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.405785160716339
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.345689397122997
WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.436443739298884
WordScorePoS
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Those principles applied only to Roman citizens who were free but in modern nations they have become all inclusive

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.309856273077665
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In the modern era Western thinking about social justice was greatly influenced by utilitarianism the idea originally from Equity and well being Bentham that the social goal should be to achieve the greatest happiness for the greatest number

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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.315523258041543
WordScorePoS
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Although utilitarians were essentially unconcerned with the distribution of happiness enjoining societies simply to maximize the sum of utilities across all individuals the approach has earned the somewhat misbegotten reputation at least among economists of having egalitarian implications

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Modern theories of distributive justice have largely moved beyond utilitarianism in part because of its fundamental lack of concern with the distribution of welfare

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Since the early number of influential thinkers including John Rawls Amartya Sen Ronald Dworkin and John Roemer have made separate and important contributions to the way we think about equity

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Although the theories of justice and social choice proposed by each of them are different in important respects they share much in common

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.304922223036615
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Label: 11, with a score of: 0.304157026372872
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All four reject final welfare or utility as the appropriate space in which to judge the fairness of given allocation or system

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WordScorePoS
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All acknowledge the importance of individual responsibility in moving from resources to final outcomes including welfare

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WordScorePoS
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WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.37508144086048
WordScorePoS
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All prefer to see some combination of the set of liberties and resources available to individuals as the right space to form social judgment

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WordScorePoS
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WordScorePoS
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All seem to appeal at some stage to the veil of ignorance argument from Harsanyi that fair allocation of resources should be one that all prospective members of society would agree on before they knew which position they would occupy

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They used this thought experiment to argue that justice implies equality in the allocation to all people of some fundamental concept such as primary goods

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What Rawls Sen Dworkin and Roemer disagree on is what exactly this concept should be

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Rawls argued that social justice required that two basic principles should hold

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.418438856524306
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The first demands the most extensive liberty for each consistent with similar liberty for others

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The second requires that opportunities which he related to the concept of primary goods should be open to all members of society

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WordScorePoS
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Under the Difference Principle he proposes that the chosen allocation should be one that maximizes the oppor tunities of the least privileged group

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WordScorePoS
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The Difference Principle is also known as Rawls maximin principle

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WordScorePoS
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Sen thought that different people might have different conversion factors from resources to actions and welfare

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WordScorePoS
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WordScorePoS
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He argued that all goods including Rawls primary goods are inputs to person functionings the set of actions person performs and of states the person values or enjoys

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For Sen the concept to be equalized across people is the set of possible functionings from which person might be able to choose which he called capability set

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WordScorePoS
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Dworkin and Dworkin argued that justice required that individuals should be compensated for aspects of their circumstances over which they had no control or for which they could not be held responsible

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.529635273850721
WordScorePoS
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.378299192211019
WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.318784076941421
WordScorePoS
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Roemer argued that equity demanded an equal opportunity policy

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He acknowledged that individuals bear some responsibility for their own welfare but also that circumstances over which they have no control affect both how much effort they invest and the level of welfare they eventually attain

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He argued that public action should therefore aim to equalize advantages among people from groups with different circumstances at every point along the distribution of efforts within the group

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Despite important but subtle differences all four thinkers have contributed to shifting the focus of social justice from outcomes to opportunities

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We also take leaf from Nozick who is usually regarded as an anti egalitarian

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He argued that theories of justice generally placed an excessive emphasis on outcomes such as welfare utility or even capabilities

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Nozick reminded us of the obvious fact that outcomes are the result of processes and argued that the correct focus for theory of justice should be on the fairness of processes

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If particular allocation departs from fair initial state and is arrived at through fair process it should be judged to be fair even if it is unequal

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WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT BOX

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simple representation of different concepts of equity The figure below adapted from figure in Atkinson and Stiglitz can help summarize what this report hopes to achieve and what it does not

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Suppose that society consists of only two groups of people and and let the axes of the diagram depict the opportunity levels of each group

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Opportunity sets are obviously multidimensional but imagine for simplicity that the various dimensions can be meaningfully conflated onto an opportunity index for type and for type s

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Now let the curved frontier AC represent the opportunity possibility frontier for this society

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It reflects the maximum opportunity indexes that types and can obtain given the available resources and technology

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The fact that it does not monotonically decline from to incorporates the fact that when type individuals have very limited opportunities type people can also benefit from an expansion in type opportunity sets and vice versa

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Over some ranges improvements in the opportunity sets of the poorest types can be Pareto improving that is can benefit everyone

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Put another way there is scope for efficient growth promoting redistribution

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Eventually however tradeoffs set in

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Between points and if society is on the opportunity possibility frontier any improvement in type sets must imply reduction in type sets and vice versa

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Points and are translations to this opportunity space of the welfare concepts associated with Bentham Rawls and full egalitarianism respectively

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If this society wished to maximize the sum of total opportunity indexes it should aim for point B

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If instead it wanted to maximize the opportunity set of the poorest group it should aim for point R

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If it insisted on absolute equality of opportunities it must lie along the degree ray through the origin and would aim for point E

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What this report will not attempt to do is to advise countries on which of these criteria of social justice or indeed any other an individual society should aim for

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Each of these three points can be defended by logical arguments under different degrees of aversion to inequalities in opportunity

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What the report will try to do is as follows Describe the inequalities in opportunity actually observed in society at point such as

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Investigate whether some of those disparities which in this diagram greatly favor type might actually be preventing the society from enjoying higher aggregate opportunities and welfare on another space

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Suggest possible policy and institutional approaches that might help move from points such as to whichever point society considers equitable on the opportunity possibility frontier

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Atkinson and Stiglitz refer in turn to figure in Buchanan

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In Atkinson and Stiglitz utilities are used instead of opportunities

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While that distinction is fundamental in almost every respect it is not for the point being made here namely that different social justice criteria imply different optimal allocations

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An illustration of choices between the opportunities of two types of people Maximize sum of total opportunity Maximize opportunities for group Absolute equality of opportunities between group and group Opportunity possibility frontier The concept of equity we adopt in this report draws on the contribution of these four thinkers by focusing on opportunities rather than on welfare utilities or some other corresponding individual outcome

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We do not dwell on the fine distinctions between Sen capabilities and Roemer opportunities

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As in both frameworks we acknowledge the central role of individual responsibility and effort in determining outcomes

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We focus on eliminating disadvantage from circumstances that lie largely beyond the control of the individual but that powerfully shape both the outcomes and the actions in pursuit of those outcomes

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These different perspectives on what social optimum should be can shed light on an important point for this report one previously mentioned in chapter

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It is not for us to advise countries on what exactly constitutes an equitable distribution in their societies

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Instead our role is to point out the inequities we can observe and to note that reducing them may be perfectly consistent with perhaps even necessary for greater efficiency and prosperity in the long run

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Box

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draws on classic public economics discussion of these philosophical perspectives to illustrate this point

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Equity and legal institutions The concerns with equity that feature in moral religious and ethical debates around the world are reflected in real world institutions through which people have sought to promote justice throughout history

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Chief among them are legal institutions where equity has distinct and specific interpretation as set of principles intended to guide and correct the application of the law

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According to Kritzer how these principles merge with the written codified law varies across legal traditions but the overarching concept of fairness is crosscultural reality

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And in practice definitions often refer directly to shared values within particular community as well as to the belief that people should not suffer before the law as result of having unequal bargaining power

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In Western philosophy Aristotle is regarded as the first author to distinguish between justice and equity

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He found that Equity and well being courts enact justice according to law that is by applying general rules that give an equitable solution in the majority of cases

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In some cases however the results are inequitable

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Equity then rectifies law in so far as the law is defective on account of its generality

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WordScorePoS
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The Romans operationalized this concept of equity by distinguishing between ius strictum strict law and ius aequum equity with the latter used to interpret the law and to complement it

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WordScorePoS
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Equity prevailed in instances of conflict between the two

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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.389772902742215
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In modern legal traditions equity remains fundamental tenet of legal theory and practice

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In common law systems equity was historically separate branch of law administered by Chancery Courts

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WordScorePoS
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The Judicature Act of in the United Kingdom fused the courts of law and equity doing away with bifurcated system of courts while establishing the supremacy of equity in cases of conflict between equity and common law

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WordScorePoS
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Equitable principles based on conscience and fairness have continued to develop and be applied in common law jurisdictions around the world to mitigate harsh and unfair results produced by the application of formal legal rules in specific cases

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WordScorePoS
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In general the use of equity as source of law in the civil law traditions of the European continent is more limited than in the common law tradition

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WordScorePoS
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Civil legal codes which have their origins in the Enlightenment era aim at integrating equity into formal law that is by designing laws aimed at producing equitable results

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WordScorePoS
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Equity is seen as part of law and therefore should be achieved by applying the formal rules

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WordScorePoS
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Provisions in the codes that refer explicitly to equity however are used to correct inequitable results of the application of other formal provisions in way which is similar to common law systems

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Both the common law and the codified systems from the continental European tradition have spread to countries around the globe and equity is now global legal concept

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WordScorePoS
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The legal systems of Latin American countries such as Argentina Brazil and Mexico have approaches to equity similar to those in continental Europe while Bangladesh India and Nigeria follow the common law tradition

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WordScorePoS
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Importantly equity is not purely Western concept it can be found in legal systems around the world including those that do not share European origins

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.487927922244505
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For example the distinction between justice and equity is also found in Islamic law in which the former is referred to as adala the latter as insaf and in Jewish law with the distinction between din and tsedek

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WordScorePoS
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In today more integrated world legal understanding of equity has also influenced international law serving as the basis for individualized justice creating specific principles of fairness and reasonableness or being identified with international equitable standards for sharing resources and redistributing wealth

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Perhaps the foremost example of the development of international principles of equity is the international human rights regime

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.400174220959204
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International human rights law is rooted in commitment to protect the equal and inalienable rights of all members of the human family which itself is considered to be the foundation of freedom justice and peace in the world

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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.536612851881991
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Charter laid the foundation for contemporary international human rights law

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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.625011664325785
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The preamble to the Charter states that the U

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community reaffirms faith in fundamental human rights in the dignity and worth of the human person in the equal rights of men and women and of nations large and small

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Label: 4, with a score of: 0.301780130076531
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The Universal Declaration of Human Rights adopted by the General Assembly of the United Nations on December is viewed as the source of inspiration and

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.382409018040543
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.361704414070841
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the basis for the U

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in making advances in standard setting as contained in the existing human rights instruments

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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.40415202572001
WordScorePoS
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Label: 11, with a score of: 0.395007822372581
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.345635230555996
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It has become highly visible and widely recognized statement of moral ethical and political standards at the international level

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The contemporary international human rights regime comprises broad array of legal instruments many operating under the aegis of the United Nations

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.698487217922276
WordScorePoS
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There also exist regional human rights regimes in Europe European Convention on Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms the Americas Inter American Convention on Human Rights and Africa African Charter on Human and Peoples Rights

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In WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT addition the laws of some other international entities such as the European Union incorporate human rights norms Treaty of Nice Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union

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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.582665437798764
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Together these different legal instruments are aimed at protecting people against variety of harms including potential harm by their governments and at committing to the fundamental principles of equality and nondiscrimination

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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.442357319878616
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.323185047412473
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People prefer fairness Different cultures and religions around the world may differ in important respects but they all share concern with equity and fairness

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This suggests something quite fundamental about the value human beings place on them

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.533030704454474
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.522679587650694
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.481230233721602
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A fairly recent body of literature in economics sheds some light on these shared human preferences

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It has amassed convincing evidence on individuals preferences for fairness based on controlled laboratory experiments

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In these experiments individuals interact through behavioral games and play with real money under tightly controlled conditions

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Results from such experiments over the last or so years reject the hypothesis in standard economic models that all individuals are exclusively concerned with their material self interest

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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.542723030688596
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Label: 6, with a score of: 0.387548349579261
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This new body of literature is large and rich but its main findings can be summarized under three main points

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Figure

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The distribution of observed offers in ultimatum games Offers and rejections in high and low stakes ultimatum games Frequency

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Low monetary stake pie High monetary stake

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pie

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Accept Reject

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Accept Reject

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First some people behave in ways clearly inconsistent with the rational self interest hypothesis

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According to Fehr and Fischbacher such people regularly display willingness to engage in two specific forms of behavior altruistic rewarding propensity to reward others for cooperative normabiding behavior and altruistic punishment propensity to impose sanctions on others for norm violations

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These behaviors are observed in contexts in which it is possible to rule out individual motivation by desire for reciprocity or concern with reputation

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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.525257916360821
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While reciprocity and reputation are important additional determinants of cooperation in many settings the experimental evidence suggests that they are not the only factors that influence cooperative behavior

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classic example is the Ultimatum Game in which player the Proposer is asked to suggest one time division of certain sum of money say between himself or herself and another player

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The second player the Responder has the power to simply accept or reject the offer

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Acceptance leads to the implementation of the offer whereas rejection leads to zero payoff for both players

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Monetary stakes are for keeps and neither player knows the real identity of the other player

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Both players are told that they will never play with each other again

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In such circumstances standard game theory predicts unique equilibrium the Proposer should offer the smallest possible amount and the Responder should accept since penny is higher than zero

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But time and again across hundreds of experiments in highly heterogeneous cultural circumstances and with amounts ranging from one hour to one week local wages observed offers are substantially higher and even so rejections are often observed

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In many experiments the modal most frequent offer is actually at percent

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Figure

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depicts the actual distribution of observed offers in two sets of Ultimatum Games one with lower monetary stakes bar on the left and one with higher bar on the right

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Proportion of pie offered Source Based on data from Hoffman McCabe and Smith

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Second people are heterogeneous

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A sizable fraction of people in most experiments Equity and well being to percent engage in altruistic giving or altruistic punishment expending real resources in way that is unambiguously costly to them without any hope of eliciting personal gain if the other person is rationally self interested

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But the behavior of others majority is consistent with rational self interest

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This is brought out quite starkly in the Dictator Game variant of the Ultimatum Game in which the responder is purely passive

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The second player is simply Receiver with no right to reject the offer

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Positive offers in the Dictator Game are observed but they are both rarer and smaller on average than under the Ultimatum Game in which the Responder may always at cost punish the Proposer

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WordScorePoS
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WordScorePoS
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These results point to the importance of investigating more precisely the conditions under which people exhibit self interested and other regarding behavior

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WordScorePoS
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Third fair minded people can behave selfishly and self interested people can behave fairly

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Behaviors depend on the rules of the game

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WordScorePoS
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In games where competitive pressures are introduced mimicking competitive market players tend to quickly converge toward actions consistent with self interested behavior

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An example is an Ultimatum Game with Multiple Proposers

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WordScorePoS
multiple0.048933054487825JJ

If the Responder can choose among various offers from different Proposers with all nonchosen Proposers receiving zero observed behavior quickly tends to the Nash equilibrium

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In the Nash equilibrium all Proposers offer the full amount or very close to it despite this giving rise to very unequal distribution in which the Responder captures the entire surplus and all Proposers get zero

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

In other settings however such as the Repeated Public Good Game with Punishment in Fehr and Gachter even small number of altruistic players can sustain cooperative equilibrium

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

These findings have been interpreted to suggest that sizable fraction of human beings in most societies care not only about their own individual opportunities and outcomes but also about fairness

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WordScorePoS
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There is also broad agreement that fairness consists of concern for others although some authors suggest that it is other people intentions toward us that attract reward or punishment while others think it is their outcomes or opportunities

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These studies do not usually distinguish explicitly between outcomes or opportunities

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Label: 7, with a score of: 0.374211029626092
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But it is possible to speculate that the aversion to very unequal payoff distributions in the Ultimatum Game arises from the arbitrary and unequal nature of the endowments or power implicit in the initial allocation of the roles of Proposer and Responder

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WordScorePoS
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The experiments also show that people views of fairness are complex and do not depend entirely on outcomes

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Some players are prepared to punish noncooperators until they receive less than other people because of what they perceive to be the unfairness of their actions in the process of the game

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This is consistent with our emphasis that observed distributions of certain outcomes such as incomes are the product of complex processes and that the primary interest for those concerned with equity is not the outcome but the fairness of the processes they participate in over their lifetimes

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WordScorePoS
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WordScorePoS
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An income distribution in which some people are much richer than others because given similar chances they have worked much harder may be regarded as fair

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WordScorePoS
income0.166475342664294NN
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WordScorePoS
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.390081448177374
WordScorePoS
income0.110649350233433NN
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But the same income distribution may be regarded as unfair if it was generated by the richer group having access to much better schools or jobs solely because of the wealth or connections of their parents

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WordScorePoS
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WordScorePoS
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WordScorePoS
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separate but related point is made by the social identity literature in social psychology see Haslam and epidemiology see Marmot which suggests that individual behavior and performance are heavily conditioned by group identity for example caste gender occupation by whether those groups are seen as subordinate to others for example doctors and patients the status accorded minority ethnic communities and by whether the boundaries among groups are regarded as permeable for example the rules shaping whether and how employees get promotions immigrants become citizens and so on

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WordScorePoS
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WordScorePoS
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Civil servants with low status and few upward mobility prospects suffer from higher mortality

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WordScorePoS
civil0JJ
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.448731001305563
WordScorePoS
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.37245974135141
WordScorePoS
civil0.0978661089756501JJ
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Employees of low status firms undergoing merger more readily WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT BOX

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WordScorePoS
status0NN
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Capuchin monkeys don like inequity either

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Research is under way on the roots of human altruism and the aversion to inequity whether cultural or genetic

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 11, with a score of: 0.375483617054163
WordScorePoS
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But there is some evidence that aversion to unfairness is not just human

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WordScorePoS
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In recent article in Nature Monkeys Reject Unequal Pay Brosnan and De Waal report the results of exchange experiments with brown capuchin monkeys Cebus apella

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WordScorePoS
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The animals were given token that they could immediately redeem for food by returning it to the experimenter

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.440026459812752
WordScorePoS
animal0NN
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They were placed in adjoining compartments with visual and vocal contact

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

In the baseline treatment the equality test both specimens received quarter of cucumber slice for each token exchanged

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.666259847817584
WordScorePoS
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Label: 3, with a score of: 0.514781849642819
WordScorePoS
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In one treatment of interest the inequality test the first monkey received grape while the second was given the usual slice of cucumber

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WordScorePoS
treatment0.0330412182586772NN
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That capuchin monkeys prefer grapes to cucumber slices had apparently been amply established by previous research

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The results were striking

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WordScorePoS
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Monkeys failed to exchange their tokens for food around percent of the time under the equality test but this rate rose to more than percent under the inequality test

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WordScorePoS
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WordScorePoS
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WordScorePoS
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.20117380009185
WordScorePoS
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The refusal rate rose even further to more than percent under an alternative treatment known as effort control

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WordScorePoS
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In this treatment the first monkey received grape with no effort with no need to pick up token and exchange it for food

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.467852583820632
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Although few monkeys were used these differences were all statistically significant

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In both treatments refusal rates increased over time as the experiment was repeated never more than once day many times

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Interestingly only female monkeys completed these tests as earlier experiments suggested that male capuchins are much less sensitive to the distribution of rewards

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The authors concluded that tolerant species with well developed food sharing and cooperation such as capuchins [

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] may hold emotionally charged expectations about reward distribution and social exchange that lead them to dislike inequity Brosnan and De Waal

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Source Brosnan and De Waal

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accept the new organizational structure because it benefits them individually while members of the higher status firm are more likely to resist change and act collectively in terms of their premerger identity

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The experimental and subjective wellbeing literature in economics and social psychology remind us that there is something deep and fundamental about our taste for fairness and equity

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Such human altruism argue Fehr and Fischbacher in Nature may be what accounts for the much greater complexity of cooperative patterns in human societies compared with those of other animals box

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Equity it seems matters intrinsically and fundamentally for human beings

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Whatever the exact form of the true motives of individuals the main implication for this report from this large body of experimental evidence is that good proportion of people in most societies appear to dislike unfair outcomes and behaviors so much so that they are prepared to pay to punish those responsible for them

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If people are prepared to pay real money to reduce inequalities that appear unfair to them in laboratory it is plausible that large inequalities in real life also reduce their well being particularly if the inequalities are not seen to reflect only differences in effort or merit

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This provides support for the statistical association that the subjective wellbeing literature finds between income inequality and self reported happiness subject we now turn to

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WordScorePoS
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Income inequality and subjective well being To what extent do the concerns with equity shown in tightly controlled lab experiments also manifest themselves in the attitudes feelings and opinions of regular people

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WordScorePoS
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recent study of labor strife in the United States suggests that worker perceptions of whether they have been treated fairly or unfairly can affect their efforts and thus product quality in important ways box

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Other studies investigate the associations between the narrower concept of income inequality and measures of subjective wellbeing

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One recent study of European nations and the United States relies on individual answers to the following question Taken all together how would you say things are these days would you say that you are very happy pretty happy or not too happy

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Based on the variation in answers to this question across European countries and U

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states and on objective incomeinequality measures Alesina Di Tella and MacCulloch find that individuals have lower tendency to report themselves happy when inequality is high even after controlling for individual income large set of personal characteristics and year and country [

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] dummies

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One reason that inequality might make people less happy even when controlling for absolute income levels is that it violates their sense of fairness

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WordScorePoS
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It may be that at least some people feel that very unequal income distribution reflects unfair processes and unequal distributions of opportunity

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WordScorePoS
people0.00571634317201755NNS
income0.166475342664294NN
reflect0VB
process0NN
opportunity0.029046330719385NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.579243517962946
WordScorePoS
people0.0186171553883251NNS
income0.110649350233433NN
reflect0VB
process0.0737171311497939NN
opportunity0.0135141354781442NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.311171465467739
WordScorePoS
people0.0257736572183839NNS
income0.0643370113878709NN
reflect0VB
process0NN
opportunity0.0261926252110933NN

A study of Latin American countries by Latinobarometro reputable Chile based opinion survey company asked respondents the following question Do you think that the income distribution in your country is very fair fair unfair or very unfair

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.612594956750289
WordScorePoS
study0NN
country0NN
base0NN
survey0.064698038783335NN
company0NN
income0.166475342664294NN
fair0JJ

On Equity and well being BOX

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Worker perceptions of unfairness product quality and consumer safety Do people change their behavior because they feel they are being treated unfairly when they are outside laboratories

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.616709387765303
WordScorePoS
worker0NN
product0NN
quality0NN
consumer0NN
safety0NN
people0.0121096729954788NNS
change0.402565546215053NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.561807433411315
WordScorePoS
worker0NN
product0.0199423462679015NN
quality0.0203215381458133NN
consumer0.325511803779102NN
safety0NN
people0.0119834723221875NNS
change0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.329491992262047
WordScorePoS
worker0.121575732851624NN
product0.0591643007226199NN
quality0.030144637392549NN
consumer0NN
safety0NN
people0.0106656521351091NNS
change0NN

And if so is this likely to have any serious consequence

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

A study of industrial relations in Illinois United States suggests that the answer to both questions is yes

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.926424117619894
WordScorePoS
study0NN
industrial0.318320101004075JJ
relation0NN
unite0VB
suggest0.0602029956716497VB

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.304054807575213
WordScorePoS
study0NN
industrial0.0414107553022249JJ
relation0NN
unite0.0828215106044499VB
suggest0VB

Since the Firestone tire plants had adhered to the industrywide bargain with labor unions

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.748206529326909
WordScorePoS
plant0.132205049555723NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.663465891717563
WordScorePoS
plant0.117231723668544NN

But when negotiations for new contract began in Bridgestone Firestone proposed deviating from the industrywide bargain in way that worsened the terms for labor at time when company profits were increasing

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.619689941793362
WordScorePoS
negotiation0.036961556179878NN
contract0NN
worsen0VB
term0.149793392961411NN
time0NN
company0NN
increase0.00432344066632653NN

The company proposed moving from an to hour shift that would rotate between days and nights

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.838001240079116
WordScorePoS
company0NN
move0NN
day0.25973846344589NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.482281467066601
WordScorePoS
company0.108503934593034NN
move0.0409791940864438NN
day0NN

It also proposed cutting pay for new hires by percent

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.716802227540819
WordScorePoS
cut0.120266261535276NN
pay0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.469424914631931
WordScorePoS
cut0NN
pay0.078760887431929NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.414359176134199
WordScorePoS
cut0NN
pay0.0695218668857431NN

The union at the plant in Decatur Illinois called strike and shortly after the strike the company hired replacement workers

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.54043181111714
WordScorePoS
plant0.132205049555723NN
company0NN
worker0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.496980967925913
WordScorePoS
plant0NN
company0NN
worker0.121575732851624NN

Labor strife at the Decatur plant closely coincided with lower product quality and defective tires

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.573187598913327
WordScorePoS
plant0.132205049555723NN
product0NN
quality0.0109267235789154NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.545622713731438
WordScorePoS
plant0.117231723668544NN
product0.0190167691930804NN
quality0NN

In August Firestone announced the recall of million ATX and AT tires most of them on the Ford Explorer

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

government reported that Firestone tires under investigation were related to deaths and more than injuries

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.893592578432689
WordScorePoS
government0NN
report0.0307735781890304NN
related0.0125195145191824JJ
death0.193573191943949NN
injury0.0407408489778079NN

The most common source of failure of the recalled tires was tread separation sudden detachment of the rubber tread from the steel belts that caused the tire to blow out

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Krueger and Mas compare the number of claims of defective tires in the Decatur plant with those from the two other North American plants where Firestone ATX tires were produced Joliette Quebec and Wilson North Carolina

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.767147329396061
WordScorePoS
compare0VB
plant0.132205049555723NN
north0RB
produce0.0357189919948307VB

Neither of these two plants experienced labor strife in the relevant period

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.701690841263367
WordScorePoS
plant0.132205049555723NN
experienced0JJ
relevant0JJ
period0.0440683498519077NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.466663870329683
WordScorePoS
plant0.117231723668544NN
experienced0JJ
relevant0JJ
period0NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.331396967427505
WordScorePoS
plant0NN
experienced0JJ
relevant0.0832510082312742JJ
period0NN

Tires produced during the labor dispute at Decatur had much higher failure rate than those produced at Joliette or Wilson although before and after the dispute period the rate of claims was similar for tires manufactured in Decatur and in the other plants

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.581936173235416
WordScorePoS
produce0.0357189919948307VB
rate0.0155217067874935NN
period0.0440683498519077NN
manufacture0NN
plant0.132205049555723NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.5027257116146
WordScorePoS
produce0VB
rate0NN
period0NN
manufacture0.240811982686599NN
plant0NN

The pattern suggests that changes in technology cannot explain the rise in complaints against Decatur tires because no such rise occurred in Joliette or Wilson

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.685430460830309
WordScorePoS
pattern0.0414107553022249NN
suggest0VB
technology0NN
rise0.120914181920259NN
occur0VB

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.449019691033449
WordScorePoS
pattern0NN
suggest0.0602029956716497VB
technology0.0810848128688654NN
rise0.0221298700466866NN
occur0VB

Nor does it appear that the lack of experience of replacement workers is to blame

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.704720820039551
WordScorePoS
lack0.0252035516550537NN
experience0NN
worker0.121575732851624NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.489904153914467
WordScorePoS
lack0.0565629593551219NN
experience0NN
worker0.0454743001434393NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.361675349295645
WordScorePoS
lack0.0753297582301286NN
experience0NN
worker0NN

There was spike in claims in the first half of around the average percent of respondents regarded the distribution in their countries to be either unfair or very unfair

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.787012367932485
WordScorePoS
average0.146608885563018NN
regard0.064698038783335NN
country0NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.616937219432661
WordScorePoS
average0.1656430212089NN
regard0NN
country0NN

In of the countries surveyed fewer than percent of respondents answered fair or very fair

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Such results may be particularly strong in Latin America which is one of most unequal regions in the world but they are not exclusive to that region

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.780835141980962
WordScorePoS
result0NN
strong0JJ
region0.184259548107002NN
world0.00257343720272548NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.527189958537801
WordScorePoS
result0NN
strong0JJ
region0.124837844401518NN
world0.00087176582269799NN

A recent analysis of several OECD countries which are less unequal than most developing countries was based on data from the International Social Survey Program

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.534603763397473
WordScorePoS
oecd0NN
country0NN
develop0VB
base0NN
datum0NN
international0.00571634317201755JJ
social0.101310366625194JJ
survey0.064698038783335NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.505935698733172
WordScorePoS
oecd0NN
country0NN
develop0VB
base0.0442083771593746NN
datum0NN
international0.00531301439641424JJ
social0.112994637345193JJ
survey0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.460227059914778
WordScorePoS
oecd0.108503934593034NN
country0NN
develop0VB
base0.0199423462679015NN
datum0NN
international0.0023966944644375JJ
social0.0169905820958638JJ
survey0NN

To construct proxy measure of cross national attitudes toward income inequality Osberg and Smeeding ask what number of different professions should earn and what they do earn

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.9513829916059
WordScorePoS
measure0NN
national0.00886732612541978JJ
income0.166475342664294NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN

They find that citizens of most highincome countries appear on average to have similar attitudes toward inequality generally thinking that less well paid professions should be paid more and that betterpaid professions should be paid less

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.915607564331663
WordScorePoS
country0NN
average0.146608885563018NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
pay0.02794560829783NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.175182037334131
WordScorePoS
country0NN
average0.1656430212089NN
inequality0NN
pay0NN

Osberg and Smeeding findings reinforce the view that the normative preferences people have over distributions are time concessions were demanded and the old contract expired which occurred before replacement workers were hired

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.675790202088475
WordScorePoS
reinforce0VB
view0NN
people0.0106656521351091NNS
time0NN
demand0NN
contract0.0804764811724088NN
occur0VB
worker0.121575732851624NN

Through early when many replacement workers were making tires there were no excess claims in the Decatur plant

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.602991067270647
WordScorePoS
worker0NN
plant0.132205049555723NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.5545104453481
WordScorePoS
worker0.121575732851624NN
plant0NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.534697293412214
WordScorePoS
worker0NN
plant0.117231723668544NN

It was not until the end of when many returning strikers were working side by side with replacement workers that the excess number of claims became high

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.72138307558425
WordScorePoS
return0NN
worker0.121575732851624NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.637808716061659
WordScorePoS
return0.107490825192354NN
worker0NN

On the basis of this and much broader analysis it appears likely that the chemistry between the recalled strikers and the replacement workers or the cumulative impact of labor strife in general created the conditions that led to the production of many defective tires

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.727948279844966
WordScorePoS
basis0NN
chemistry0NN
recall0NN
worker0.121575732851624NN
impact0NN
create0.0695218668857431VB
condition0.121575732851624NN
lead0.0504071033101074NN
production0.0504071033101074NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.50515900688353
WordScorePoS
basis0NN
chemistry0NN
recall0NN
worker0NN
impact0.0866018859977851NN
create0.0234335422829798VB
condition0.0409791940864438NN
lead0.0169905820958638NN
production0.118934074671047NN

The authors of the study recommend that the reader exercise caution in extending our results to other settings our paper provides detailed case study of only one firm in one unique period of its history Krueger and Mas

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

At least in that instance it appears that perceptions of unfair treatment influenced worker attitudes and product quality and the safety of consumers

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.814473829731011
WordScorePoS
treatment0NN
influence0.0542519672965169NN
worker0NN
product0.0199423462679015NN
quality0.0203215381458133NN
safety0NN
consumer0.325511803779102NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.408925563231752
WordScorePoS
treatment0NN
influence0NN
worker0.121575732851624NN
product0.0591643007226199NN
quality0.030144637392549NN
safety0NN
consumer0NN

Source Krueger and Mas

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.73415387760794
WordScorePoS
source0.0613562156822703NN

based not exclusively on actual incomes but also on processes and that some differences in outcomes may be considered fair for example because of differences in effort while others are not for example because of differences in opportunities

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.499631078835276
WordScorePoS
base0NN
actual0JJ
income0.166475342664294NN
process0NN
outcome0.0330412182586772NN
fair0JJ
effort0NN
opportunity0.029046330719385NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.540984448231306
WordScorePoS
base0NN
actual0JJ
income0.110649350233433NN
process0.0737171311497939NN
outcome0.030745604615229NN
fair0JJ
effort0.0188543197850406NN
opportunity0.0135141354781442NN

People are clearly aware that income differentials can provide incentives for work and investment including in education if they are coupled with opportunities for reward to those actions

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.485073706632341
WordScorePoS
people0.00571634317201755NNS
income0.166475342664294NN
differential0.0488696285210061JJ
provide0VB
incentive0NN
investment0.0202620733250388NN
include0VB
education0.0121171980355011NN
opportunity0.029046330719385NN
action0.0145231653596925NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.427024591888051
WordScorePoS
people0.00720147981137839NNS
income0NN
differential0JJ
provide0.0100202166857628VB
incentive0NN
investment0NN
include0VB
education0.244244978014045NN
opportunity0NN
action0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.365761327537072
WordScorePoS
people0.0186171553883251NNS
income0.110649350233433NN
differential0JJ
provide0.00740117451847634VB
incentive0NN
investment0.0377086395700813NN
include0VB
education0.022550656390892NN
opportunity0.0135141354781442NN
action0.0135141354781442NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.323626419864365
WordScorePoS
people0.0371911007748996NNS
income0.0442083771593746NN
differential0JJ
provide0.0295703421524739VB
incentive0NN
investment0.0376648791150643NN
include0VB
education0.0225244866060403NN
opportunity0NN
action0.0269969049497485NN

This comes across very clearly from the answers to one question in the latest wave of the World Value Survey which split respondents around the world more or less evenly into those who felt that income inequality was too high and those who felt it was too low

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.981636706021104
WordScorePoS
world0.00276879546803864NN
survey0.064698038783335NN
income0.166475342664294NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN

Income inequality and incentives What do people say

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.968033314101449
WordScorePoS
income0.166475342664294NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
incentive0NN
people0.00571634317201755NNS

The World Value Survey is multicountry survey of individuals designed and sponsored by the Inter university Consortium for Political and Social Research based at the University of Michigan

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.704368019181957
WordScorePoS
world0.00276879546803864NN
survey0.064698038783335NN
individual0.064698038783335JJ
inter0NN
university0NN
political0.0792212041430275JJ
social0.101310366625194JJ
research0NN
base0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.415289068428544
WordScorePoS
world0.00257642711761688NN
survey0NN
individual0JJ
inter0.0602029956716497NN
university0NN
political0.0368585655748969JJ
social0.0188543197850406JJ
research0.104016094894625NN
base0NN

The survey aims to enable cross national comparison of values and norms on wide variety WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT Figure

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.502807290339333
WordScorePoS
survey0NN
aim0.0249900578719309NN
enable0.0499801157438617VB
national0.0134132459226336JJ
value0.036961556179878NN
wide0JJ
variety0NN
world0.00418824502414673NN
development0.0469463607292177NN
report0NN
figure0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.443907383253366
WordScorePoS
survey0NN
aim0NN
enable0VB
national0.0164833460638534JJ
value0NN
wide0JJ
variety0.120266261535276NN
world0.00257343720272548NN
development0.0164833460638534NN
report0NN
figure0NN

Views on inequality from the World Values Survey Income more equal or more unequal

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.960327764305947
WordScorePoS
view0NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
world0.00276879546803864NN
value0NN
survey0.064698038783335NN
income0.166475342664294NN
equal0.0202620733250388JJ

Frequency percent Views on inequality vary by income Mean score lower values indicate preference for more equality

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.944417364397313
WordScorePoS
view0NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
income0.166475342664294NN
value0NN
equality0.0330412182586772NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.210694548356445
WordScorePoS
view0NN
inequality0NN
income0NN
value0NN
equality0.18624433894234NN

Preference for inequality Income deciles Source Inglehart and others

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.97130252572115
WordScorePoS
inequality0.635305170773079NN
income0.166475342664294NN
source0NN

Note Author calculations are based on data for the years

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.707106873242932
WordScorePoS
base0.017987180284335NN
datum0.0739231123597559NN

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.45133683464175
WordScorePoS
base0.058665107245718NN
datum0NN

Preference for inequality ranges from agreement with Income should be more equal to agreement with We need larger income differences as incentives for individual effort

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.924761910631934
WordScorePoS
inequality0.635305170773079NN
range0NN
agreement0.02794560829783NN
income0.166475342664294NN
equal0.0202620733250388JJ
incentive0NN
individual0.064698038783335JJ
effort0NN

of topics

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Four main waves have been fielded since the early s

Label: 2, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
field0.0583416713841148NN

In the latest wave Inglehart and others asked representative samples of people in countries to place their views on scale from to where implied agreement with the statement that Incomes should be made more equal and implied agreement with the statement that We need larger income differences as incentives for individual effort

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.659487402841781
WordScorePoS
representative0NN
people0.00571634317201755NNS
country0NN
view0NN
scale0NN
agreement0.02794560829783NN
income0.166475342664294NN
equal0.0202620733250388JJ
incentive0NN
individual0.064698038783335JJ
effort0NN

Figure

Label: 9, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
figure0.0602029956716497NN

suggests considerable polarization on views about inequality

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.991480732358477
WordScorePoS
suggest0VB
view0NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN

The median answer is suggesting no strong agreement with the two polar statements

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.720331941824874
WordScorePoS
suggest0.0602029956716497VB
strong0.0454743001434393JJ
agreement0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.523598453884257
WordScorePoS
suggest0VB
strong0.0488696285210061JJ
agreement0.02794560829783NN

Yet almost percent of all respondents were in strong agreement with each of the two extreme views represented by scores of and

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.873609117860112
WordScorePoS
strong0JJ
agreement0NN
extreme0.294526332970048JJ
view0NN
represent0VB

Figure

Label: 9, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
figure0.0602029956716497NN

shows positive correlation between the score which is negatively correlated with inequality aversion and respondent own income

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.972539444505637
WordScorePoS
positive0JJ
negatively0RB
inequality0.635305170773079NN
income0.166475342664294NN

This is consistent with the evidence on the importance of relative incomes for welfare if you are richer you are less inclined to favor reduction in income inequalities than if you are poorer

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.961216794647278
WordScorePoS
consistent0JJ
evidence0.12939607756667NN
relative0JJ
income0.166475342664294NN
welfare0NN
reduction0.0475643836183697NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN

The World Values Survey results caution against any preconceived notion that income inequality is viewed everywhere as inherently undesirable

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.972769053963172
WordScorePoS
world0.00276879546803864NN
value0NN
survey0.064698038783335NN
result0NN
income0.166475342664294NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
view0NN

When asked about income differences explicitly as incentives for individual effort many people seem quite happy to have them and indeed to want more of them although this tendency was less pronounced in countries with either very low or very high levels of inequality

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.953459879939659
WordScorePoS
income0.166475342664294NN
incentive0NN
individual0.064698038783335JJ
effort0NN
people0.00571634317201755NNS
country0NN
level0NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN

The balance of the survey evidence suggests that although inequality in incomes seems to be associated with lower aggregate levels of subjective well being there is considerable heterogeneity in opinions about whether it should be reduced or not

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.973219347378142
WordScorePoS
survey0.064698038783335NN
evidence0.12939607756667NN
suggest0VB
inequality0.635305170773079NN
income0.166475342664294NN
level0NN
reduce0.0310356414389692VB

Poorer people and people in countries at very high or very low inequality levels seem likelier to favor reduction in inequality

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.985714720649549
WordScorePoS
people0.00571634317201755NNS
country0NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
level0NN
reduction0.0475643836183697NN

People recognize that some inequality is important to generate incentives for investment and effort however when asked about relative pay scales across professions they would on average prefer smaller differentials

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.896990785290179
WordScorePoS
people0.00571634317201755NNS
recognize0VB
inequality0.635305170773079NN
generate0VB
incentive0NN
investment0.0202620733250388NN
effort0NN
relative0JJ
pay0.02794560829783NN
scale0NN
average0.146608885563018NN
differential0.0488696285210061JJ

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.197628462490007
WordScorePoS
people0.0121096729954788NNS
recognize0VB
inequality0NN
generate0VB
incentive0NN
investment0NN
effort0.0171695137813101NN
relative0JJ
pay0NN
scale0NN
average0.1656430212089NN
differential0JJ

While in Latin America for instance majority judges the income distribution to be unfair there is no worldwide agreement that income disparities should be reduced everywhere

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.816080189001899
WordScorePoS
majority0.0792212041430275NN
income0.166475342664294NN
worldwide0RB
agreement0.02794560829783NN
disparity0.0488696285210061NN
reduce0.0310356414389692VB

This is generally consistent with view that what matters for ethical judgment is not income but fair processes and opportunities

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.533593429901704
WordScorePoS
consistent0JJ
view0NN
income0.166475342664294NN
fair0JJ
process0NN
opportunity0.029046330719385NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.54003116501016
WordScorePoS
consistent0JJ
view0NN
income0.110649350233433NN
fair0JJ
process0.0737171311497939NN
opportunity0.0135141354781442NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.367328081870739
WordScorePoS
consistent0JJ
view0NN
income0.0643370113878709NN
fair0.0440683498519077JJ
process0NN
opportunity0.0261926252110933NN

Income inequality and poverty reduction To the philosophical and legal arguments for equity and to the survey based and experimental evidence that fairness matters intrinsically to people we add final argument high levels of inequality make it more difficult to reduce poverty

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.905861105336259
WordScorePoS
income0.166475342664294NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
poverty0.05809266143877NN
reduction0.0475643836183697NN
legal0JJ
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base0NN
evidence0.12939607756667NN
people0.00571634317201755NNS
add0VB
final0JJ
level0NN
reduce0.0310356414389692VB

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.342930403934087
WordScorePoS
income0.0442083771593746NN
inequality0NN
poverty0.269969049497485NN
reduction0NN
legal0JJ
survey0NN
base0.0442083771593746NN
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add0VB
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level0.0113874611101829NN
reduce0.0164833460638534VB

First we highlight the fact that if inequality falls during growth spell poverty generally falls by more than it would have if growth had been distribution neutral

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.792740315209556
WordScorePoS
inequality0.635305170773079NN
fall0NN
growth0.11178243319132NN
poverty0.05809266143877NN
neutral0JJ

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.423092772803306
WordScorePoS
inequality0NN
fall0NN
growth0.208565600657229NN
poverty0.0722601961736204NN
neutral0JJ

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.323216430072237
WordScorePoS
inequality0NN
fall0NN
growth0.0519476926891779NN
poverty0.269969049497485NN
neutral0JJ

Second we document the finding that the effectiveness of future economic growth in reducing absolute income poverty declines with initial income inequality

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.847501335769872
WordScorePoS
document0NN
future0NN
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growth0.11178243319132NN
reduce0.0310356414389692VB
income0.166475342664294NN
poverty0.05809266143877NN
decline0.02794560829783NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.340728367799288
WordScorePoS
document0NN
future0NN
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poverty0.269969049497485NN
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.270340184077823
WordScorePoS
document0NN
future0NN
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poverty0.0722601961736204NN
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If inequality falls poverty falls more during spells of growth By raising the incomes and consumption of people across the distribution of income economic growth is the main driver of poverty reduction in the developing world

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.707650977114743
WordScorePoS
inequality0.635305170773079NN
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poverty0.05809266143877NN
growth0.11178243319132NN
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income0.166475342664294NN
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people0.00571634317201755NNS
economic0.103276847978089JJ
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.418612968802811
WordScorePoS
inequality0NN
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poverty0.269969049497485NN
growth0.0519476926891779NN
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income0.0442083771593746NN
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economic0.0959899298575892JJ
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world0.00257343720272548NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.410081932754414
WordScorePoS
inequality0NN
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poverty0.0722601961736204NN
growth0.208565600657229NN
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economic0.128463821595706JJ
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.226470855923365
WordScorePoS
inequality0NN
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poverty0.0121782716594324NN
growth0NN
raise0.0332151194779746NN
income0NN
consumption0.332151194779746NN
people0.0119834723221875NNS
economic0.0433009429988926JJ
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develop0VB
world0.00464349782489754NN

The negative association between the average annual rate of change in poverty and Equity and well being the average annual rate of growth in mean incomes is immediately clear from figure

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.604489727547311
WordScorePoS
average0.1656430212089NN
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change0.402565546215053NN
poverty0NN
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income0NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.546946347503776
WordScorePoS
average0.146608885563018NN
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change0NN
poverty0.05809266143877NN
growth0.11178243319132NN
income0.166475342664294NN
figure0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.407010691258918
WordScorePoS
average0NN
rate0.0639932865717261NN
change0NN
poverty0.269969049497485NN
growth0.0519476926891779NN
income0.0442083771593746NN
figure0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.231322398212408
WordScorePoS
average0NN
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poverty0.0722601961736204NN
growth0.208565600657229NN
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suggesting that countries experiencing higher rates of economic growth can be expected to reduce poverty much faster than those that grow more slowly

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.616328347094332
WordScorePoS
suggest0VB
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poverty0.269969049497485NN
faster0RBR
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.512970245102943
WordScorePoS
suggest0VB
country0NN
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economic0.128463821595706JJ
growth0.208565600657229NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.447575893115419
WordScorePoS
suggest0VB
country0NN
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rate0.0172128079963482NN
economic0.103276847978089JJ
growth0.11178243319132NN
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The slope of the simple regression line

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.579827491146828
WordScorePoS
simple0.048933054487825JJ
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.487001603284348
WordScorePoS
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is the average total elasticity of poverty with respect to economic growth

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.543244520014696
WordScorePoS
average0.146608885563018NN
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poverty0.05809266143877NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.540844915078705
WordScorePoS
average0NN
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poverty0.269969049497485NN
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.529692928417918
WordScorePoS
average0NN
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poverty0.0722601961736204NN
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economic0.128463821595706JJ
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Label: 13, with a score of: 0.257810192554303
WordScorePoS
average0.1656430212089NN
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poverty0NN
respect0.0335649154577099NN
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It implies that without controlling for any characteristics of the country percentage point growth in country mean income can be expected to reduce the incidence of poverty in that country by about

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.621327395804889
WordScorePoS
control0.0614198493690006NN
characteristic0JJ
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percentage0NN
growth0.0519476926891779NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.514082160882088
WordScorePoS
control0NN
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growth0.11178243319132NN
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.400675669738983
WordScorePoS
control0NN
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growth0.208565600657229NN
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.304747930724415
WordScorePoS
control0NN
characteristic0JJ
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growth0.0252000451111224NN
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percentage points

Label: 2, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
percentage0.0583416713841148NN

This powerful association between economic growth and poverty reduction is one of the central stylized facts of development economics

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.587952826946771
WordScorePoS
economic0.0959899298575892JJ
growth0.0519476926891779NN
poverty0.269969049497485NN
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.561443635380508
WordScorePoS
economic0.128463821595706JJ
growth0.208565600657229NN
poverty0.0722601961736204NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.458098025468805
WordScorePoS
economic0.103276847978089JJ
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Its qualitative nature has long been understood and it has recently been quantified by Ravallion and Chen Dollar and Kraay and others

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.957653992251812
WordScorePoS
nature0.162755901889551NN
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Indeed the growth poverty relationship is probably more powerful than surprising it merely reflects the fact that on average the growth in the incomes of the poor is similar to the growth of mean incomes figure

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.623903161463533
WordScorePoS
growth0.11178243319132NN
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average0.146608885563018NN
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.49880619839344
WordScorePoS
growth0.208565600657229NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.475173191493439
WordScorePoS
growth0.0519476926891779NN
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income0.0442083771593746NN
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Label: 13, with a score of: 0.11837945019417
WordScorePoS
growth0NN
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average0.1656430212089NN
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Put differently aggregate economic growth is on average distributionneutral

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.653162429463438
WordScorePoS
economic0.103276847978089JJ
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.608665557237854
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economic0.128463821595706JJ
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Label: 13, with a score of: 0.299146588249532
WordScorePoS
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There is however considerable variation around those averages

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.748820377957753
WordScorePoS
average0.1656430212089NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.662772993984523
WordScorePoS
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About half the total variation in poverty reduction is accounted for by economic growth see the explanatory power of the underlying regression for figure

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.580475584829902
WordScorePoS
total0NN
poverty0.0722601961736204NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.516052411945216
WordScorePoS
total0NN
poverty0.269969049497485NN
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economic0.0959899298575892JJ
growth0.0519476926891779NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.477638783499203
WordScorePoS
total0NN
poverty0.05809266143877NN
reduction0.0475643836183697NN
account0.0172128079963482NN
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The other half must reflect changes in the underlying distribution of relative incomes

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.764244761309199
WordScorePoS
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income0.166475342664294NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.392687072248384
WordScorePoS
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income0.110649350233433NN

This happens because the incidence of economic growth its distributional pattern can vary dramatically across countries

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.732321683227075
WordScorePoS
incidence0NN
economic0.128463821595706JJ
growth0.208565600657229NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.467296219204835
WordScorePoS
incidence0NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.321449468808554
WordScorePoS
incidence0NN
economic0.0959899298575892JJ
growth0.0519476926891779NN
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Two countries with similar rates of growth in mean incomes can have very different growth profiles across the population

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.654797094973804
WordScorePoS
country0NN
rate0.0172128079963482NN
growth0.11178243319132NN
income0.166475342664294NN
population0.0860640399817412NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.610511111028535
WordScorePoS
country0NN
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As one would expect reductions in inequality at given growth rate add redistribution component to the growth component leading to faster overall poverty reduction

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.783941561499378
WordScorePoS
expect0VB
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growth0.11178243319132NN
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poverty0.05809266143877NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.472415543478528
WordScorePoS
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.333482406120529
WordScorePoS
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The contribution of inequality reduction alongside growth is illustrated by comparison of the growth incidence curves GIC for Tunisia and Senegal figure

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.889733581331947
WordScorePoS
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.409445657760727
WordScorePoS
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In both countries the average annual growth rate in the Figure

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.656389197984025
WordScorePoS
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.496727712159027
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Label: 13, with a score of: 0.394501675736209
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Growth is the key to poverty reduction

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.63629077920588
WordScorePoS
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.555071674349272
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.429784217201751
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Change in log poverty headcount index BUL LVA PER MDA ARG HUN MLI POL LAO CIV PAR VEN SVN TTO COL MNG ZWE BGD LSO ROM GEO NERSLV BDI VNM NGA UGA BWA HRVRUS NIC GHA ZAF ZMB MDG UZB ETH EGY BRA BOL BFA PHLHON MEX LKAIND KEN TURPAN MAU ECU GMB DZA LTU SEN CMR GUY CHN URY ALB CRI AZE EST IDN PAK MAR YEM

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.771382826812403
WordScorePoS
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.517305791593946
WordScorePoS
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stat

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

IRN TUN JAM LYS GTM THA KAZ Change in log mean consumption or income between surveys Source Authors calculations

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.613118456355382
WordScorePoS
change0.402565546215053NN
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source0.0123065238088614NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.490869457199698
WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.341639452314671
WordScorePoS
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.218444317868883
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Figure

Label: 9, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
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and on average growth is distribution neutral Change in log Gini index LVA BUL

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.830461323665834
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.377650054748968
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.304827619157896
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stat

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CRI NGA POL ZWE BDI EST SVN BWA LAO CHN BGD ARG GHA HUN HRV MDA LSO PHL MEX ECU PER NIC COL SLV CIV EGY GMB MDG BRAIDN HON VNM URYMARAZE PAN GEO IND LYS LTU PAK ROM ALBUGACMR TTO RUS THA ZAF IRN TUR VEN TUN BFA MNG JAM DZA ZMB GUY YEM MAU KAZ BOL KEN SEN ETH UZB PAR NER MLI GTM LKA Change in log mean consumption or income between surveys Source Authors calculations

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.613118456355382
WordScorePoS
change0.402565546215053NN
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source0.0123065238088614NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.490869457199698
WordScorePoS
change0NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.341639452314672
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.218444317868883
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mean incomes from the household survey was close to

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.833626925325707
WordScorePoS
income0.166475342664294NN
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.349111206295625
WordScorePoS
income0.110649350233433NN
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percent

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

In Tunisia where the distribution of this growth was relatively more beneficial to the poor the headcount index of poverty fell by percent from percent to percent

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WordScorePoS
growth0.0519476926891779NN
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.454460231011223
WordScorePoS
growth0.208565600657229NN
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This corresponds to an annual rate of decline in poverty of

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.870245835561973
WordScorePoS
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percent

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

In Senegal where growth was less pronounced for the bottom half than for the upper half of the distribu WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT Figure

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.622859771943053
WordScorePoS
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world0.00172202218602071NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.568544504003699
WordScorePoS
growth0.11178243319132NN
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.3515116799564
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figure0.0602029956716497NN

The national growth incidence curves for Tunisia and Senegal Tunisia Senegal Annual growth rate Annual growth rate Growth incidence curve Growth rate in mean Growth rate in mean Growth incidence curve Population percentile Population percentile Sources Ayadi and others for Tunisia and Azam and others for Senegal

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.749692814464104
WordScorePoS
national0.0055149369084567JJ
growth0.208565600657229NN
incidence0NN
rate0NN
population0.0428212738652355NN
source0NN

These are two of country case studies from the World Bank Operationalizing Pro Poor Growth Study

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.600895881562922
WordScorePoS
country0NN
study0NN
world0.00172202218602071NN
bank0NN
operationalize0.049270765107907VB
poor0JJ
growth0.208565600657229NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.475007594024017
WordScorePoS
country0NN
study0NN
world0.00257343720272548NN
bank0NN
operationalize0VB
poor0.150659516460257JJ
growth0.0519476926891779NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.418182175148216
WordScorePoS
country0NN
study0NN
world0.0124838525528648NN
bank0.0881366997038154NN
operationalize0VB
poor0.0548141757796873JJ
growth0.0252000451111224NN

tion poverty fell by only percent from percent to percent corresponding to an annual rate of poverty reduction of

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.863192503747232
WordScorePoS
poverty0.269969049497485NN
fall0NN
rate0.0639932865717261NN
reduction0NN

percent

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Although some of this difference is due to the fact that the actual growth rate was marginally higher in Tunisia

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.635371214810978
WordScorePoS
due0JJ
actual0JJ
growth0.208565600657229NN
rate0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.511453610345057
WordScorePoS
due0.0519476926891779JJ
actual0JJ
growth0.0519476926891779NN
rate0.0639932865717261NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.392969228098848
WordScorePoS
due0JJ
actual0JJ
growth0.11178243319132NN
rate0.0172128079963482NN

percent versus

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

percent in Senegal much of it is clearly due to the different patterns in the incidence of growth which is evident in figure

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.661238890018235
WordScorePoS
due0JJ
pattern0NN
incidence0NN
growth0.208565600657229NN
figure0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.354396371281009
WordScorePoS
due0JJ
pattern0NN
incidence0NN
growth0.11178243319132NN
figure0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.334135844510853
WordScorePoS
due0.0234335422829798JJ
pattern0.0819583881728876NN
incidence0NN
growth0NN
figure0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.329391179989007
WordScorePoS
due0.0519476926891779JJ
pattern0NN
incidence0NN
growth0.0519476926891779NN
figure0NN

This contribution of declines in inequality to poverty reduction holds more generally

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.897911377265161
WordScorePoS
contribution0NN
decline0.02794560829783NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
poverty0.05809266143877NN
reduction0.0475643836183697NN
hold0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.315263121854881
WordScorePoS
contribution0NN
decline0NN
inequality0NN
poverty0.269969049497485NN
reduction0NN
hold0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.212935142994276
WordScorePoS
contribution0NN
decline0NN
inequality0NN
poverty0NN
reduction0NN
hold0.18234260265061NN

According to Datt and Ravallion decomposition of changes in poverty into growth and inequality components has been widely applied

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.880203090838575
WordScorePoS
poverty0.05809266143877NN
growth0.11178243319132NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
widely0RB

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.351911396292736
WordScorePoS
poverty0.269969049497485NN
growth0.0519476926891779NN
inequality0NN
widely0RB

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.306991794233742
WordScorePoS
poverty0.0722601961736204NN
growth0.208565600657229NN
inequality0NN
widely0RB

Redistribution components are usually smaller than growth components and because inequality often rises they often have the wrong sign

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.947546561510898
WordScorePoS
growth0.11178243319132NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
rise0.0237821918091848NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.256367052952038
WordScorePoS
growth0.208565600657229NN
inequality0NN
rise0NN

But when inequality falls this helps reduce poverty

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.890132744007497
WordScorePoS
inequality0.635305170773079NN
fall0NN
help0NN
reduce0.0310356414389692VB
poverty0.05809266143877NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.351972494594358
WordScorePoS
inequality0NN
fall0NN
help0NN
reduce0.0164833460638534VB
poverty0.269969049497485NN

second and separate point is that the power of growth to reduce poverty declines with higher initial income inequality

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.882011659383313
WordScorePoS
power0NN
growth0.11178243319132NN
reduce0.0310356414389692VB
poverty0.05809266143877NN
decline0.02794560829783NN
income0.166475342664294NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.327433591099428
WordScorePoS
power0NN
growth0.0519476926891779NN
reduce0.0164833460638534VB
poverty0.269969049497485NN
decline0NN
income0.0442083771593746NN
inequality0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.245048354133679
WordScorePoS
power0NN
growth0.208565600657229NN
reduce0.0055149369084567VB
poverty0.0722601961736204NN
decline0NN
income0NN
inequality0NN

A reduction in inequality today therefore also tends to have future impact on the effectiveness of even distribution neutral growth in reducing poverty

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.854411343040853
WordScorePoS
reduction0.0475643836183697NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
future0NN
impact0NN
neutral0JJ
growth0.11178243319132NN
reduce0.0310356414389692VB
poverty0.05809266143877NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.327154697845331
WordScorePoS
reduction0NN
inequality0NN
future0NN
impact0NN
neutral0JJ
growth0.0519476926891779NN
reduce0.0164833460638534VB
poverty0.269969049497485NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.276825330370316
WordScorePoS
reduction0NN
inequality0NN
future0NN
impact0NN
neutral0JJ
growth0.208565600657229NN
reduce0.0055149369084567VB
poverty0.0722601961736204NN

This occurs because the shape of most income distributions means that the growth elasticity of poverty reduction tends to be smaller in more unequal countries

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.680149281778813
WordScorePoS
occur0VB
income0.0442083771593746NN
means0.120266261535276NNS
growth0.0519476926891779NN
poverty0.269969049497485NN
reduction0NN
country0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.536850363661703
WordScorePoS
occur0VB
income0.166475342664294NN
means0NNS
growth0.11178243319132NN
poverty0.05809266143877NN
reduction0.0475643836183697NN
country0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.392695001447966
WordScorePoS
occur0VB
income0NN
means0NNS
growth0.208565600657229NN
poverty0.0722601961736204NN
reduction0NN
country0NN

Put another way because the initial distributions of income are different the rate of poverty reduction in two countries with the same distribution neutral growth rate may well be different

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.639095843790423
WordScorePoS
income0.0442083771593746NN
rate0.0639932865717261NN
poverty0.269969049497485NN
reduction0NN
country0NN
neutral0JJ
growth0.0519476926891779NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.541091495262339
WordScorePoS
income0.166475342664294NN
rate0.0172128079963482NN
poverty0.05809266143877NN
reduction0.0475643836183697NN
country0NN
neutral0JJ
growth0.11178243319132NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.363226781134202
WordScorePoS
income0NN
rate0NN
poverty0.0722601961736204NN
reduction0NN
country0NN
neutral0JJ
growth0.208565600657229NN

Perhaps the most flexible way to capture the variation in growth elasticity with inequality across the sample of countries available for these exercises is simply to compute the total and the partial growth elasticity of poverty reduction for each single country in single spell per country and to plot it against the initial Gini coefficient figure

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.814651339388454
WordScorePoS
capture0NN
growth0.11178243319132NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
country0NN
total0NN
poverty0.05809266143877NN
reduction0.0475643836183697NN
single0JJ
figure0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.413345944143087
WordScorePoS
capture0NN
growth0.208565600657229NN
inequality0NN
country0NN
total0NN
poverty0.0722601961736204NN
reduction0NN
single0JJ
figure0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.315770462268986
WordScorePoS
capture0NN
growth0.0519476926891779NN
inequality0NN
country0NN
total0NN
poverty0.269969049497485NN
reduction0NN
single0JJ
figure0NN

positive relationship is apparent for both partial and total elasticity concepts for all four poverty line poverty measure combinations

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.873866130225554
WordScorePoS
positive0JJ
total0NN
poverty0.269969049497485NN
line0NN
measure0.103895385378356NN

The absolute value of the growth elasticity of poverty reduction falls as countries become more unequal both for the total and for the partial concepts

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.60404425098692
WordScorePoS
growth0.0519476926891779NN
poverty0.269969049497485NN
reduction0NN
fall0NN
country0NN
total0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.526941242484789
WordScorePoS
growth0.208565600657229NN
poverty0.0722601961736204NN
reduction0NN
fall0NN
country0NN
total0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.408003218103576
WordScorePoS
growth0.11178243319132NN
poverty0.05809266143877NN
reduction0.0475643836183697NN
fall0NN
country0NN
total0NN

The slope of the line fitted through panel suggests that percentage point increase in the Gini coefficient is on average associated with decline of

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.723898314141201
WordScorePoS
line0NN
panel0.0548233071065585NN
suggest0VB
percentage0NN
increase0.0145316075945746NN
average0.1656430212089NN
decline0.0236803262479443NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.496480563743096
WordScorePoS
line0NN
panel0NN
suggest0VB
percentage0NN
increase0.00285817158600878NN
average0.146608885563018NN
decline0.02794560829783NN

in the absolute value of the elasticity

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Given that the average elasticity is

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.748820377957753
WordScorePoS
average0.1656430212089NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.662772993984523
WordScorePoS
average0.146608885563018NN

this is not small effect

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.718120873858835
WordScorePoS
effect0.0454743001434393NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.695918393583776
WordScorePoS
effect0.0440683498519077NN

The fact that very unequal countries with Gini coefficient near

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

have total elasticity near zero in this sample should not be overemphasized

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.62423395560285
WordScorePoS
total0.0528748274225028NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.553307254365265
WordScorePoS
total0.0468670845659596NN

It is caused in part by increases in inequality in some of these countries during the recorded growth spells

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.948029375028839
WordScorePoS
cause0NN
increase0.00285817158600878NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
country0NN
record0NN
growth0.11178243319132NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.272642667947743
WordScorePoS
cause0NN
increase0.00711043475673939NN
inequality0NN
country0NN
record0NN
growth0.208565600657229NN

This is evident from the fact that the partial elasticity which controls for changes in distribution does not reach zero for the same sample

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Growth still contributes to poverty reduction even in highinequality countries

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.633152022129522
WordScorePoS
growth0.0519476926891779NN
contribute0VB
poverty0.269969049497485NN
reduction0NN
country0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.552333562777195
WordScorePoS
growth0.208565600657229NN
contribute0VB
poverty0.0722601961736204NN
reduction0NN
country0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.427664135790651
WordScorePoS
growth0.11178243319132NN
contribute0VB
poverty0.05809266143877NN
reduction0.0475643836183697NN
country0NN

The robust finding relates to the sign of the slope of the line not its exact intercepts higher initial inequality means that growth reduces poverty by lesser amount

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.794817170187339
WordScorePoS
line0NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
means0NNS
growth0.11178243319132NN
reduce0.0310356414389692VB
poverty0.05809266143877NN
amount0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.494338169943158
WordScorePoS
line0NN
inequality0NN
means0.120266261535276NNS
growth0.0519476926891779NN
reduce0.0164833460638534VB
poverty0.269969049497485NN
amount0.0614198493690006NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.311229337408029
WordScorePoS
line0.0410992516792148NN
inequality0NN
means0NNS
growth0.208565600657229NN
reduce0.0055149369084567VB
poverty0.0722601961736204NN
amount0NN

It has been argued that this is mechanical result in that given fixed functional form for the income distribution greater inequality results in slower poverty reduction even if each individual income grows at the same rate

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.858741534515416
WordScorePoS
result0NN
form0NN
income0.166475342664294NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
poverty0.05809266143877NN
reduction0.0475643836183697NN
individual0.064698038783335JJ
grow0.0405241466500776VB
rate0.0172128079963482NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.366650544955729
WordScorePoS
result0NN
form0.0884167543187491NN
income0.0442083771593746NN
inequality0NN
poverty0.269969049497485NN
reduction0NN
individual0JJ
grow0VB
rate0.0639932865717261NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.154503161760706
WordScorePoS
result0NN
form0.158049144643351NN
income0NN
inequality0NN
poverty0NN
reduction0NN
individual0JJ
grow0VB
rate0.0571955184484387NN

Indeed as indicated here distributional change is on average uncorrelated with mean growth rates so that on average the poor see their incomes grow at the same rate as other people s

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.632153856079767
WordScorePoS
change0.402565546215053NN
average0.1656430212089NN
growth0NN
rate0NN
poor0JJ
income0NN
grow0.0171695137813101VB
people0.0121096729954788NNS

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.540213910655366
WordScorePoS
change0NN
average0.146608885563018NN
growth0.11178243319132NN
rate0.0172128079963482NN
poor0JJ
income0.166475342664294NN
grow0.0405241466500776VB
people0.00571634317201755NNS

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.341282433527428
WordScorePoS
change0NN
average0NN
growth0.0519476926891779NN
rate0.0639932865717261NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
income0.0442083771593746NN
grow0VB
people0.0371911007748996NNS

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.181604367549562
WordScorePoS
change0NN
average0NN
growth0.208565600657229NN
rate0NN
poor0JJ
income0NN
grow0VB
people0.0106656521351091NNS

That does not however follow from any law of nature

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.673321927406186
WordScorePoS
law0.164686343640793NN
nature0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.665429295072769
WordScorePoS
law0NN
nature0.162755901889551NN

Equity and well being Figure

Label: 9, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
figure0.0602029956716497NN

Greater inequality reduces the power of growth to reduce poverty a

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.870834288404106
WordScorePoS
inequality0.635305170773079NN
reduce0.0310356414389692VB
power0NN
growth0.11178243319132NN
poverty0.05809266143877NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.356349508513516
WordScorePoS
inequality0NN
reduce0.0164833460638534VB
power0NN
growth0.0519476926891779NN
poverty0.269969049497485NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.293061368145135
WordScorePoS
inequality0NN
reduce0.0055149369084567VB
power0NN
growth0.208565600657229NN
poverty0.0722601961736204NN

Total elasticity vs

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.62423395560285
WordScorePoS
total0.0528748274225028NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.553307254365265
WordScorePoS
total0.0468670845659596NN

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.348457073659399
WordScorePoS
total0.0295155485671997NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.307000426893118
WordScorePoS
total0.0260040237236563NN

Gini headcount ratio b

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.745617614204109
WordScorePoS
ratio0.0688661930304451NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.666374049156007
WordScorePoS
ratio0.0615471563780609NN

Partial elasticity vs

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Gini headcount ratio Total elasticity Partial elasticity DZA PAR UKR ETH KEN KGZ LSO NGA UZB BWA HON GTM PHL MAUUGA ECU RUS PAKCRIINDU GUY PAN BFA CHNU IDN BRA THA MEX GMB NER GEO ROM TUR BOL SEN ZAF EST MNG VNM AZE ZWE MDG CMR TUN LYS ALB BDI MAR YEM JAM VEN MLI INDR EGY CIV COL IRN KAZ BGD NIC BUL

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

stat

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

URY LAO RUS UGAECU HON GTM NGA ZWE CHNU CRI GMB BFA BWA PAN MAU INDU PAK GUYSEN PHL THA MDG MEX INDR IDN BDIAZENER BOL LSO KEN BRA PAR ETHJAM TUN CMR NIC BGD EST VNM MYS COL ROM GEO DZA TUR UZB KGZ ZAF IRN MAR URY MNG KAZ ALB VEN ARG MLI EGY CIV UKR LAO PER YEM

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

stat

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Gini Index initial period

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.732307881624328
WordScorePoS
period0.0440683498519077NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.680973690028395
WordScorePoS
period0.0409791940864438NN

Total elasticity vs

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.62423395560285
WordScorePoS
total0.0528748274225028NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.553307254365265
WordScorePoS
total0.0468670845659596NN

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.348457073659399
WordScorePoS
total0.0295155485671997NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.307000426893118
WordScorePoS
total0.0260040237236563NN

Gini squared poverty gap DZA ECU LSO NIC ETH KGZ NGA UZB UKR UGA BWA GTM EGY PAKCRI MEX RUS ZAF GUY MAU CHNU PHL THA GMB INDU HON IDN EST MAR TUN MDGCMR BFA BOL PAN BRA MNG VNM AZE MYS ALB TUR YEM SEN COL BGD INDR NER CIV IRN ZWE VEN JAM BDI LAO MLI KAZ ROM URY MDA DZA BDI VNM ECU KEN UGA ZAF HON ETH CRI CHNU MAU MDG NER ZWE PHLTHA MEX GMBBFA COLBWA PAN GTM LAO PAK NGA INDR TUN IDN INDU SEN LSO GUY JAM CMR EST PAR UZB VEN BRA MYS CIV MNG AZE MLI ARG NIC BOL KGZ UKR TUR ALB KAZ YEM IRN GEO MAR PER ROM BGD BUL

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.915535312789333
WordScorePoS
poverty0.269969049497485NN
gap0NN

stat

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

GEO

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

RUS KEN PAR

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Partial elasticity

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Partial elasticity vs

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Gini squared poverty gap Total elasticity

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.854919114700846
WordScorePoS
poverty0.269969049497485NN
gap0NN
total0NN

Gini Index initial period

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.732307881624328
WordScorePoS
period0.0440683498519077NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.680973690028395
WordScorePoS
period0.0409791940864438NN

stat

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

URY EGY

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Gini Index initial period

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.732307881624328
WordScorePoS
period0.0440683498519077NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.680973690028395
WordScorePoS
period0.0409791940864438NN

Gini Index initial period Source Authors calculations

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.565784667037163
WordScorePoS
period0NN
source0.0613562156822703NN

Note The figure shows the scatter plots of country level elasticities against initial year Gini coefficients

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Panel shows the total elasticity for the headcount measure of poverty incidence with per day poverty line

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.920127919581244
WordScorePoS
panel0NN
total0NN
measure0.103895385378356NN
poverty0.269969049497485NN
incidence0NN
day0.25973846344589NN
line0NN

Panel shows the partial elasticity for the same measure and the same line

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.63209595025781
WordScorePoS
panel0.0548233071065585NN
measure0.0710409787438328NN
line0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.521767170920861
WordScorePoS
panel0NN
measure0.103895385378356NN
line0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.380973168659419
WordScorePoS
panel0NN
measure0.0347609334428716NN
line0.0410992516792148NN

Panels and also show the total and partial elasticities respectively but now for the squared poverty gap index FGT and with respect to per day line

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.893250473255883
WordScorePoS
panel0NN
total0NN
poverty0.269969049497485NN
gap0NN
respect0NN
day0.25973846344589NN
line0NN

Income distributions in individual countries can and do change during spells of growth see figure

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.617878474443715
WordScorePoS
income0NN
individual0JJ
country0NN
change0.402565546215053NN
growth0NN
figure0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.526386367494834
WordScorePoS
income0.166475342664294NN
individual0.064698038783335JJ
country0NN
change0NN
growth0.11178243319132NN
figure0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.320117298579456
WordScorePoS
income0NN
individual0JJ
country0NN
change0NN
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.302145363641617
WordScorePoS
income0.110649350233433NN
individual0JJ
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growth0.0260040237236563NN
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There is no mechanical rule that states that the incomes of the poor must grow at the same rate as the rest of the population

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.557763012303584
WordScorePoS
rule0NN
income0.166475342664294NN
poor0JJ
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.465337424348604
WordScorePoS
rule0NN
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.394727495349927
WordScorePoS
rule0.162386273072618NN
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rate0.0571955184484387NN
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.33074237749233
WordScorePoS
rule0NN
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grow0.0182713919265625VB
rate0.0155217067874935NN
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If on average they do and if given the shape of the empirical income distributions the poverty elasticities are lower in countries with higher initial inequality this is an empirical fact

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.930402910870048
WordScorePoS
average0.146608885563018NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.290429013870011
WordScorePoS
average0NN
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Label: 13, with a score of: 0.153122201731866
WordScorePoS
average0.1656430212089NN
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The balance of the evidence does not therefore allow much room for doubt that growth elasticities of poverty reduction are stronger in more equal societies

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.548534883538185
WordScorePoS
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.54785760643572
WordScorePoS
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Inequality reduces the effectiveness of economic growth in reducing poverty

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.830873460171566
WordScorePoS
inequality0.635305170773079NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.385994591845719
WordScorePoS
inequality0NN
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.3598372930086
WordScorePoS
inequality0NN
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This means that if all else remains the same reduction in income inequality today has double dividend it is likely to contribute to contemporaneous reduction in poverty and it is likely to make future growth reduce poverty faster

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.771080999203991
WordScorePoS
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.515545129503446
WordScorePoS
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.239213885764835
WordScorePoS
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Evidently the caveat if all else remains the same is of crucial importance

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WordScorePoS
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The distribution of incomes is reflection of the general equilibrium of an economy based on the social political and institutional structures that condition its behavior

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.424393447462853
WordScorePoS
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.336286192479411
WordScorePoS
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.311808682296563
WordScorePoS
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WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT Simple minded attempts to change the way incomes are distributed without taking into account the effects of policies on the incentives of all agents in the economy are bound to fail

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.618933903614221
WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.437542394665966
WordScorePoS
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We return to the issue of appropriate policy design in part III of this report

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.590710395037846
WordScorePoS
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.435598844812415
WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.392597205904229
WordScorePoS
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All that can be said about the results here is that if policies exist that can lead to less unequal distribution of resources without major costs to the static and dynamic efficiency of resource allocation such poli cies are likely to lead to faster poverty reduction in the future for any amount of growth that the economy generates

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.497716569563229
WordScorePoS
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.490428192219111
WordScorePoS
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Label: 7, with a score of: 0.261081140922819
WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.313503496071
WordScorePoS
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It turns out however that some inequalities not necessarily those of incomes are also detrimental to economic growth itself

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.912867092915097
WordScorePoS
inequality0.635305170773079NN
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.302567887833173
WordScorePoS
inequality0NN
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Such inequalities in power assets and access to markets and services are most likely to be the ones on which policy can productively focus

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.920064762534748
WordScorePoS
inequality0.635305170773079NN
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The next two chapters turn to discussion of these inefficient inequalities

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.995215226694605
WordScorePoS
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Inequality and investment chapter In world in which markets worked perfectly investment decisions would have little to do with the income wealth or social status of the decision maker

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.880690792600557
WordScorePoS
inequality0.635305170773079NN
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They would be determined by the returns an investment promises and by the market price of capital adjusted for the extra risk it entails

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.610354940261716
WordScorePoS
determine0VB
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If people had good investment opportunities it really would not matter whether they had the money they could always borrow what they needed and if the risk bothered them they could always sell shares in their business and buy safer assets with the money from the sale

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.589658719500479
WordScorePoS
people0NNS
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.395190922483734
WordScorePoS
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However for various reasons mainly economic but also political markets are not perfect

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.416693319045582
WordScorePoS
economic0.128463821595706JJ
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.549816059550815
WordScorePoS
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.50004327318903
WordScorePoS
economic0.0727679293221751JJ
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If borrowers can willfully default on their loans lenders prefer to make loans to borrowers who can provide collateral assets

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Private returns for politically connected firms can be higher than for those without such connections and so these firms may attract more capital even though social returns may not be any greater

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.485521974810241
WordScorePoS
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.38266689459119
WordScorePoS
private0.0898760357768464JJ
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.311501983738219
WordScorePoS
private0JJ
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Members of groups subject to discrimination may rationally invest less in their human capital than they would in the absence of such explicit or subtle stereotypes

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.758265881254283
WordScorePoS
discrimination0.111637082206855NN
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After we give up the idea that markets work anywhere close to perfectly the scope for direct link between investment and the distribution of wealth or power widens substantially in many instances leading to underinvestment by those who have good growth opportunities

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.625612169830402
WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.400096959435943
WordScorePoS
idea0NN
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.324592073124333
WordScorePoS
idea0NN
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.315411581891103
WordScorePoS
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Correcting the market failures directly is often not feasible and in these cases certain redistributions of wealth power and resources can serve as second best alternatives

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.52452915931611
WordScorePoS
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.457621618614412
WordScorePoS
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In other words interventions to enhance equity can improve efficiency

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 6, with a score of: 0.376596905735498
WordScorePoS
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Label: 11, with a score of: 0.343088063719567
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One of the great advances in development economics in the past years is the accretion of substantial body of evidence on documenting how well or badly asset and financial markets work in developing countries

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WordScorePoS
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The fact that these markets rarely measure up to their ideal creates the possibility that wealth and social status defined as one position in society both in ascriptive identity and in connections will have an important influence on investment decisions

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.400535476224079
WordScorePoS
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.388486858245866
WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.356395812456769
WordScorePoS
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It seems natural to start with this evidence

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.335258379421733
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Markets wealth status and investment behavior The market for credit In perfect credit market there is single interest rate and everyone can borrow or lend as much as they want at that rate

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WordScorePoS
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That individuals can borrow as much as they want at the current rate explains the presumption of separation between the wealth or status of the investors and the amount they invest

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.495701993936264
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Whether they are rich or poor well connected or just off the streets an extra dollar of investment will be profitable for them only if the return they get from it is more than the interest rate

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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.44653099310621
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.381987596723868
WordScorePoS
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If the interest rate is higher they would be better off lending that money if it was their own or borrowing less if it were someone else s

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.340341591980302
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So two people with the same return on investment would end up investing the same amount

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How close are real markets to this ideal market

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Chambhar is market town in Sindh Pakistan on the east bank of the Indus

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In farmers from the area around Chambhar got most of their credit from about professional moneylenders

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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.325264082782449
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Based on detailed data from of these WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT lenders and of their clients Aleem calculated the average borrowing interest rate charged as

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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.375664650638732
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percent

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But if these farmers wanted to lend their money the banking system would pay them only about percent

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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.447432397454919
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.320636048615528
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banking0NN
system0NN
pay0NN

It is possible however that they may not have been depositing in the banks

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.922190632718945
WordScorePoS
bank0.0881366997038154NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.386735616313563
WordScorePoS
bank0.036961556179878NN

An alternative measure of the deposit rate that is relevant for these farmers is the opportunity cost of capital to the moneylenders

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.616485359120701
WordScorePoS
alternative0NN
measure0.0504000902222448NN
rate0.0155217067874935NN
relevant0JJ
farmer0.175025014152344NN
opportunity0.0261926252110933NN
cost0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.38744151602858
WordScorePoS
alternative0NN
measure0.103895385378356NN
rate0.0639932865717261NN
relevant0JJ
farmer0NN
opportunity0NN
cost0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.385359349894286
WordScorePoS
alternative0NN
measure0NN
rate0.0571955184484387NN
relevant0.0548954478802642JJ
farmer0NN
opportunity0NN
cost0.0548954478802642NN

percent

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

In either case it suggests gap of at least percentage points between the borrowing and lending rates

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.681487447786829
WordScorePoS
suggest0.0602029956716497VB
gap0.0602029956716497NN
percentage0NN
rate0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.418060301763248
WordScorePoS
suggest0VB
gap0NN
percentage0.0583416713841148NN
rate0.0155217067874935NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.362196441013595
WordScorePoS
suggest0VB
gap0NN
percentage0NN
rate0.0639932865717261NN

The borrowing rate also varied enormously across borrowers

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.596643111610239
WordScorePoS
rate0.0639932865717261NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.533263939475719
WordScorePoS
rate0.0571955184484387NN

The standard deviation of the interest rate was

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.518186180070282
WordScorePoS
standard0NN
rate0.0639932865717261NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.463141195111404
WordScorePoS
standard0NN
rate0.0571955184484387NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.368228530601983
WordScorePoS
standard0.0454743001434393NN
rate0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.351076763094333
WordScorePoS
standard0NN
rate0.0433561464459019NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.331829371229624
WordScorePoS
standard0.0409791940864438NN
rate0NN

percent compared with an average lending rate of

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.712152877926673
WordScorePoS
compare0.0414107553022249VB
average0.1656430212089NN
rate0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.563457921420023
WordScorePoS
compare0VB
average0.146608885563018NN
rate0.0172128079963482NN

percent

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

In other words an interest rate of percent and an interest rate of percent are both within two standard deviations of the mean

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

One possibility is that these differences in interest rates reflect differences in the default rate perhaps the expected repayment was the same for everybody because those who paid higher rates were more likely to default

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Also the expected repayment could have been equal to the actual interest rate paid to the depositors if the default rate was high enough

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.509581307097105
WordScorePoS
expect0VB
equal0.114211783066808JJ
actual0JJ
rate0NN
pay0.078760887431929NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.437434396001589
WordScorePoS
expect0VB
equal0.0376648791150643JJ
actual0JJ
rate0.0639932865717261NN
pay0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.390967371842169
WordScorePoS
expect0VB
equal0.033663879505068JJ
actual0JJ
rate0.0571955184484387NN
pay0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.316695422379053
WordScorePoS
expect0VB
equal0.0504071033101074JJ
actual0JJ
rate0NN
pay0.0695218668857431NN

But default was rare for individual lenders the median default rate was between

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.611942294217756
WordScorePoS
individual0.064698038783335JJ
rate0.0172128079963482NN

percent and percent with maximum of percent

Label: 14, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
maximum0.0531983120572613NN

Figure

Label: 9, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
figure0.0602029956716497NN

In rural Kerala and Tamil Nadu the rich access most of the credit and pay relatively low rates Average interest rate [left scale] Average loan size Rs [right scale] Cumulative proportion of credit [left scale] Source Dasgupta Nayar and Associates Asset group Rs and above The same pattern high and variable borrowing rates much lower deposit rates and low default rates shows up in the Summary Report on Informal Credit Markets in India

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.5027784821663
WordScorePoS
rural0.0330412182586772JJ
access0.00138439773401932NN
credit0NN
pay0.02794560829783NN
rate0.0172128079963482NN
average0.146608885563018NN
size0.0396106020715138NN
proportion0NN
source0NN
asset0.0488696285210061NN
pattern0NN
report0NN
market0.0202620733250388NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.351695175812871
WordScorePoS
rural0JJ
access0NN
credit0NN
pay0NN
rate0NN
average0.1656430212089NN
size0NN
proportion0NN
source0.0123065238088614NN
asset0NN
pattern0.0414107553022249NN
report0NN
market0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.325930602044517
WordScorePoS
rural0.148975141598503JJ
access0.00749031153171887NN
credit0NN
pay0NN
rate0.0155217067874935NN
average0NN
size0NN
proportion0.0182713919265625NN
source0.0130963126055467NN
asset0NN
pattern0NN
report0NN
market0.0913569596328122NN

This report summarizes results from case studies commissioned by the Asian Development Bank and carried out under the National Institute of Public Finance and Policy

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.56666877976826
WordScorePoS
report0NN
result0NN
study0NN
commission0NN
development0.0469463607292177NN
bank0.036961556179878NN
national0.0134132459226336JJ
public0.0390556786919513NN
finance0.036961556179878NN
policy0.0641521854453136NN

For the urban sector the data are based on various case surveys of specific classes of informal lenders

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.730096051294366
WordScorePoS
urban0.27622591898666JJ
sector0NN
datum0NN
base0NN
survey0NN
specific0JJ
class0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.364444768407546
WordScorePoS
urban0JJ
sector0.0459744293658165NN
datum0.0739231123597559NN
base0.017987180284335NN
survey0NN
specific0JJ
class0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.300172068420618
WordScorePoS
urban0.0488696285210061JJ
sector0NN
datum0NN
base0NN
survey0.064698038783335NN
specific0JJ
class0NN

For the broad class of nonbank financial intermediaries called finance corporations the maximum deposit rate for loans of less than one year is percent

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

These corporations offer advances for one year or less at rates that vary from percent per year to the utterly astronomical percent per day

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.863548386482305
WordScorePoS
offer0NN
advance0NN
rate0.0639932865717261NN
day0.25973846344589NN

The rates on loans of more than one year varied between percent and percent

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.596643111610239
WordScorePoS
rate0.0639932865717261NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.533263939475719
WordScorePoS
rate0.0571955184484387NN

Default once again is only small part of the story default costs explain only percent of total interest costs

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

For hire purchase companies in Delhi the deposit rate was percent and the lending rate was at least percent and could be as high as percent

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Default costs were percent of total interest costs

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.602641613371946
WordScorePoS
cost0.0660824365173543NN
total0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.500621390808586
WordScorePoS
cost0.0548954478802642NN
total0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.466373086864605
WordScorePoS
cost0.0277064208763707NN
total0.0468670845659596NN

For the rural sector interest rates are high but they are also variable figure

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.690268558828922
WordScorePoS
rural0.148975141598503JJ
sector0.0182713919265625NN
rate0.0155217067874935NN
figure0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.440994930841241
WordScorePoS
rural0JJ
sector0.0565629593551219NN
rate0NN
figure0.0602029956716497NN

This finding is based on surveys of six villages in Kerala and Tamil Nadu carried out by the Centre for Development Studies Trivandrum

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.565317212181653
WordScorePoS
base0NN
survey0.064698038783335NN
centre0.0396106020715138NN
development0.0177346522508396NN
study0NN

The rich with Rs or more in assets get most of the credit nearly percent and pay relatively low rate percent while those with assets between Rs and Rs pay rates of percent and get only percent of the credit

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

The average interest rate charged by professional moneylenders who provide

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.589116435068798
WordScorePoS
average0.1656430212089NN
rate0NN
provide0VB

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.582638805983344
WordScorePoS
average0.146608885563018NN
rate0.0172128079963482NN
provide0VB

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.332763016538966
WordScorePoS
average0NN
rate0.0639932865717261NN
provide0.0295703421524739VB

percent of the credit is about percent

Label: 9, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
credit0.0602029956716497NN

While the average deposit rate is not reported the maximum from all the case studies is percent and in four of them it is no more than percent

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.594210598294099
WordScorePoS
average0.1656430212089NN
rate0NN
report0NN
maximum0NN
study0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.58767695634275
WordScorePoS
average0.146608885563018NN
rate0.0172128079963482NN
report0NN
maximum0NN
study0NN

In the category of professional moneylenders about half the loans were at percent or more but another percent or so had rates below percent

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Default rates were higher than in the urban sector but they still cannot explain more than percent of the interest costs

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.773226830577533
WordScorePoS
rate0NN
urban0.27622591898666JJ
sector0NN
cost0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.369963203544434
WordScorePoS
rate0.0172128079963482NN
urban0.0488696285210061JJ
sector0NN
cost0.0660824365173543NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.313771216505217
WordScorePoS
rate0.0571955184484387NN
urban0JJ
sector0NN
cost0.0548954478802642NN

Inequality and investment The fact that credit access depends on social status is also shown by Fafchamps study of informal trade credit in Kenya and Zimbabwe

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.906264084916214
WordScorePoS
inequality0.635305170773079NN
investment0.0202620733250388NN
credit0NN
access0.00138439773401932NN
depend0VB
social0.101310366625194JJ
status0.0488696285210061NN
study0NN
trade0.0237821918091848NN

It reports an average monthly interest rate of just over

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.622624039998003
WordScorePoS
report0NN
average0.1656430212089NN
rate0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.615777978081019
WordScorePoS
report0NN
average0.146608885563018NN
rate0.0172128079963482NN

percent corresponding to an annualized rate of percent but it also notes that the rate for the dominant trading group Indians in Kenya whites in Zimbabwe is

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.665830223874497
WordScorePoS
rate0.0325677023224526NN
dominant0.122412709674631JJ
trading0NN

percent month while the blacks pay percent month in both countries

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.67322631826723
WordScorePoS
pay0.078760887431929NN
country0NN

Chapter also provides evidence that in many countries insiders effectively lobby to limit access to financial institutions and that lending is skewed toward the rich consistent with the evidence in figure

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.739042735113412
WordScorePoS
evidence0.12939607756667NN
country0NN
effectively0RB
limit0NN
access0.00138439773401932NN
financial0.0298222075472138JJ
institution0.0991236547760315NN
consistent0JJ
figure0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.565775221311063
WordScorePoS
evidence0NN
country0NN
effectively0RB
limit0NN
access0.00690021170452351NN
financial0.016515769558553JJ
institution0.274477239401321NN
consistent0JJ
figure0NN

None of these facts is surprising

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Contract enforcement in developing countries is often difficult and it is not easy to get courts to punish recalcitrant borrowers

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

As result lenders often spend at lot to make sure that their loans get repaid it is plausible that these are the resources that drive wedge between the borrowing rate and the lending rate

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Indeed Aleem shows that the resources spent by lenders to monitor borrowers explain the nearly percentage point gap between the lending and borrowing rates in his data

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.542649665343182
WordScorePoS
resource0.0375923735942499NN
monitor0.0599173571845643NN
percentage0NN
gap0NN
rate0NN
datum0.0739231123597559NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.436531054877546
WordScorePoS
resource0.0739147683583536NN
monitor0NN
percentage0NN
gap0NN
rate0.0639932865717261NN
datum0NN

It is easy to imagine that borrowers who are easier to monitor will enjoy better rates which would explain why lending rates vary so much

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

These imperfections in credit markets have immediate implications for the relationship between wealth and investment

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.604164760739769
WordScorePoS
credit0.0602029956716497NN
market0.0377086395700813NN
investment0.0377086395700813NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.488375258655619
WordScorePoS
credit0NN
market0.0913569596328122NN
investment0.0182713919265625NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.477885554834182
WordScorePoS
credit0NN
market0.030649619577211NN
investment0.0766240489430275NN

First with the rate of interest on deposits much lower than that on loans the opportunity cost of capital for those who just want to invest their own money is much lower than the opportunity cost for those who have to borrow

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.650047680152861
WordScorePoS
rate0.0571955184484387NN
opportunity0NN
cost0.0548954478802642NN
invest0VB
money0.107490825192354NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.491354456628878
WordScorePoS
rate0.0172128079963482NN
opportunity0.029046330719385NN
cost0.0660824365173543NN
invest0VB
money0NN

This means that the wealthy will end up investing much more than the indigent even if they face exactly the same returns on their investment

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.691412905459359
WordScorePoS
means0.120266261535276NNS
invest0VB
return0NN
investment0.0376648791150643NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.470588279489574
WordScorePoS
means0NNS
invest0VB
return0.107490825192354NN
investment0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.335455414870042
WordScorePoS
means0NNS
invest0VB
return0NN
investment0.0766240489430275NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.335407320441354
WordScorePoS
means0NNS
invest0.0583416713841148VB
return0NN
investment0.0182713919265625NN

Second the lower interest rates charged to rich people reinforce this conclusion because the rich then face lower opportunity cost when they too are borrowing

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.616423825154456
WordScorePoS
rate0.0571955184484387NN
people0NNS
reinforce0.0811931365363091VB
conclusion0NN
opportunity0NN
cost0.0548954478802642NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.376511635330258
WordScorePoS
rate0.0172128079963482NN
people0.00571634317201755NNS
reinforce0VB
conclusion0NN
opportunity0.029046330719385NN
cost0.0660824365173543NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.322698381137313
WordScorePoS
rate0.0639932865717261NN
people0.0371911007748996NNS
reinforce0VB
conclusion0NN
opportunity0NN
cost0NN

Third in some cases those who are unable to provide collateral will have no access to credit at any interest rate

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.509112493454205
WordScorePoS
provide0.0295703421524739VB
access0.00514687440545096NN
credit0NN
rate0.0639932865717261NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.415118781937944
WordScorePoS
provide0.00740117451847634VB
access0.0128821355880844NN
credit0.0602029956716497NN
rate0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.398738254144086
WordScorePoS
provide0.013214597504793VB
access0.00690021170452351NN
credit0NN
rate0.0571955184484387NN

We would thus expect the poor to underinvest certainly relative to the rich but also relative to what would happen if markets functioned properly

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.390289604788871
WordScorePoS
expect0VB
poor0.150659516460257JJ
relative0JJ
happen0VB
market0NN
function0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.585354625185372
WordScorePoS
expect0.0357189919948307VB
poor0.0548141757796873JJ
relative0JJ
happen0VB
market0.0913569596328122NN
function0.0440683498519077NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.409602381982955
WordScorePoS
expect0VB
poor0JJ
relative0JJ
happen0.120405991343299VB
market0.0377086395700813NN
function0NN

The capital released because they underinvest is absorbed by the non poor who may actually end up overinvesting relative to how they would invest in perfect markets

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.458556787749265
WordScorePoS
release0NN
absorb0VB
poor0.150659516460257JJ
relative0JJ
invest0VB
market0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.622468052079406
WordScorePoS
release0NN
absorb0VB
poor0.0548141757796873JJ
relative0JJ
invest0.0583416713841148VB
market0.0913569596328122NN

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.352505298138197
WordScorePoS
release0.0516150472983178NN
absorb0VB
poor0.0642010940957526JJ
relative0JJ
invest0VB
market0NN

This is the reason because the poor cannot borrow the non poor cannot lend as much as they would like to this is why deposit rates in developing countries are often very low

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.855437643428568
WordScorePoS
poor0.150659516460257JJ
rate0.0639932865717261NN
develop0VB
country0NN

And because the nonpoor cannot lend it makes sense for them to keep investing in their own firms even when the returns are low

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.712371322251471
WordScorePoS
sense0NN
invest0VB
firm0NN
return0.107490825192354NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.428771733333384
WordScorePoS
sense0.064698038783335NN
invest0VB
firm0NN
return0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.39898184383055
WordScorePoS
sense0NN
invest0VB
firm0.0602029956716497NN
return0NN

Because the poor underinvest and because the opportunity cost of capital to the non poor is thus lower than it would otherwise be the composition of the investors also changes

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.745013559436077
WordScorePoS
poor0.150659516460257JJ
opportunity0NN
cost0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.335818379506561
WordScorePoS
poor0.0548141757796873JJ
opportunity0.0261926252110933NN
cost0NN

In particular firms that would not be viable if markets functioned perfectly for example because the interest rate would be too high can survive and even expand because markets are the way they are

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.657835364003711
WordScorePoS
firm0NN
market0.0913569596328122NN
function0.0440683498519077NN
rate0.0155217067874935NN
survive0VB
expand0VB

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.368197890743985
WordScorePoS
firm0.0602029956716497NN
market0.0377086395700813NN
function0NN
rate0NN
survive0VB
expand0VB

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.338924479082837
WordScorePoS
firm0NN
market0NN
function0NN
rate0.0433561464459019NN
survive0.0814816979556159VB
expand0VB

In other words the wrong firms end up investing

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.718120873858835
WordScorePoS
firm0.0602029956716497NN
invest0VB

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.695918393583776
WordScorePoS
firm0NN
invest0.0583416713841148VB

The market for insurance The ideal insurance market is one in which people bear no avoidable risks

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.570005046396167
WordScorePoS
market0.0913569596328122NN
insurance0NN
people0.0257736572183839NNS
bear0NN
risk0.0252000451111224NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.541559620086816
WordScorePoS
market0.0252035516550537NN
insurance0.0804764811724088NN
people0.0106656521351091NNS
bear0NN
risk0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.383612463595803
WordScorePoS
market0NN
insurance0NN
people0.00539943740774902NNS
bear0.0814816979556159NN
risk0.0703902516159815NN

In setting in which single village constitutes separate insurance market closed to the rest of the world so that only people in the village can insure other people in the village in some kind of mutual insurance arrangement individual consumption should respond only to aggregate village level income fluctuations and not to fluctuations in the income of specific individuals

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.521001246624131
WordScorePoS
set0NN
single0JJ
insurance0NN
market0.0202620733250388NN
world0.00276879546803864NN
people0.00571634317201755NNS
kind0NN
individual0.064698038783335JJ
consumption0NN
level0NN
income0.166475342664294NN
specific0JJ

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.458426540808887
WordScorePoS
set0NN
single0JJ
insurance0NN
market0.0169905820958638NN
world0.00464349782489754NN
people0.0119834723221875NNS
kind0NN
individual0JJ
consumption0.332151194779746NN
level0.00513687014008325NN
income0NN
specific0.0542519672965169JJ

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.382397413931215
WordScorePoS
set0NN
single0JJ
insurance0.0804764811724088NN
market0.0252035516550537NN
world0.00172202218602071NN
people0.0106656521351091NNS
kind0NN
individual0JJ
consumption0.147812295323721NN
level0.00761994916892276NN
income0NN
specific0JJ

Put in blunter terms as long as aggregate consumption is unchanged individual income fluctuations should not translate into fluctuations in individual consumption

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.775282848073218
WordScorePoS
term0NN
consumption0.332151194779746NN
individual0JJ
income0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.391528710141325
WordScorePoS
term0.0396106020715138NN
consumption0NN
individual0.064698038783335JJ
income0.166475342664294NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.345012569877415
WordScorePoS
term0NN
consumption0.147812295323721NN
individual0JJ
income0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.19581052653382
WordScorePoS
term0.149793392961411NN
consumption0NN
individual0JJ
income0.017987180284335NN

When insurance markets work well risk considerations should not have significant impact on the choices people make irrespective of their wealth given that what an individual does has little impact on aggregate uncertainty

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.511689827706324
WordScorePoS
insurance0NN
market0.0169905820958638NN
risk0NN
significant0JJ
impact0.0866018859977851NN
choice0.0409791940864438NN
people0.0119834723221875NNS
irrespective0RB
individual0JJ

While perfect insurance market is more complex than perfect credit market and thus harder to detect there have been attempts to test the prediction about the irrelevance of fluctuations in one own income

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.465757412799511
WordScorePoS
insurance0NN
market0.0202620733250388NN
credit0NN
income0.166475342664294NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.555874812406577
WordScorePoS
insurance0NN
market0.0913569596328122NN
credit0NN
income0.0643370113878709NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.554116842471919
WordScorePoS
insurance0NN
market0.0377086395700813NN
credit0.0602029956716497NN
income0.110649350233433NN

The Côte Ivoire Living Standards Measurement Surveys from to WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT provide panel data on the income and consumption of nearly households with each household tracked for two consecutive years and or and

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.684994250105895
WordScorePoS
live0VB
standard0.0409791940864438NN
measurement0NN
survey0NN
world0.00464349782489754NN
development0.022306853314744NN
report0.0409791940864438NN
provide0.0200087191734851VB
panel0NN
datum0NN
income0NN
consumption0.332151194779746NN
household0.0554128417527413NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.399653999817679
WordScorePoS
live0.0159075630937118VB
standard0NN
measurement0NN
survey0.064698038783335NN
world0.00276879546803864NN
development0.0177346522508396NN
report0NN
provide0VB
panel0NN
datum0NN
income0.166475342664294NN
consumption0NN
household0.0330412182586772NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.197562478773351
WordScorePoS
live0.00989353561471291VB
standard0NN
measurement0NN
survey0NN
world0.00172202218602071NN
development0.0055149369084567NN
report0NN
provide0VB
panel0NN
datum0NN
income0NN
consumption0.147812295323721NN
household0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.301814546382815
WordScorePoS
live0.00740117451847634VB
standard0.0454743001434393NN
measurement0NN
survey0NN
world0.00257642711761688NN
development0.0330049940546426NN
report0NN
provide0.00740117451847634VB
panel0NN
datum0.0454743001434393NN
income0.110649350233433NN
consumption0NN
household0NN

In table

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

the relationship between changes in consumption and changes in incomes is reported separately for the three main regions and separately for and

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.682558354981409
WordScorePoS
consumption0.332151194779746NN
income0NN
report0.0409791940864438NN
region0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.417930824958234
WordScorePoS
consumption0NN
income0.0442083771593746NN
report0NN
region0.184259548107002NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.304529299742069
WordScorePoS
consumption0NN
income0.166475342664294NN
report0NN
region0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.270389440669133
WordScorePoS
consumption0.147812295323721NN
income0NN
report0NN
region0NN

The first row of the first block for each year reports the basic correlation between income and consumption fall in income always hurts consumption although the coefficient varies between low of

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.739641319962419
WordScorePoS
report0.0409791940864438NN
basic0.0144336476662975JJ
income0NN
consumption0.332151194779746NN
fall0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.342168782408319
WordScorePoS
report0NN
basic0JJ
income0.166475342664294NN
consumption0NN
fall0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.325812688129941
WordScorePoS
report0NN
basic0.0214106369326177JJ
income0NN
consumption0.147812295323721NN
fall0NN

reduction in income means that consumption goes down by

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.699746538401782
WordScorePoS
reduction0.0199423462679015NN
income0NN
means0NNS
consumption0.332151194779746NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.425380020039874
WordScorePoS
reduction0.0475643836183697NN
income0.166475342664294NN
means0NNS
consumption0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.293760407186789
WordScorePoS
reduction0NN
income0NN
means0NNS
consumption0.147812295323721NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.326874951295657
WordScorePoS
reduction0NN
income0.0442083771593746NN
means0.120266261535276NNS
consumption0NN

The next row does the same thing but now there is village dummy intended to pick up any village level changes in consumption

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.859378799449039
WordScorePoS
level0.00513687014008325NN
consumption0.332151194779746NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.39602698571474
WordScorePoS
level0.00761994916892276NN
consumption0.147812295323721NN

Remarkably the coefficients on own income which under perfect insurance should have fallen to zero after controlling for village level changes barely budge

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.503312123198254
WordScorePoS
income0.166475342664294NN
insurance0NN
fall0NN
control0NN
level0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.43506098561697
WordScorePoS
income0NN
insurance0NN
fall0.123094312756122NN
control0.020806307400253NN
level0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.353778603187092
WordScorePoS
income0.0442083771593746NN
insurance0NN
fall0NN
control0.0614198493690006NN
level0.0113874611101829NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.344447897629303
WordScorePoS
income0.0643370113878709NN
insurance0NN
fall0.0440683498519077NN
control0NN
level0.00552410547653725NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.334530979214145
WordScorePoS
income0.110649350233433NN
insurance0NN
fall0NN
control0NN
level0NN

Not all the evidence is quite so pessimistic

Label: 10, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
evidence0.12939607756667NN

Townsend used detailed household level data from four villages which were intensively studied by the International Crop Research Institute in the Semi Arid Tropics ICRISAT in India to see whether the full insurance hypothesis is consistent with the data

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

He found that while the data did reject the exact prediction it did not miss by very much

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.851744941703599
WordScorePoS
datum0.0739231123597559NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.523956633971108
WordScorePoS
datum0.0454743001434393NN

In other words his evidence suggested that villagers do insure each other to considerable extent movements in individual consumption in his data seem largely uncorrelated with movements in income

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.621512342697712
WordScorePoS
evidence0.12939607756667NN
suggest0VB
extent0NN
individual0.064698038783335JJ
consumption0NN
datum0NN
income0.166475342664294NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.572527877878913
WordScorePoS
evidence0NN
suggest0VB
extent0NN
individual0JJ
consumption0.332151194779746NN
datum0NN
income0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.254783547661836
WordScorePoS
evidence0NN
suggest0VB
extent0NN
individual0JJ
consumption0.147812295323721NN
datum0NN
income0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.372881499562125
WordScorePoS
evidence0NN
suggest0.0602029956716497VB
extent0NN
individual0JJ
consumption0NN
datum0.0454743001434393NN
income0.110649350233433NN

Later work by Townsend based on data he collected in Thailand turned out to be less encouraging

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.613547026884757
WordScorePoS
base0.017987180284335NN
datum0.0739231123597559NN
encourage0.0211360962287062VB

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.387940858019883
WordScorePoS
base0NN
datum0.0454743001434393NN
encourage0.0260040237236563VB

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.377322399738235
WordScorePoS
base0NN
datum0NN
encourage0.0695218668857431VB

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.362600946962597
WordScorePoS
base0.0199423462679015NN
datum0NN
encourage0.0468670845659596VB

Some villages seemed to be much more effective than others in providing insurance to their residents

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.649455895639918
WordScorePoS
effective0.0180650490434051JJ
provide0VB
insurance0.0804764811724088NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.405147986039669
WordScorePoS
effective0.0482582488828229JJ
provide0.013214597504793VB
insurance0NN

Townsend describes in detail how insurance arrangements differ across villages

Label: 8, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
insurance0.0804764811724088NN

While in one village there is web of well functioning risk sharing institutions the situations in other villages are different

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.675824186595654
WordScorePoS
function0NN
risk0NN
share0NN
institution0.274477239401321NN
situation0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.341204192120667
WordScorePoS
function0.036961556179878NN
risk0NN
share0.0766240489430275NN
institution0.0249900578719309NN
situation0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.322578855859504
WordScorePoS
function0.0440683498519077NN
risk0.0252000451111224NN
share0.0365427838531249NN
institution0NN
situation0.0252000451111224NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.31114035081927
WordScorePoS
function0NN
risk0.0631828116343571NN
share0NN
institution0NN
situation0.0631828116343571NN

In one village the institutions exist but are dysfunctional in another they are nonexistent in third close to the roads there seems to be no risksharing whatsoever even within families

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.804336179400672
WordScorePoS
institution0.274477239401321NN
exist0VB
road0NN
family0NN

As for credit the failure of insurance could have something to do with informational asymmetries

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.800736640307726
WordScorePoS
credit0NN
insurance0.0804764811724088NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.599016554753452
WordScorePoS
credit0.0602029956716497NN
insurance0NN

It is not easy to insure someone against shock that he alone observes because he has every incentive to always claim that things had gone badly

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.912860602834513
WordScorePoS
shock0.120266261535276NN
incentive0NN

But as Duflo and Udry demonstrate spouses in Côte Ivoire do not seem to be willing to insure each other fully against rainfall shocks that affect them differentially

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.890972324052489
WordScorePoS
fully0RB
shock0.120266261535276NN
affect0.0184786920895884VB

Because rainfall obviously is observable at least part of the problem has to be elsewhere

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

One possibility is limited commitment

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.817486440766633
WordScorePoS
limited0.120266261535276JJ
commitment0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.502477928904803
WordScorePoS
limited0JJ
commitment0.0739231123597559NN

People may be happy to claim what was promised to them when it is their turn to be paid and then default when the time comes for them to pay

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.518869314639418
WordScorePoS
people0.0106656521351091NNS
pay0.0695218668857431NN
time0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.424197696267978
WordScorePoS
people0.00571634317201755NNS
pay0.02794560829783NN
time0.0607862199751165NN

This may be particularly easy in setting in which the social relations between the sets of people who are insuring each other are not particularly close perhaps explaining why Townsend found no insurance in the village closest to the road

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.470052046778069
WordScorePoS
set0NN
social0.101310366625194JJ
relation0.064698038783335NN
people0.00571634317201755NNS
insurance0NN
road0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.411094581204829
WordScorePoS
set0NN
social0.112994637345193JJ
relation0NN
people0.0371911007748996NNS
insurance0NN
road0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.387454393976182
WordScorePoS
set0NN
social0.0504071033101074JJ
relation0NN
people0.0106656521351091NNS
insurance0.0804764811724088NN
road0NN

Lack of insurance should have an effect on the pattern of investment

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.508451229740795
WordScorePoS
lack0.0565629593551219NN
insurance0NN
effect0.0454743001434393NN
pattern0NN
investment0.0377086395700813NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.476206600168858
WordScorePoS
lack0.0252035516550537NN
insurance0.0804764811724088NN
effect0NN
pattern0NN
investment0.0252035516550537NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.411119486834159
WordScorePoS
lack0.0753297582301286NN
insurance0NN
effect0NN
pattern0NN
investment0.0376648791150643NN

That many insurable risks are uninsured means that one cannot invest without personally bearing significant part of the concomitant risk

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.651001261311066
WordScorePoS
risk0.0519476926891779NN
means0.120266261535276NNS
invest0VB
bear0NN
significant0.0376648791150643JJ

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.584353386137929
WordScorePoS
risk0.0703902516159815NN
means0NNS
invest0VB
bear0.0814816979556159NN
significant0.0127591822694525JJ

Indeed big corporations able to sell Table

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

The effect of income shocks on consumption Côte Ivoire West Forest East Forest Savannah All Rural OLS No dummies Village dummies

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.796320260805238
WordScorePoS
effect0NN
income0NN
shock0NN
consumption0NN
forest0.380082214408185NN
rural0.0264204925485796JJ

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.336262136318095
WordScorePoS
effect0NN
income0NN
shock0NN
consumption0.332151194779746NN
forest0NN
rural0JJ

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.332888180381129
WordScorePoS
effect0.0440683498519077NN
income0.0643370113878709NN
shock0NN
consumption0NN
forest0.0357189919948307NN
rural0.148975141598503JJ

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.201985921054072
WordScorePoS
effect0NN
income0.166475342664294NN
shock0NN
consumption0NN
forest0NN
rural0.0330412182586772JJ

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.149641726360776
WordScorePoS
effect0NN
income0NN
shock0NN
consumption0.147812295323721NN
forest0NN
rural0JJ

No dummies Village dummies

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

OLS

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Source Adapted from Deaton table

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.73415387760794
WordScorePoS
source0.0613562156822703NN

Note Absolute value of statistics are shown in brackets

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

The first row of each panel shows the coefficient on income change of regression of consumption changes on income changes

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.587054223953313
WordScorePoS
panel0.0548233071065585NN
income0NN
change0.402565546215053NN
consumption0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.427339024051076
WordScorePoS
panel0NN
income0.166475342664294NN
change0NN
consumption0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.426312885568908
WordScorePoS
panel0NN
income0NN
change0NN
consumption0.332151194779746NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.189715669045853
WordScorePoS
panel0NN
income0NN
change0NN
consumption0.147812295323721NN

The second row reports the same result when village dummies are included in the regression

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

OLS Ordinary Least Squares

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Inequality and investment their equity in organized equity markets may be the only players who can really hope to diversify away large part of the risk of particular project

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.918508894442436
WordScorePoS
inequality0.635305170773079NN
investment0.0202620733250388NN
organize0VB
market0.0202620733250388NN
risk0NN
project0NN

Given this fact and the reasonable assumption that the poor are more risk averse than the rich we are likely to be in perverse situation in which the poor may also find it hardest to reduce their exposure to risk

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.81787770730802
WordScorePoS
poor0.150659516460257JJ
risk0.0519476926891779NN
situation0.0519476926891779NN
reduce0.0164833460638534VB
exposure0.120266261535276NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.351722758566778
WordScorePoS
poor0.0229054731708393JJ
risk0.0631828116343571NN
situation0.0631828116343571NN
reduce0.0200483235258943VB
exposure0NN

Thus they are likely to shy away from riskier and higher return investments reinforcing the prediction that the poor invest too little

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.555435335933077
WordScorePoS
return0NN
investment0.0376648791150643NN
reinforce0VB
poor0.150659516460257JJ
invest0VB

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.556495823856383
WordScorePoS
return0.107490825192354NN
investment0NN
reinforce0.0811931365363091VB
poor0JJ
invest0VB

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.387625471845558
WordScorePoS
return0NN
investment0.0182713919265625NN
reinforce0VB
poor0.0548141757796873JJ
invest0.0583416713841148VB

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.380202466031599
WordScorePoS
return0NN
investment0.0766240489430275NN
reinforce0.036961556179878VB
poor0.0153248097886055JJ
invest0VB

The market for land In perfect land market individuals can buy or lease as much land as they want for as long as they want at price that depends only on the quality of the land and the length of the lease

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.668913261152747
WordScorePoS
market0NN
land0.123873694868802NN
individual0JJ
price0NN
depend0.0633470357346975VB
quality0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.567314965390204
WordScorePoS
market0.0913569596328122NN
land0.0465651203624806NN
individual0JJ
price0.0583416713841148NN
depend0.0357189919948307VB
quality0.0109267235789154NN

The lease should be at fixed rent so that the lessor is the residual claimant on the produce of the land

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.663456017975166
WordScorePoS
produce0VB
land0.123873694868802NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.440706072302299
WordScorePoS
produce0.0357189919948307VB
land0.0465651203624806NN

That land can be freely bought and sold ensures that there is no particular advantage or disadvantage to owning land compared with any other asset of similar value

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.722309246478681
WordScorePoS
land0.123873694868802NN
ensure0.00709051106978941VB
compare0VB
asset0NN

That the lessor is residual claimant means that the land is put to optimal use

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.723674780825693
WordScorePoS
means0.120266261535276NNS
land0.0319966432858631NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.588746609619412
WordScorePoS
means0NNS
land0.123873694868802NN

Not so however in practice

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.765358741157254
WordScorePoS
practice0.0703006268489394NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.428732547341708
WordScorePoS
practice0.0393804437159645NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.304242174591984
WordScorePoS
practice0.02794560829783NN

Many developing and some developed countries have regulations about who can buy land and how much or how little they can buy

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.681612329561242
WordScorePoS
develop0VB
country0NN
regulation0NN
land0.123873694868802NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.537808150088286
WordScorePoS
develop0VB
country0NN
regulation0.0977392570420122NN
land0NN

Binswanger Deininger and Feder argue that almost every developing country today has gone through phase when it had regulations intended to concentrate landownership

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

By contrast Besley and Burgess provide list of regulations from different states in India each of which is an attempt to limit the concentration of ownership in land

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.538747338367208
WordScorePoS
provide0.0445201436316848VB
regulation0NN
limit0NN
concentration0NN
ownership0NN
land0.123873694868802NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.432544739620347
WordScorePoS
provide0.0295703421524739VB
regulation0NN
limit0NN
concentration0NN
ownership0.0736315832425121NN
land0.0319966432858631NN

Governments also directly limit transactions in land with the ostensible aim of preventing the accumulation of land in the hands of few people

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.712491608817713
WordScorePoS
government0NN
limit0NN
transaction0NN
land0.123873694868802NN
aim0NN
prevent0.0528409850971592VB
people0.0159982027144574NNS

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.415040398400781
WordScorePoS
government0NN
limit0.0357189919948307NN
transaction0NN
land0.0465651203624806NN
aim0NN
prevent0.0297950283197006VB
people0.0257736572183839NNS

In Ethiopia in the late Deininger and others note that selling and mortgaging land were against the law

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.67663080162991
WordScorePoS
land0NN
law0.164686343640793NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.508947831416756
WordScorePoS
land0.123873694868802NN
law0NN

While rentals were officially allowed after being disallowed for two decades local leaders and governments were free to restrict even these rental transactions in land

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.489509446527345
WordScorePoS
decade0NN
local0.0130185595639838JJ
government0.048933054487825NN
free0.0898760357768464JJ
transaction0NN
land0NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.488134468196538
WordScorePoS
decade0NN
local0.0275274877486226JJ
government0NN
free0JJ
transaction0NN
land0.123873694868802NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.447564604268434
WordScorePoS
decade0.124232265906675NN
local0.0145856516935579JJ
government0NN
free0JJ
transaction0NN
land0NN

For example the Oromia region allowed farmers to rent only percent of their holding and stipu lates maximum contract terms of years for traditional technologies and years for modern technologies

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.751063921664351
WordScorePoS
region0NN
farmer0NN
hold0NN
maximum0NN
contract0NN
term0.0749457204978913NN
traditional0JJ
technology0.109914925284606NN
modern0.462321869452858JJ

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.366534963015656
WordScorePoS
region0NN
farmer0NN
hold0NN
maximum0NN
contract0NN
term0.149793392961411NN
traditional0JJ
technology0.109843026967392NN
modern0JJ

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.308290224263192
WordScorePoS
region0.0465610847355851NN
farmer0NN
hold0.18234260265061NN
maximum0NN
contract0NN
term0NN
traditional0JJ
technology0.0409315617631NN
modern0JJ

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.27288882084108
WordScorePoS
region0.0297950283197006NN
farmer0.175025014152344NN
hold0NN
maximum0NN
contract0NN
term0NN
traditional0.0440683498519077JJ
technology0.0130963126055467NN
modern0JJ

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.236354651114877
WordScorePoS
region0.184259548107002NN
farmer0NN
hold0NN
maximum0NN
contract0NN
term0NN
traditional0JJ
technology0.0269969049497485NN
modern0JJ

It is often unclear who has the right to sell particular plot of land when no single person or family has clear undisputed legal title to the land

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.581700935487553
WordScorePoS
land0.123873694868802NN
single0JJ
person0NN
family0NN
legal0JJ

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.475961080823263
WordScorePoS
land0.0465651203624806NN
single0.0583416713841148JJ
person0.0214456704626236NN
family0.0297950283197006NN
legal0JJ

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.435248155950694
WordScorePoS
land0.0389167984372011NN
single0JJ
person0.107539312031977NN
family0NN
legal0JJ

This ambiguity reflects encroachments and land grabs in the evolution of land rights as well as the importance of custom in governing land relations especially in Africa

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

The recent popularity of land titling as social intervention is direct consequence

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.495405295601909
WordScorePoS
land0.0319966432858631NN
social0.112994637345193JJ
intervention0NN
direct0JJ

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.481497879388662
WordScorePoS
land0NN
social0.101310366625194JJ
intervention0NN
direct0.0396106020715138JJ

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.44249516682359
WordScorePoS
land0.0389167984372011NN
social0.0458109463416786JJ
intervention0NN
direct0.04477822029736JJ

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.423250861408247
WordScorePoS
land0.123873694868802NN
social0JJ
intervention0NN
direct0JJ

Where lease contracts exist they are not always of the fixed rent type at least when the land is used for cultivation

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.670746823261962
WordScorePoS
contract0NN
exist0VB
type0.0390772412228479NN
land0.123873694868802NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.383314148701293
WordScorePoS
contract0NN
exist0VB
type0.0688661930304451NN
land0.024255976440725NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.344509637597191
WordScorePoS
contract0NN
exist0.04477822029736VB
type0NN
land0.0389167984372011NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.33126133171358
WordScorePoS
contract0.0804764811724088NN
exist0VB
type0NN
land0NN

Many countries including the United States have long tradition of an alternative contractual form sharecropping

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.642678820988759
WordScorePoS
country0NN
include0VB
unite0VB
alternative0NN
form0.158049144643351NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.408829295469437
WordScorePoS
country0NN
include0VB
unite0VB
alternative0NN
form0.100540298425703NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.359531053138267
WordScorePoS
country0NN
include0VB
unite0VB
alternative0NN
form0.0884167543187491NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.336778986737876
WordScorePoS
country0NN
include0VB
unite0.0828215106044499VB
alternative0NN
form0NN

Under sharecropping the farmer gets only fraction of the produce but he does not need to pay fixed rent

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.836666471085324
WordScorePoS
farmer0.175025014152344NN
produce0.0357189919948307VB
pay0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.312685494367991
WordScorePoS
farmer0NN
produce0VB
pay0.078760887431929NN

As Alfred Marshall pointed out more than one hundred years ago this weakens incentives and reduces the productivity of the land but the near universality of sharecropping suggests that it is response to real need

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.56746118335825
WordScorePoS
incentive0.0390772412228479NN
reduce0.00709051106978941VB
productivity0NN
land0.123873694868802NN
suggest0VB
response0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.508721115608284
WordScorePoS
incentive0NN
reduce0VB
productivity0.0922368138456871NN
land0NN
suggest0.0602029956716497VB
response0NN

There is some disagreement among economists about the exact nature of that need

Label: 12, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
nature0.162755901889551NN

It is plausible however that the need is related to the fact that farmers are often poor and making them pay the full rent when their crop does poorly is difficult and probably not desirable

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.663495435245467
WordScorePoS
related0.00896409157262106JJ
farmer0.175025014152344NN
poor0.0548141757796873JJ
pay0NN
full0JJ
crop0.0357189919948307NN
poorly0RB

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.408791708839718
WordScorePoS
related0.0184786920895884JJ
farmer0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
pay0NN
full0JJ
crop0NN
poorly0RB

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.353382583539135
WordScorePoS
related0.0524959536790166JJ
farmer0NN
poor0.0642010940957526JJ
pay0.0295155485671997NN
full0JJ
crop0NN
poorly0RB

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.302891839737228
WordScorePoS
related0JJ
farmer0NN
poor0JJ
pay0.078760887431929NN
full0.0465610847355851JJ
crop0NN
poorly0RB

Leaseholds in developing countries tend to be short lived

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.779168678077625
WordScorePoS
develop0VB
country0NN
live0.0739258553811849VB

The norm is either year or season

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Longer leases are not unknown but they are rare

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

This might reflect the fact that custom rather than law secures most of these leases perhaps it is too much to rely on custom to enforce leases of arbitrary length

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.80218255522153
WordScorePoS
reflect0VB
law0.164686343640793NN
secure0JJ
rely0VB
enforce0.107490825192354VB

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.358317828236475
WordScorePoS
reflect0VB
law0NN
secure0.121575732851624JJ
rely0VB
enforce0VB

The imperfect salability of land can of course hurt anyone who owns it

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.833095789856162
WordScorePoS
land0.123873694868802NN

But the rural poor probably have more of their wealth in land than most people so making land nonsalable might be particularly harsh on them

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.57904802036023
WordScorePoS
rural0.148975141598503JJ
poor0.0548141757796873JJ
land0.0465651203624806NN
people0.0257736572183839NNS

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.451914409771092
WordScorePoS
rural0JJ
poor0.150659516460257JJ
land0.0319966432858631NN
people0.0371911007748996NNS

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.549753844008519
WordScorePoS
rural0.0264204925485796JJ
poor0.016202004209163JJ
land0.123873694868802NN
people0.0159982027144574NNS

What tends to discourage investment in the land is the lack of an explicit title or the insecurity of tenure more generally caused for example by the short duration of leases and the possibility that the landlord might threaten to take the land away at the end of the lease

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.705390151563482
WordScorePoS
investment0NN
land0.123873694868802NN
lack0NN
cause0.0316735178673487NN
threaten0.0517339898971162VB

It clearly helps if land is owned WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT by the person contemplating the investment

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.437524074299847
WordScorePoS
help0NN
land0.0389167984372011NN
world0.00626002771693937NN
development0.0100241617629471NN
report0NN
person0.107539312031977NN
investment0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.367287153309177
WordScorePoS
help0.0542519672965169NN
land0.0144336476662975NN
world0.00464349782489754NN
development0.022306853314744NN
report0.0409791940864438NN
person0NN
investment0NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.364602158681544
WordScorePoS
help0NN
land0.123873694868802NN
world0.00110699520004297NN
development0.0106357666046841NN
report0NN
person0NN
investment0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.357370754949961
WordScorePoS
help0NN
land0.0319966432858631NN
world0.00257343720272548NN
development0.0164833460638534NN
report0NN
person0.0442083771593746NN
investment0.0376648791150643NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.343476613643503
WordScorePoS
help0NN
land0NN
world0.00418824502414673NN
development0.0469463607292177NN
report0NN
person0NN
investment0.0766240489430275NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.308525462824511
WordScorePoS
help0NN
land0.0465651203624806NN
world0.0124838525528648NN
development0.0159922815774215NN
report0NN
person0.0214456704626236NN
investment0.0182713919265625NN

That most who work in agriculture tend to be too poor to buy out the land they are cultivating is thus potential source of underinvestment

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.64050020942473
WordScorePoS
agriculture0.148975141598503NN
poor0.0548141757796873JJ
land0.0465651203624806NN
cultivate0.0583416713841148VB
potential0NN
source0.0130963126055467NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.417296439494065
WordScorePoS
agriculture0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
land0.0319966432858631NN
cultivate0VB
potential0NN
source0.0269969049497485NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.507993549088968
WordScorePoS
agriculture0.0528409850971592NN
poor0.016202004209163JJ
land0.123873694868802NN
cultivate0VB
potential0.0390772412228479NN
source0.0232260916751625NN

The market for human capital One thing makes the market for human capital different from all the other asset markets many decisions about investing in human capital are made by parents or other family members for their children

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.631923121963565
WordScorePoS
market0.0913569596328122NN
human0JJ
asset0NN
decision0NN
invest0.0583416713841148VB
family0.0297950283197006NN
child0.0546336178945768NN

In other words those making the decisions are different from those who receive the human capital

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.595730696360783
WordScorePoS
decision0NN
receive0.0814816979556159VB
human0JJ

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.412760674639312
WordScorePoS
decision0.0393804437159645NN
receive0VB
human0.0170753354211044JJ

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.379801058599897
WordScorePoS
decision0.0519476926891779NN
receive0VB
human0JJ

It is not hard to imagine why this separation might introduce important distortions to the functioning of this market

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.806378040714359
WordScorePoS
introduce0VB
distortion0.0440683498519077NN
function0.0440683498519077NN
market0.0913569596328122NN

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.330220169477284
WordScorePoS
introduce0.0401833161726777VB
distortion0NN
function0NN
market0.0333211986002325NN

Gary Becker classic formulation avoids this issue by assuming that the family can borrow against the child future income turning the problem into conventional investment decision

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.459941086908779
WordScorePoS
avoid0VB
issue0NN
family0NN
child0.0242343960710022NN
future0NN
income0.166475342664294NN
investment0.0202620733250388NN
decision0.02794560829783NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.378922389536916
WordScorePoS
avoid0VB
issue0NN
family0.0297950283197006NN
child0.0546336178945768NN
future0.0297950283197006NN
income0.0643370113878709NN
investment0.0182713919265625NN
decision0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.373828624661338
WordScorePoS
avoid0VB
issue0.0249430985430622NN
family0.0624189222007589NN
child0.10682408961305NN
future0NN
income0NN
investment0NN
decision0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.344343356367431
WordScorePoS
avoid0VB
issue0NN
family0NN
child0.0450489732120807NN
future0NN
income0.0442083771593746NN
investment0.0376648791150643NN
decision0.0519476926891779NN

Under that assumption the amount invested will not depend on the family means

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.683224784663603
WordScorePoS
amount0.0614198493690006NN
invest0VB
depend0VB
family0NN
means0.120266261535276NNS

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.465755350637412
WordScorePoS
amount0NN
invest0.0583416713841148VB
depend0.0357189919948307VB
family0.0297950283197006NN
means0NNS

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.312965802887863
WordScorePoS
amount0.020806307400253NN
invest0VB
depend0VB
family0.0624189222007589NN
means0NNS

In practice however although human capital is an asset it cannot be legally pledged or mortgaged for the simple reason that pledging your human capital would be tantamount to selling yourself into slavery

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

This obviously constrains people ability to borrow money to finance investments in their education

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.674737756951078
WordScorePoS
people0.00720147981137839NNS
ability0NN
money0NN
finance0NN
investment0NN
education0.244244978014045NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.342465751297375
WordScorePoS
people0NNS
ability0NN
money0.107490825192354NN
finance0NN
investment0NN
education0.0201317944152378NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.3164001027022
WordScorePoS
people0.00432344066632653NNS
ability0NN
money0NN
finance0.036961556179878NN
investment0.0766240489430275NN
education0NN

When parents cannot borrow against their children future income true most of the time in most developing countries they may still hope that those children will take care of them in their old age

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.406064826410181
WordScorePoS
child0.0242343960710022NN
future0NN
income0.166475342664294NN
time0.0607862199751165NN
develop0VB
country0NN
care0NN
age0.0202620733250388NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.575849189728759
WordScorePoS
child0.10682408961305NN
future0NN
income0NN
time0.0127591822694525NN
develop0VB
country0NN
care0.104031537001265NN
age0.0893142758861673NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.354236765244618
WordScorePoS
child0.0546336178945768NN
future0.0297950283197006NN
income0.0643370113878709NN
time0.0182713919265625NN
develop0VB
country0NN
care0NN
age0.0365427838531249NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.339266184655504
WordScorePoS
child0.0450489732120807NN
future0NN
income0.0442083771593746NN
time0NN
develop0VB
country0NN
care0NN
age0.112994637345193NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.301544984379306
WordScorePoS
child0.076326555629389NN
future0NN
income0NN
time0NN
develop0VB
country0NN
care0.0416255041156371NN
age0.0255262687343935NN

The hope might be that the children do grow up to reap the benefits of their parent investment and that they will pay their parents back

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.401500274303869
WordScorePoS
child0.0452169560888236NN
grow0VB
benefit0NN
investment0.0252035516550537NN
pay0.0695218668857431NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.387942028721417
WordScorePoS
child0.0170753354211044NN
grow0VB
benefit0.0393804437159645NN
investment0NN
pay0.078760887431929NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.333888684253023
WordScorePoS
child0.0546336178945768NN
grow0.0182713919265625VB
benefit0.0252000451111224NN
investment0.0182713919265625NN
pay0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.324104619356429
WordScorePoS
child0.0242343960710022NN
grow0.0405241466500776VB
benefit0NN
investment0.0202620733250388NN
pay0.02794560829783NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.306482588961462
WordScorePoS
child0.10682408961305NN
grow0VB
benefit0NN
investment0NN
pay0NN

But children know that they have no legal obligation to do so

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.627463469441831
WordScorePoS
child0.0603953832457135NN
legal0.0811931365363091JJ
obligation0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.473401473451099
WordScorePoS
child0.10682408961305NN
legal0JJ
obligation0NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.338248648121273
WordScorePoS
child0.076326555629389NN
legal0JJ
obligation0NN

If they do repay their parents it is because they love their parents or because society expects them to do so

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.756845237432032
WordScorePoS
society0.118536858482514NN
expect0VB

Investments in human capital may thus be driven as much by parents sense of what is the right thing to do as by any calculation of costs and benefits

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.576727876130714
WordScorePoS
investment0.0202620733250388NN
human0JJ
drive0NN
sense0.064698038783335NN
cost0.0660824365173543NN
benefit0NN

Once we accept this it becomes clear that children human capital may not be very different from any other consumption good so richer families will tend to invest more in their children health and education

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.538368084557898
WordScorePoS
child0.10682408961305NN
human0JJ
consumption0NN
family0.0624189222007589NN
invest0VB
health0.191387734041787NN
education0.0152605842304358NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.459682063887341
WordScorePoS
child0.076326555629389NN
human0.0152653111258778JJ
consumption0NN
family0NN
invest0VB
health0NN
education0.244244978014045NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.431008490449024
WordScorePoS
child0NN
human0.0101607690729067JJ
consumption0.332151194779746NN
family0NN
invest0VB
health0.0339811641917276NN
education0.0101607690729067NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.299333850094303
WordScorePoS
child0.0452169560888236NN
human0.0150723186962745JJ
consumption0.147812295323721NN
family0NN
invest0VB
health0NN
education0.0150723186962745NN

And human capital decisions may be more product of culture and tradition than of the cold calculation of benefits

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.443238323309381
WordScorePoS
human0.0150723186962745JJ
decision0NN
product0.0591643007226199NN
culture0.0410992516792148NN
benefit0NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.378600411084002
WordScorePoS
human0.0152653111258778JJ
decision0NN
product0NN
culture0.0832510082312742NN
benefit0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.368300740482976
WordScorePoS
human0.0170753354211044JJ
decision0.0393804437159645NN
product0NN
culture0NN
benefit0.0393804437159645NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.35214630314139
WordScorePoS
human0.0273960270556257JJ
decision0NN
product0.0268848280079943NN
culture0.0373517915079663NN
benefit0NN

Benefits are relevant but the responsiveness to them may not be as large as one might have expected

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.538840808253954
WordScorePoS
benefit0NN
relevant0.0832510082312742JJ
expect0VB

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.394313687510147
WordScorePoS
benefit0NN
relevant0.0277064208763707JJ
expect0.0332151194779746VB

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.394297485275296
WordScorePoS
benefit0.0252000451111224NN
relevant0JJ
expect0.0357189919948307VB

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.35530990114967
WordScorePoS
benefit0NN
relevant0.0548954478802642JJ
expect0VB

In the market for human capital the reward should be based entirely on the human capital supplied not on other attributes of the person supplying the skills

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.799214036760365
WordScorePoS
market0NN
human0.0152653111258778JJ
base0NN
supply0.0352060273355634NN
person0.0299609328954485NN
skill0.407534682675042NN

Discrimination based on gender caste religion or race obviously violates this but so does system of job allocation based on contacts

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.594952898097021
WordScorePoS
discrimination0.111637082206855NN
base0NN
gender0.196902218579822NN
religion0NN
race0NN
system0NN
job0.0170753354211044NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.247857031687647
WordScorePoS
discrimination0NN
base0NN
gender0NN
religion0NN
race0NN
system0NN
job0.135650868266471NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.527080106953576
WordScorePoS
discrimination0.0736315832425121NN
base0.0442083771593746NN
gender0.0519476926891779NN
religion0NN
race0NN
system0.0519476926891779NN
job0.0225244866060403NN

Until very recently job discrimination based on gender was the norm all over the world and the number of countries where such discrimination is still either legally or socially accepted is dwindling but significant

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.735832992930993
WordScorePoS
job0.0170753354211044NN
discrimination0.111637082206855NN
base0NN
gender0.196902218579822NN
world0.00585260443759492NN
country0NN
socially0RB
significant0JJ

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.228125748082462
WordScorePoS
job0.135650868266471NN
discrimination0NN
base0NN
gender0NN
world0.00172202218602071NN
country0NN
socially0RB
significant0JJ

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.508455536787046
WordScorePoS
job0.0225244866060403NN
discrimination0.0736315832425121NN
base0.0442083771593746NN
gender0.0519476926891779NN
world0.00257343720272548NN
country0NN
socially0RB
significant0.0376648791150643JJ

Even where such discrimination is explicitly frowned on there is some evidence of continuing discrimination

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.443358529770457
WordScorePoS
discrimination0NN
evidence0.12939607756667NN
continue0.0237821918091848VB

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.743244926526785
WordScorePoS
discrimination0.111637082206855NN
evidence0NN
continue0.0335134328085675VB

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.426237881183647
WordScorePoS
discrimination0.0736315832425121NN
evidence0NN
continue0VB

The same is true of race caste and religion

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.9509058429588
WordScorePoS
race0.0488696285210061NN
religion0.064698038783335NN

Most discrimination unless legally mandated through affirmative action in favor of historically disadvantaged group such as low castes in India and African Americans in the United States flies in the face of explicit laws against it

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.484730154365526
WordScorePoS
discrimination0NN
mandate0NN
action0NN
disadvantaged0JJ
african0IN
unite0VB
law0.164686343640793NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.586109218289141
WordScorePoS
discrimination0.111637082206855NN
mandate0NN
action0.0409315617631NN
disadvantaged0JJ
african0IN
unite0VB
law0.0465610847355851NN

One reason discrimination is so hard to eliminate comes from its sheer insidiousness

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.868522689718291
WordScorePoS
discrimination0.111637082206855NN
eliminate0.078760887431929VB

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.335879110724383
WordScorePoS
discrimination0.0736315832425121NN
eliminate0VB

Beliefs about differences are embedded in everyday attitudes and practices in way that neither the discriminator nor the discriminated against may be conscious of even though these beliefs transform how they both behave

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.799863112923052
WordScorePoS
practice0NN
transform0.122412709674631VB

This is what underlies the power of the stereotype

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.623097563611691
WordScorePoS
underlie0.0607878664258118VB
power0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.500931324892123
WordScorePoS
underlie0.0488696285210061VB
power0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.4661279839605
WordScorePoS
underlie0VB
power0.0454743001434393NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.378869286868066
WordScorePoS
underlie0VB
power0.036961556179878NN

In telling example Stone Perry and Darley asked all participants in recent experiment American Caucasians hereafter referred to as whites to listen to the same running account of an athlete basketball performance on the radio

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Half the participants were led to believe that the target player was white half that he was African American

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.626023036716596
WordScorePoS
lead0NN
target0.0898760357768464NN
african0IN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.525386036121495
WordScorePoS
lead0.0255262687343935NN
target0.0499016491051341NN
african0IN

The results indicated that information was less likely to be absorbed if it was discordant with the prevailing U

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.525841945549065
WordScorePoS
result0.0683326727248364NN
information0NN
absorb0VB

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.519978145802727
WordScorePoS
result0NN
information0.0675706773907211NN
absorb0VB

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.501273786539554
WordScorePoS
result0NN
information0.0119417512090511NN
absorb0.0531983120572613VB

stereotypes that whites are more academically talented than African Americans and that African Americans are more athletically gifted

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

The white target player was perceived as exhibiting less natural athletic ability but more court smarts

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

The African American target player Inequality and investment was perceived as exhibiting fewer court smarts but more natural athletic ability

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.935938624304758
WordScorePoS
african0IN
target0NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
investment0.0202620733250388NN
natural0JJ
ability0NN

Such biases have also been documented in real world settings

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.906062751917026
WordScorePoS
document0.0911713013253052NN
world0.00585260443759492NN
setting0VBG

A recent study of the effect of stereotyping on judgment finds that prison inmates with more Afrocentric features receive harsher sentences than those with less Afrocentric features controlling for race and criminal history

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Bertrand and Mullanaithan show evidence from field experiment proving beyond reasonable doubt that there is high degree of African American discrimination in the United States

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.763895582790276
WordScorePoS
evidence0NN
field0NN
doubt0NN
degree0.164469921319675NN
african0IN
discrimination0NN
unite0.0828215106044499VB

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.399710945561168
WordScorePoS
evidence0.12939607756667NN
field0NN
doubt0NN
degree0NN
african0IN
discrimination0NN
unite0VB

They sent the same resumes to large number of companies under either stereotypically white name or stereotypical African American name and found percent higher callback rate when the name was white

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

The data say that having white name is worth as much as eight additional years of job experience

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.514886731776123
WordScorePoS
datum0NN
worth0JJ
additional0JJ
job0.135650868266471NN
experience0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.534595698677786
WordScorePoS
datum0.0739231123597559NN
worth0JJ
additional0.036961556179878JJ
job0NN
experience0.0299586785922821NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.514985637375237
WordScorePoS
datum0.0454743001434393NN
worth0JJ
additional0JJ
job0.0902026255635679NN
experience0NN

Moreover the discrimination tended to be greater when the resume corresponded to someone who was better educated suggesting that investment in human capital among African Americans probably is significantly underrewarded

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

very different form of discrimination comes from the allocation of jobs based on contacts

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.445199618052494
WordScorePoS
form0.0591643007226199NN
discrimination0NN
job0.135650868266471NN
base0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.361180390592088
WordScorePoS
form0.158049144643351NN
discrimination0NN
job0NN
base0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.523897713685236
WordScorePoS
form0.100540298425703NN
discrimination0.111637082206855NN
job0.0170753354211044NN
base0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.522820188883396
WordScorePoS
form0.0884167543187491NN
discrimination0.0736315832425121NN
job0.0225244866060403NN
base0.0442083771593746NN

Munshi presents persuasive evidence that contacts are very important in the allocation of jobs for migrant labor in the United States

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.75302935552298
WordScorePoS
evidence0NN
job0.135650868266471NN
migrant0.121575732851624NN
unite0VB

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.521871801685945
WordScorePoS
evidence0.12939607756667NN
job0NN
migrant0.0488696285210061NN
unite0VB

The employment prospects for Mexican migrants there it turns out are much better when they are from areas where there was an earlier outflow of migrants

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.901753678468408
WordScorePoS
employment0.173804667214358NN
prospects0NNS
migrant0.121575732851624NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.3551576708002
WordScorePoS
employment0.104016094894625NN
prospects0.0602029956716497NNS
migrant0NN

Quite remarkably it helps if migrants are from an area where there was drought several years ago which pushed out cohort of migrants to the United States

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.807322659834827
WordScorePoS
help0NN
migrant0.121575732851624NN
drought0NN
unite0VB

These migrants then help the later generations of migrants from that area to find jobs

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.850682940113508
WordScorePoS
migrant0.121575732851624NN
generation0NN
job0.135650868266471NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.406814434844383
WordScorePoS
migrant0NN
generation0.0909486002868787NN
job0.0902026255635679NN

This is the clincher it does not help to be from an area where there was recent drought

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.685306590488521
WordScorePoS
drought0.0714379839896614NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.607689896220794
WordScorePoS
drought0.0633470357346975NN

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.401332614005091
WordScorePoS
drought0.041835863322702NN

The perception of discrimination conscious or not can affect investments in human capital

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.530137193599228
WordScorePoS
discrimination0.0736315832425121NN
affect0.0184786920895884VB
investment0.0376648791150643NN
human0JJ

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.525795867115989
WordScorePoS
discrimination0.111637082206855NN
affect0VB
investment0NN
human0.0170753354211044JJ

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.313012598150323
WordScorePoS
discrimination0NN
affect0VB
investment0.0766240489430275NN
human0JJ

Those who expect to be discriminated against in particular labor market rightly or wrongly consciously or otherwise will tend to invest less in acquiring the type of human capital that the market rewards

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.771262775253558
WordScorePoS
expect0.0357189919948307VB
market0.0913569596328122NN
invest0.0583416713841148VB
acquire0NN
type0NN
human0JJ

This could perversely gen erate self reinforcing behavior

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.910131609690198
WordScorePoS
reinforce0.0811931365363091VB

If members of the discriminated group invest less in their own education or in searching for employment others might use this underinvestment to confirm their prejudice against that group

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.730166675141173
WordScorePoS
invest0VB
education0.244244978014045NN
employment0.0352060273355634NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.49350933857088
WordScorePoS
invest0VB
education0.0150723186962745NN
employment0.173804667214358NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.330701347286083
WordScorePoS
invest0VB
education0.022550656390892NN
employment0.104016094894625NN

Stereotypes can be self fulfilling not only because they influence perceptions of the target of the stereotype but also because they influence the behavior of the individuals who are stereotyped

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Stone and others asked college undergraduate volunteers to play miniature golf course

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Performance was measured by how many strokes were needed to put the ball in the hole fewer strokes meant better performance

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.541354985260378
WordScorePoS
performance0NN
measure0.103895385378356NN

The variable that the experimenters manipulated was the description of the task

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

In one treatment the task was described as standardized test of natural athletic ability in the other as standardized test of sports intelligence

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

When the task was described as test of natural athletic ability the African American participants performed better than the whites they averaged

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.688298140992923
WordScorePoS
natural0.0171695137813101JJ
ability0NN
african0IN
average0.1656430212089NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.551989629110901
WordScorePoS
natural0JJ
ability0NN
african0IN
average0.146608885563018NN

strokes to complete the hole golf course compared with

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.844949350628668
WordScorePoS
complete0.0815069365350084JJ
compare0VB

for the whites

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

But when the task was described as test of sports intelligence the race gap was reversed African Americans averaged

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.721935495022669
WordScorePoS
race0.0488696285210061NN
gap0NN
reverse0NN
african0IN
average0.146608885563018NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.611747930834463
WordScorePoS
race0NN
gap0NN
reverse0NN
african0IN
average0.1656430212089NN

strokes whites

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

One way to interpret this behavior is that social ideas stereotypes about the talents of different social groups impose bounds from within

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.614442639398115
WordScorePoS
social0.112994637345193JJ
idea0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.550905870668943
WordScorePoS
social0.101310366625194JJ
idea0NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.447967530486747
WordScorePoS
social0.0458109463416786JJ
idea0.0731385760866977NN

Under the rational self interest hypothesis individuals change their behavior only when their preferences or external constraints change

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.937203242313201
WordScorePoS
individual0JJ
change0.402565546215053NN
external0JJ
constraint0NN

But the behavior of real individuals depends as well on belief systems that society impresses on them

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.491685405910142
WordScorePoS
individual0JJ
depend0VB
system0NN
society0.118536858482514NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.461746590947508
WordScorePoS
individual0JJ
depend0.0357189919948307VB
system0.0756001353333673NN
society0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.36701190373055
WordScorePoS
individual0.064698038783335JJ
depend0VB
system0NN
society0.0237821918091848NN

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.365511423489984
WordScorePoS
individual0JJ
depend0.0651400632663124VB
system0.0229784274580034NN
society0NN

Negative stereotypes create anxiety that may interfere with performance that is why the psychologist Claude Steele termed this kind of behavior stereotype threat

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.561248060388364
WordScorePoS
create0VB
performance0NN
term0.149793392961411NN
kind0NN
threat0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.633236681967972
WordScorePoS
create0VB
performance0.064698038783335NN
term0.0396106020715138NN
kind0NN
threat0.064698038783335NN

The beliefs underlying the stereotypes if deeply internalized can affect early decisions about prospective careers and attitudes toward society by changing what Appadurai calls person capacity to aspire

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.73432113827552
WordScorePoS
underlie0VB
affect0.0336940052321454VB
decision0NN
society0NN
change0.402565546215053NN
person0NN
capacity0.025270503924109NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.341303683213874
WordScorePoS
underlie0VB
affect0.033031539117106VB
decision0.0464294830712827NN
society0.118536858482514NN
change0NN
person0NN
capacity0.016515769558553NN

The reader may recall the example from chapter of the Batwa girl who wanted to be cleaner upon completing school

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.72978390656403
WordScorePoS
recall0NN
girl0.393804437159645NN
cleaner0JJR
complete0JJ
school0.0931221694711702NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.645152123469788
WordScorePoS
recall0NN
girl0.140824109342254NN
cleaner0JJR
complete0.0815069365350084JJ
school0.208127520578185NN

Positive stereotypes by contrast can WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT boost self confidence and lead individuals to expend greater effort

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Stereotypes influence behavior twice through their impact on individuals selfconfidence and through their impact on the way individuals expect to be treated

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.7662424426902
WordScorePoS
influence0.0542519672965169NN
impact0.0866018859977851NN
individual0JJ
expect0.0332151194779746VB

To examine the effect of stereotypes on the ability of individuals to respond to economic incentives Hoff and Pandey undertook experiments with low and high caste children in rural north India

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.481034255514301
WordScorePoS
effect0.0440683498519077NN
ability0NN
individual0JJ
economic0JJ
incentive0NN
undertake0VB
child0.0546336178945768NN
rural0.148975141598503JJ
north0RB

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.455380999719135
WordScorePoS
effect0NN
ability0.0607878664258118NN
individual0JJ
economic0.128463821595706JJ
incentive0NN
undertake0VB
child0.0452169560888236NN
rural0JJ
north0RB

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.437477679641594
WordScorePoS
effect0NN
ability0NN
individual0.064698038783335JJ
economic0.103276847978089JJ
incentive0NN
undertake0VB
child0.0242343960710022NN
rural0.0330412182586772JJ
north0RB

The caste system in India can be described as highly stratified social hierarchy in which groups of individuals are invested with different social status and social meaning

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.649220125343475
WordScorePoS
system0NN
highly0RB
social0.101310366625194JJ
individual0.064698038783335JJ
invest0VB
status0.0488696285210061NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.607907580504915
WordScorePoS
system0.0519476926891779NN
highly0RB
social0.112994637345193JJ
individual0JJ
invest0VB
status0NN

In the first experiment groups composed of three low caste untouchable and three high caste junior high school students were asked to solve mazes and were paid based on the number of mazes they solved

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.690130718687803
WordScorePoS
school0.208127520578185NN
pay0NN
base0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.569947584352406
WordScorePoS
school0.0931221694711702NN
pay0.078760887431929NN
base0NN

In one condition no personal information about the participants was announced

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.667866102758123
WordScorePoS
condition0.0409791940864438NN
personal0.0542519672965169JJ
information0.0365348149782971NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.616216060714822
WordScorePoS
condition0.121575732851624NN
personal0JJ
information0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.342487235444916
WordScorePoS
condition0NN
personal0JJ
information0.0675706773907211NN

In second condition caste was announced with each participant name and village

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.947616466099916
WordScorePoS
condition0.121575732851624NN

In third condition participants were segregated by caste and then each participant name village and caste were announced in the six person group

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.756070620991954
WordScorePoS
condition0.121575732851624NN
person0.0295821503613099NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.537896619751735
WordScorePoS
condition0NN
person0.107539312031977NN

When caste was not announced there was no caste gap in performance figure

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.880885961606775
WordScorePoS
gap0.0602029956716497NN
performance0NN
figure0.0602029956716497NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.473328556759581
WordScorePoS
gap0NN
performance0.064698038783335NN
figure0NN

But increasing the salience of caste led to significant decline in the average perFigure

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.657787486284102
WordScorePoS
increase0.0145316075945746NN
lead0NN
significant0.0343390275626203JJ
decline0.0236803262479443NN
average0.1656430212089NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.601846050957141
WordScorePoS
increase0.00285817158600878NN
lead0NN
significant0.0405241466500776JJ
decline0.02794560829783NN
average0.146608885563018NN

Children performance differs when their caste is made public Average number of mazes solved by caste in five experimental treatments Piece rate Tournament formance of the low caste regardless of whether the payment scheme was piece rate that is participants were paid rupee per maze solved or tournament that is the participant who solved the most mazes was paid rupees per maze solved while the other participants received nothing

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.516238243909693
WordScorePoS
child0.0242343960710022NN
performance0.064698038783335NN
public0.0172128079963482NN
average0.146608885563018NN
treatment0.0330412182586772NN
rate0.0172128079963482NN
pay0.02794560829783NN
receive0VB

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.227355738792756
WordScorePoS
child0NN
performance0NN
public0NN
average0.1656430212089NN
treatment0NN
rate0NN
pay0NN
receive0VB

When caste was announced the low caste children solved percent fewer mazes on average in the piece rate treatments compared with the performance of subjects when caste was not announced

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.59237992325329
WordScorePoS
child0.0242343960710022NN
average0.146608885563018NN
rate0.0172128079963482NN
treatment0.0330412182586772NN
compare0VB
performance0.064698038783335NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.429168989863113
WordScorePoS
child0NN
average0.1656430212089NN
rate0NN
treatment0NN
compare0.0414107553022249VB
performance0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.504448811424196
WordScorePoS
child0.10682408961305NN
average0NN
rate0.0433561464459019NN
treatment0.0624189222007589NN
compare0.0307735781890304VB
performance0NN

When caste was announced and groups were composed of six children drawn from only the low caste pattern of segregation that for the low caste implicitly evokes their traditional outcast status the decline in low caste performance was even greater

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

While we cannot be sure from these data what the children were thinking some combination of loss of self confidence and expectation of prejudicial treatment likely explains the result

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.576706163942437
WordScorePoS
datum0NN
child0.10682408961305NN
loss0NN
treatment0.0624189222007589NN
result0NN

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.438982463049995
WordScorePoS
datum0NN
child0.0255958462813622NN
loss0NN
treatment0.0348974218717993NN
result0.0683326727248364NN

The expectation by the low caste subjects of prejudicial treatment may be rational given the discrimination in their villages

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.660536978613103
WordScorePoS
treatment0NN
discrimination0.111637082206855NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.516905709885307
WordScorePoS
treatment0.0624189222007589NN
discrimination0.0249430985430622NN

But the discrimination itself may not be fully rational

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.820625642668986
WordScorePoS
discrimination0.111637082206855NN
fully0RB

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.541253534440827
WordScorePoS
discrimination0.0736315832425121NN
fully0RB

Cognitive limitations may prevent others from judging stigmatized individuals fairly

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.55011420458368
WordScorePoS
prevent0VB
individual0.064698038783335JJ

That people are bounded in their ability to process information creates broad scope for belief systems in which some social groups are viewed as innately inferior to others to influence economic behavior

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.462404899344593
WordScorePoS
people0.0106656521351091NNS
ability0.0607878664258118NN
process0NN
information0NN
create0.0695218668857431VB
system0NN
social0.0504071033101074JJ
view0NN
influence0NN
economic0.128463821595706JJ

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.506101102157986
WordScorePoS
people0.0371911007748996NNS
ability0NN
process0NN
information0NN
create0.0519476926891779VB
system0.0519476926891779NN
social0.112994637345193JJ
view0NN
influence0NN
economic0.0959899298575892JJ

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.379934159228169
WordScorePoS
people0.0186171553883251NNS
ability0NN
process0.0737171311497939NN
information0.0675706773907211NN
create0.0520080474473126VB
system0NN
social0.0188543197850406JJ
view0NN
influence0NN
economic0.0320338181740375JJ

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.328862104386366
WordScorePoS
people0.0119834723221875NNS
ability0.0409791940864438NN
process0NN
information0.0365348149782971NN
create0.0234335422829798VB
system0NN
social0.0169905820958638JJ
view0NN
influence0.0542519672965169NN
economic0.0433009429988926JJ

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.304037884187976
WordScorePoS
people0.00571634317201755NNS
ability0NN
process0NN
information0NN
create0VB
system0NN
social0.101310366625194JJ
view0NN
influence0NN
economic0.103276847978089JJ

If such beliefs persist it will generally be rational for those discriminated against to underinvest with respect to others in the accumulation of skills for which the return is likely to be lower for them

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.941995214619795
WordScorePoS
persist0VB
respect0NN
skill0.407534682675042NN
return0NN

This rational calculation is additional to any reduction in their capacity to aspire arising from the internalization of those beliefs

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.580974541447928
WordScorePoS
additional0.0440683498519077JJ
reduction0NN
capacity0.0179281831452421NN
arise0.0440683498519077VB

High caste Low caste Caste Caste Caste Caste Caste announced not announced announced not and announced announced segregated Source Hoff and Pandey

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Note vertical line in the figure indicates that the caste gaps are statistically significant

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.805582594888596
WordScorePoS
line0.030745604615229NN
figure0.0602029956716497NN
gap0.0602029956716497NN
significant0JJ

The evidence on underinvestment Highly imperfect markets suggest considerable scope for underinvestment

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.719178415202685
WordScorePoS
evidence0.12939607756667NN
highly0RB
market0.0202620733250388NN
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.470511858147998
WordScorePoS
evidence0NN
highly0RB
market0.0377086395700813NN
suggest0.0602029956716497VB

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.439013532206494
WordScorePoS
evidence0NN
highly0RB
market0.0913569596328122NN
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Industry and trade Direct estimates of marginal products show that there are many unexploited investment opportunities

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.653942225389802
WordScorePoS
industry0.181897200573757NN
trade0NN
direct0JJ
estimate0.0221298700466866NN
product0.0442597400933733NN
investment0.0377086395700813NN
opportunity0.0135141354781442NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.39227035776137
WordScorePoS
industry0NN
trade0.0591643007226199NN
direct0JJ
estimate0NN
product0.0591643007226199NN
investment0.0252035516550537NN
opportunity0.0361300980868102NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.389801389995624
WordScorePoS
industry0NN
trade0.0539615408530051NN
direct0.0299586785922821JJ
estimate0NN
product0.017987180284335NN
investment0.0766240489430275NN
opportunity0NN

For small Mexican firms Inequality and investment with less than invested the rate of return reaches percent per month well above the informal interest rates available in pawn shops or through microcredit programs on the order of percent month figure

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.846464874356204
WordScorePoS
firm0NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
investment0.0202620733250388NN
invest0VB
rate0.0172128079963482NN
return0NN
reach0NN
figure0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.352932687662867
WordScorePoS
firm0NN
inequality0NN
investment0NN
invest0VB
rate0.0571955184484387NN
return0.107490825192354NN
reach0.0658099748168827NN
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Estimated rates of return decline with investment but the rates remain high percent to percent month for firms with investments between and and percent for firms with investments between and

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.368957959148312
WordScorePoS
estimate0NN
rate0.0571955184484387NN
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decline0NN
investment0NN
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firm0NN

All these firms are thus too small and could reap large gains from increased investment

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.585304551952242
WordScorePoS
firm0.0602029956716497NN
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increase0.0159575617614215NN
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.416082095811653
WordScorePoS
firm0NN
gain0NN
increase0.00432344066632653NN
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.390738734775275
WordScorePoS
firm0NN
gain0.0664302389559493NN
increase0.00958677785775002NN
investment0NN

Trade credit is an important form of credit everywhere perhaps especially where the formal institutions of the credit market are underdeveloped

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.728525673487404
WordScorePoS
trade0NN
credit0NN
form0.158049144643351NN
institution0.274477239401321NN
market0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.367723222927376
WordScorePoS
trade0NN
credit0.0602029956716497NN
form0NN
institution0NN
market0.0377086395700813NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.310983846247919
WordScorePoS
trade0.0591643007226199NN
credit0NN
form0.0591643007226199NN
institution0.0410992516792148NN
market0.0252035516550537NN

Fisman looked at the relation between access to trade credit and capacity utilization for firms in Côte Ivoire Kenya Tanzania Zambia and Zimbabwe

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

He finds that firms that receive trade credit from three main suppliers on average about one of the three suppliers provides trade credit have percent better capacity utilization than firms that receive no trade credit

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.376778552604158
WordScorePoS
firm0NN
receive0VB
trade0.0237821918091848NN
credit0NN
average0.146608885563018NN
capacity0NN
utilization0NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.330031288710329
WordScorePoS
firm0NN
receive0VB
trade0NN
credit0NN
average0.1656430212089NN
capacity0.025270503924109NN
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The relation is much stronger in industries in which it is important to carry large inventories

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.922408056929568
WordScorePoS
relation0NN
industry0.181897200573757NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.328086369955381
WordScorePoS
relation0.064698038783335NN
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Such studies present serious methodological issues however

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.709104748443281
WordScorePoS
study0.0517339898971162NN
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Label: 13, with a score of: 0.460065828664921
WordScorePoS
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The basic problem comes from the fact that investment levels are likely to be correlated with omitted variables

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.507600513262565
WordScorePoS
basic0.0639932865717261JJ
investment0.0376648791150643NN
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.406472351270714
WordScorePoS
basic0JJ
investment0.0766240489430275NN
level0.0138997399903163NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.385079015031155
WordScorePoS
basic0.0480507272610562JJ
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For example in world without credit constraints investment will be positively correlated with the expected returns to investment generating positive ability bias

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.623838297690213
WordScorePoS
world0.00257642711761688NN
credit0.0602029956716497NN
constraint0.0602029956716497NN
investment0.0377086395700813NN
positively0RB
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positive0.0454743001434393JJ
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McKenzie and Woodruff attempt to control for managerial ability by including the firm owner wage in previous employment

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.72384389680492
WordScorePoS
control0NN
ability0.0607878664258118NN
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firm0NN
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employment0.173804667214358NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.506704048081854
WordScorePoS
control0NN
ability0NN
include0VB
firm0.0602029956716497NN
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employment0.104016094894625NN

This goes only part of the way however if individuals choose to enter selfemployment precisely because their expected productivity in self employment is much higher than their productivity in an employed job

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.591773976374342
WordScorePoS
individual0JJ
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productivity0.0410992516792148NN
employment0.173804667214358NN
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job0.135650868266471NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.696591116047222
WordScorePoS
individual0JJ
enter0.0368585655748969VB
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productivity0.0922368138456871NN
employment0.104016094894625NN
employ0.0454743001434393VB
job0.0902026255635679NN

Conversely if capital is allocated to firms to avoid their failure there could be negative ability bias

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Banerjee and Duflo take advantage of change in the definition of the priority sector in India to circumvent these difficulties

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.843088464859258
WordScorePoS
change0.402565546215053NN
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All banks in India are required to lend at least percent of their net credit to the priority sector which Figure

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.646403168177246
WordScorePoS
bank0NN
require0.0260040237236563VB
credit0.0602029956716497NN
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sector0.0565629593551219NN
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.412372082521214
WordScorePoS
bank0NN
require0.104282800328615VB
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priority0NN
sector0.0252035516550537NN
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.338875299755618
WordScorePoS
bank0.0881366997038154NN
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credit0NN
priority0NN
sector0.0182713919265625NN
figure0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.33387143841385
WordScorePoS
bank0NN
require0.0468670845659596VB
credit0NN
priority0.0409791940864438NN
sector0.0169905820958638NN
figure0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.331435865140757
WordScorePoS
bank0.036961556179878NN
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credit0NN
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Returns to capital vary with firm size evidence from small Mexican firms Monthly returns Nonrented capital US Source McKenzie and Woodruff

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.502374963637468
WordScorePoS
return0NN
firm0NN
size0.0396106020715138NN
evidence0.12939607756667NN
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includes small industry

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.976457178276353
WordScorePoS
include0VB
industry0.181897200573757NN

In January the limit on total investment in plants and machinery for firm to be eligible for inclusion in the small industry category was raised from Rs

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.76584674694403
WordScorePoS
limit0.0368585655748969NN
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investment0.0377086395700813NN
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firm0.0602029956716497NN
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industry0.181897200573757NN
raise0.0368585655748969NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.426571136846386
WordScorePoS
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million to Rs million

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

The researchers first show that after the reforms newly eligible firms those with investment between Rs

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.556267568939568
WordScorePoS
researcher0NN
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.517973558710097
WordScorePoS
researcher0NN
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firm0NN
investment0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.435325927532643
WordScorePoS
researcher0NN
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million and Rs million received on average larger increments in their working capital limit than smaller firms

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.710940097274402
WordScorePoS
receive0VB
average0.1656430212089NN
limit0.0335649154577099NN
firm0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.523222804811745
WordScorePoS
receive0VB
average0.146608885563018NN
limit0NN
firm0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.34639661927582
WordScorePoS
receive0VB
average0NN
limit0.0368585655748969NN
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They then show that the sales and profits increased faster for these firms during the same period

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.674606396617873
WordScorePoS
increase0.0159575617614215NN
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Putting these two facts together researchers can estimate the impact of the increased access to working capital on the growth in profits

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.591399724638828
WordScorePoS
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increase0.00711043475673939NN
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.466125823322778
WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.31314863796801
WordScorePoS
put0VBN
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Allowing for the possibility that the firms in the priority sector were paying less than the true cost of capital for the extra money from the bank they estimate that the returns to capital in these firms must be at least percent

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.617967486200451
WordScorePoS
firm0NN
priority0NN
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different kind of evidence for underinvestment comes from the fact that many people pay the high interest rates reported earlier

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.628080909771636
WordScorePoS
kind0NN
evidence0.12939607756667NN
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pay0.02794560829783NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.352536123453889
WordScorePoS
kind0NN
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Given that this money typically goes into financing trade and industry the presumption is that the people borrowing at these rates of often percent or more must have marginal product of capital that is even higher

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.61591707086603
WordScorePoS
money0NN
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financing0NN
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industry0.181897200573757NN
people0.0186171553883251NNS
rate0NN
product0.0442597400933733NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.414394872747862
WordScorePoS
money0.107490825192354NN
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trade0NN
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rate0.0571955184484387NN
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But the average marginal product in developing countries seems to be nowhere near percent

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.698742917299257
WordScorePoS
average0.1656430212089NN
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develop0VB
country0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.61844996337698
WordScorePoS
average0.146608885563018NN
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One way to get at the average of the marginal products is to look at the incremental capital output ratio ICOR for the country as whole

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.651072129515791
WordScorePoS
average0.1656430212089NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.576257053468442
WordScorePoS
average0.146608885563018NN
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For WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT Figure

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.635258118363613
WordScorePoS
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.45051999587721
WordScorePoS
world0.00464349782489754NN
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.339133175358608
WordScorePoS
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Inefficient allocation of resources the example of the Gounders vs

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.605985424253517
WordScorePoS
inefficient0.0542519672965169JJ
resource0.0416785799329393NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.466913548977273
WordScorePoS
inefficient0JJ
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Label: 14, with a score of: 0.36143363599274
WordScorePoS
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the outsiders Gounder firms of all ages own more capital Gounders lose early lead in sales around fifth year log capital stock Rs log sales value Rs

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Gounders

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Gounders

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Outsiders

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Outsiders

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Years of experience Years of experience Source Banerjee and Munshi

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.428130340887409
WordScorePoS
experience0NN
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Figure

Label: 9, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
figure0.0602029956716497NN

Average returns for switching to pineapples as an intercrop can exceed percent Per hectare profits Cedis Pineapple profits Non pineapple profits Cumulative percent of plots Source Goldstein and Udry

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.633738558147291
WordScorePoS
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Label: 15, with a score of: 0.559351060492506
WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.356296075600097
WordScorePoS
average0.146608885563018NN
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the late the International Monetary Fund IMF estimates the ICOR to be more than

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

for India and

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

for Uganda

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

The implied upper bound on the average marginal product is percent for India and percent in Uganda

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.698742917299257
WordScorePoS
average0.1656430212089NN
product0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.61844996337698
WordScorePoS
average0.146608885563018NN
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That many firms in India have marginal product of percent or more while the average marginal product is only percent or so is strong prima facie evidence for the misallocation of capital

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.741580137574672
WordScorePoS
firm0NN
product0NN
average0.146608885563018NN
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evidence0.12939607756667NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.378107668661436
WordScorePoS
firm0NN
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average0.1656430212089NN
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The firms with the marginal product of percent and more are clearly too small while other firms the ones who bring the average down to percent must in some sense be too large

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.626411574145455
WordScorePoS
firm0NN
product0NN
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average0.146608885563018NN
sense0.064698038783335NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.491042619557519
WordScorePoS
firm0NN
product0NN
bring0VB
average0.1656430212089NN
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.488145480116818
WordScorePoS
firm0.0602029956716497NN
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specific example of this kind of misallocation of capital comes from study of the knitted garment industry in the southern Indian town of Tirupur

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.834455112494052
WordScorePoS
specific0JJ
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garment0.0602029956716497NN
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Two groups of people operate in Tirupur Gounders and outsiders

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.720938476657019
WordScorePoS
people0.0119834723221875NNS
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The Gounders who issue from small wealthy agricultural community from the area around Tirupur moved into the readymade garment industry because there were not many investment opportunities in agriculture

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.721245299859004
WordScorePoS
issue0NN
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agriculture0.148975141598503NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.545195490620304
WordScorePoS
issue0NN
agricultural0.0368585655748969JJ
community0.0188543197850406NN
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Outsiders from various regions and communities started joining the city in the s

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.924108031535978
WordScorePoS
region0NN
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city0.607697021770652NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.280198391949884
WordScorePoS
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The Gounders unsurprisingly have much stronger ties in the local community and thus better access to local finance

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

But they may be expected to have less natural ability for garment manufacturing than the outsiders who came to Tirupur precisely because of its reputation as center for garment export

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.843174039126846
WordScorePoS
expect0VB
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garment0.0602029956716497NN
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The Gounders own about twice as much capital as the outsiders on average

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.748820377957753
WordScorePoS
average0.1656430212089NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.662772993984523
WordScorePoS
average0.146608885563018NN

Gounder firms of all ages own more capital although there is strong tendency toward convergence as the firms age figure

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.577027884951594
WordScorePoS
firm0.0602029956716497NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.576787938796119
WordScorePoS
firm0NN
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The Gounders despite owning more capital lose their early lead in sales by about the fifth year and end up selling less figure

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.626303359248168
WordScorePoS
lose0.0781544824456958VB
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In other words outsiders invest less and produce more

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.789509693570525
WordScorePoS
invest0.0583416713841148VB
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Label: 14, with a score of: 0.546761095882965
WordScorePoS
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They are clearly more able than the Gounders but because they are less cash rich and do not have the right connections they end up working with less capital

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Agriculture There is also direct evidence of high rates of returns on productive investment in agriculture

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.727435461684803
WordScorePoS
agriculture0.148975141598503NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.372542042687084
WordScorePoS
agriculture0NN
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evidence0.12939607756667NN
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In the forest savannah in Southern Ghana cocoa cultivation receding for many years because of the swollen shoot disease has been replaced by cassava maize intercrop

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.792786984745059
WordScorePoS
forest0.380082214408185NN
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maize0.0390772412228479NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.486135246416827
WordScorePoS
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Recently pineapple cultivation for export to Europe offered new opportunity for farmers in this area

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.913662831727278
WordScorePoS
export0.0881366997038154NN
offer0.0440683498519077NN
opportunity0.0261926252110933NN
farmer0.175025014152344NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.303852148099092
WordScorePoS
export0.110884668539634NN
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farmer0NN

In and more than households cultivating plots in four clusters in this area were surveyed every six weeks for about two years

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.650734364215147
WordScorePoS
household0.0330412182586772NN
cultivate0VB
survey0.064698038783335NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.586801874513235
WordScorePoS
household0.0297950283197006NN
cultivate0.0583416713841148VB
survey0NN

Pineapple production dominates the traditional intercrop figure

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.612561901108995
WordScorePoS
production0.118934074671047NN
traditional0JJ
figure0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.509287755043125
WordScorePoS
production0.0548141757796873NN
traditional0.0440683498519077JJ
figure0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.407179351978537
WordScorePoS
production0.0188543197850406NN
traditional0JJ
figure0.0602029956716497NN

and the average returns associated with switching from the traditional maize and cassava intercrops to pineapple is estimated to be in excess of percent

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.6787376321734
WordScorePoS
average0.1656430212089NN
return0NN
traditional0JJ
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estimate0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.480594797734962
WordScorePoS
average0.146608885563018NN
return0NN
traditional0JJ
maize0NN
estimate0NN

Yet only out of plots were used for pineapple

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

When the authors asked farmers why they were not farming pineapple the virtually unanimous response was don have the money although some heterogeneity in ability between those who have switched to pineapple and those who have not cannot be entirely ruled out

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.835709931272458
WordScorePoS
farmer0.175025014152344NN
farm0.291708356920574NN
response0NN
money0NN
ability0NN
switch0NN
rule0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.483228723766988
WordScorePoS
farmer0NN
farm0NN
response0NN
money0.107490825192354NN
ability0NN
switch0NN
rule0.162386273072618NN

Evidence from experimental farms suggests that in Africa the rate of returns to using chemical fertilizer for maize would also be high

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.75799964491369
WordScorePoS
evidence0NN
farm0.291708356920574NN
suggest0VB
africa0IN
rate0.0155217067874935NN
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chemical0NN
maize0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.361714221117227
WordScorePoS
evidence0.12939607756667NN
farm0NN
suggest0VB
africa0IN
rate0.0172128079963482NN
return0NN
chemical0NN
maize0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.406315021698109
WordScorePoS
evidence0NN
farm0NN
suggest0VB
africa0IN
rate0.0571955184484387NN
return0.107490825192354NN
chemical0NN
maize0NN

But the evidence may not be realistic if the ideal conditions of an experimental farm cannot be reproduced on actual farms

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.950931429432871
WordScorePoS
evidence0NN
condition0NN
farm0.291708356920574NN
actual0JJ

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.210907219632695
WordScorePoS
evidence0.12939607756667NN
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Foster and Rosenzweig show for example that the returns to switching to high yielding varieties were actually low in the early years of the green revolution in India and the returns were even negative for farmers without an educa Inequality and investment tion

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.861222909927051
WordScorePoS
foster0JJ
return0NN
yield0NN
variety0NN
green0JJ
farmer0NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.253934733347967
WordScorePoS
foster0JJ
return0NN
yield0NN
variety0NN
green0JJ
farmer0.175025014152344NN
inequality0NN
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This despite the fact that these varieties had been selected precisely for having high yields in proper conditions

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.587646273119233
WordScorePoS
variety0NN
yield0NN
proper0JJ
condition0.121575732851624NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.581316836143949
WordScorePoS
variety0.120266261535276NN
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Label: 13, with a score of: 0.40032456230561
WordScorePoS
variety0NN
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But they required complementary inputs in the correct quantities and timing

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.673083981233377
WordScorePoS
require0VB
input0.0583416713841148NN
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.601551864680216
WordScorePoS
require0.104282800328615VB
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If farmers were not able or did not know how to supply them the rates of returns were actually low

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.63526667292296
WordScorePoS
farmer0.175025014152344NN
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rate0.0155217067874935NN
return0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.549050359326654
WordScorePoS
farmer0NN
supply0NN
rate0.0571955184484387NN
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Chemical fertilizer however is not new technology and the proper way to use it is well understood

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.523234225696848
WordScorePoS
chemical0NN
technology0.109914925284606NN
proper0JJ

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.52289196407734
WordScorePoS
chemical0NN
technology0.109843026967392NN
proper0JJ

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.385992613535959
WordScorePoS
chemical0NN
technology0.0810848128688654NN
proper0JJ

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.340070269268604
WordScorePoS
chemical0NN
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proper0.0583416713841148JJ

To estimate the rates of returns to using fertilizer on farms in Kenya Duflo Kremer and Robinson in collaboration with small nongovernmental organization NGO set up small randomized trials on people farms

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.898945187902557
WordScorePoS
estimate0NN
rate0.0155217067874935NN
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farm0.291708356920574NN
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Each farmer in the trial delimited two small plots

Label: 2, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
farmer0.175025014152344NN

On one randomly selected plot field officer from the NGO helped the farmer apply fertilizer

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.974025846976553
WordScorePoS
field0.0583416713841148NN
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Other than that the farmers continued to farm as usual

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.98326742551489
WordScorePoS
farmer0.175025014152344NN
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The rates of return from using small amount of fertilizer varied from percent to percent depending on the year although marginal returns declined quickly with the quantity of fertilizer used on plot of given size

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.812336583910966
WordScorePoS
rate0.0571955184484387NN
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Evidence for different type of underinvestment in agriculture is the negative sizeproductivity relationship the idea that the smallest farms tend to be the most productive table

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.908622134654203
WordScorePoS
evidence0NN
type0NN
agriculture0.148975141598503NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.229578614118189
WordScorePoS
evidence0.12939607756667NN
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The gap in the productivity of small and large farms within country can be enormous factor of

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.90785763602573
WordScorePoS
gap0NN
productivity0.0595900566394012NN
farm0.291708356920574NN
country0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.393948961232627
WordScorePoS
gap0.0602029956716497NN
productivity0.0922368138456871NN
farm0NN
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in Brazil and factor of

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

in Pakistan

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

It is smaller in Malaysia

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

but large farm in Malaysia is not very large

Label: 2, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
farm0.291708356920574NN

This is strong prima facie evidence that markets are somehow not allocating the right amount of land to those who currently farm the smaller plots

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.831151108796476
WordScorePoS
strong0JJ
evidence0NN
market0.0913569596328122NN
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land0.0465651203624806NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.384066327260918
WordScorePoS
strong0.0488696285210061JJ
evidence0.12939607756667NN
market0.0202620733250388NN
amount0NN
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farm0NN

The problem with this kind of evidence is that it ignores the many reasons why the bigger farm may be inherently less productive for example lower soil quality

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.868899012251881
WordScorePoS
kind0NN
evidence0NN
farm0.291708356920574NN
productive0.0714379839896614JJ
soil0.0595900566394012NN
quality0.0109267235789154NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.283539778691039
WordScorePoS
kind0NN
evidence0.12939607756667NN
farm0NN
productive0JJ
soil0NN
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Even so similar but somewhat less dramatic results show up even after controlling for differences in land quality

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.601322318995592
WordScorePoS
result0NN
control0.0264204925485796NN
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Label: 6, with a score of: 0.375805051673589
WordScorePoS
result0.0683326727248364NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.373756450338684
WordScorePoS
result0NN
control0.0614198493690006NN
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Label: 4, with a score of: 0.305380149563272
WordScorePoS
result0NN
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The profit wealth ratio in Indian ICRISAT villages is the highest for the smallest farms and when risk is comparatively low the gap is more than figure

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.834349352694892
WordScorePoS
ratio0NN
farm0.291708356920574NN
risk0.0252000451111224NN
gap0NN
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Label: 3, with a score of: 0.347361856771033
WordScorePoS
ratio0.0615471563780609NN
farm0NN
risk0.0703902516159815NN
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figure0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.31700220093193
WordScorePoS
ratio0NN
farm0NN
risk0NN
gap0.0602029956716497NN
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Because wealth includes the value of the land the measure implicitly takes into account differences in the quality of the land

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.659503964716912
WordScorePoS
include0VB
land0.123873694868802NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.390066900378379
WordScorePoS
include0VB
land0.0319966432858631NN
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account0NN
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.358860331675576
WordScorePoS
include0VB
land0.0465651203624806NN
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It does so as long as land prices are Table

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.704167929286912
WordScorePoS
land0.123873694868802NN
price0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.59634935722692
WordScorePoS
land0.0465651203624806NN
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Farm size productivity differences selected countries Farm size Northeast Brazil Punjab Pakistan Muda Malaysia Small farm hectares

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.948460086808485
WordScorePoS
farm0.291708356920574NN
size0NN
productivity0.0595900566394012NN
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hectare0NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.209978946998303
WordScorePoS
farm0NN
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hectare0.206935959588465NN

Largest farm hectares Source Berry and Cline

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.829408405415525
WordScorePoS
largest0.0714379839896614JJS
farm0.291708356920574NN
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Label: 15, with a score of: 0.507380910010842
WordScorePoS
largest0JJS
farm0NN
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Note land productivity in the largest farm size

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.881022437686821
WordScorePoS
land0.0465651203624806NN
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largest0.0714379839896614JJS
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size0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.311546295043186
WordScorePoS
land0NN
productivity0.0922368138456871NN
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farm0NN
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Figure

Label: 9, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
figure0.0602029956716497NN

Profit wealth ratios are highest for the smallest farms Profit wealth ratio

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.844853213196242
WordScorePoS
ratio0NN
farm0.291708356920574NN

th percentile

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

th percentile

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

th percentile th percentile Monsoon onset standard deviation weeks Source Rosenzweig and Binswansger

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Note The standard deviation of the date of monsoon onset is measure of underlying risk

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.629657419659525
WordScorePoS
standard0NN
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risk0.0519476926891779NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.386048655627863
WordScorePoS
standard0NN
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The onset date of the monsoon was the single most powerful of eight rainfall characteristics to explain gross farm output

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.963417786266254
WordScorePoS
single0.0583416713841148JJ
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farm0.291708356920574NN

The data come from the Indian ICRISAT villages

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.851744941703599
WordScorePoS
datum0.0739231123597559NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.523956633971108
WordScorePoS
datum0.0454743001434393NN

reasonable measure of land quality which however is not entirely clear

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.537420587590896
WordScorePoS
measure0.0223459295604043NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.499462190377889
WordScorePoS
measure0.103895385378356NN
land0.0319966432858631NN
quality0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.396549689420215
WordScorePoS
measure0.0504000902222448NN
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There are also residual doubts about whether the returns are well measured it is possible that the land of the smaller farms is degrading faster but the degradation is not being counted while calculating the returns

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.64183443488529
WordScorePoS
doubt0NN
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land0.123873694868802NN
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degradation0.221714625071441NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.62263097919171
WordScorePoS
doubt0NN
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For these same firms when risk goes up the average return goes down

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.597361863378897
WordScorePoS
firm0NN
risk0NN
average0.1656430212089NN
return0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.528718665167179
WordScorePoS
firm0NN
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average0.146608885563018NN
return0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.387646392612343
WordScorePoS
firm0NN
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return0.107490825192354NN

In part this may be inevitable but it may also reflect the fact that the lack of insurance encourages people to avoid risky but remunerative choices

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.552354623381434
WordScorePoS
inevitable0JJ
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lack0.0252035516550537NN
insurance0.0804764811724088NN
encourage0.0695218668857431VB
people0.0106656521351091NNS
avoid0VB
choice0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.418451047772974
WordScorePoS
inevitable0JJ
reflect0.0409791940864438VB
lack0NN
insurance0NN
encourage0.0468670845659596VB
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choice0.0409791940864438NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.33438551312603
WordScorePoS
inevitable0JJ
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lack0.0753297582301286NN
insurance0NN
encourage0VB
people0.0371911007748996NNS
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choice0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.300695447588306
WordScorePoS
inevitable0JJ
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lack0.0565629593551219NN
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encourage0.0260040237236563VB
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This is consistent with the fact that profitability falls faster for the poorer farmers less able to self insure as the risk goes up

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.745829347785678
WordScorePoS
consistent0JJ
fall0.0440683498519077NN
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Label: 3, with a score of: 0.59070961830202
WordScorePoS
consistent0JJ
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Specifically one standard deviation increase in the coefficient of variation of rainfall leads to percent reduction in the profit of poor farmers percent reduction in the profit of median farmers and no reduction in the profit of rich farmers

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.848864349359776
WordScorePoS
standard0NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.215746727782573
WordScorePoS
standard0NN
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poor0.150659516460257JJ
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The study also finds that input choices are affected by variability in rainfall and in par WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT ticular poor farmers make less efficient input choices in risky environment

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.605181287909591
WordScorePoS
study0NN
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environment0.0214456704626236NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.287283930710745
WordScorePoS
study0NN
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poor0.150659516460257JJ
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.593533174517744
WordScorePoS
study0NN
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efficient0.108503934593034JJ
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In related work Morduch specifically investigated how the anticipation of credit constraint affects the decision to invest in high yielding variety seeds

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.561759391685252
WordScorePoS
related0.0184786920895884JJ
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seed0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.494128922717531
WordScorePoS
related0.00896409157262106JJ
credit0NN
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invest0.0583416713841148VB
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variety0NN
seed0.11668334276823NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.373052237544062
WordScorePoS
related0.00925008066007716JJ
credit0.0602029956716497NN
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decision0NN
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variety0NN
seed0NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.358164019082854
WordScorePoS
related0.0168470026160727JJ
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Using methodology inspired by Zeldes he splits the sample into two groups one group of landholders expected to have the ability to smooth their consumption and one group that owns little land expected to be constrained

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.82506353482823
WordScorePoS
expect0.0332151194779746VB
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land0.0144336476662975NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.379098143106858
WordScorePoS
expect0VB
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He finds that the more constrained group devotes considerably smaller fraction of land to high yielding variety seeds for rice and castor

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.573208823172337
WordScorePoS
land0.123873694868802NN
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variety0NN
seed0NN
rice0.0517339898971162NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.53286654032585
WordScorePoS
land0.0465651203624806NN
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rice0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.497008092793134
WordScorePoS
land0.0319966432858631NN
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variety0.120266261535276NN
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rice0NN

Another consequence of the lack of insurance is that it may lead households to use productive assets as buffer stocks and consumption smoothing devices which would be cause for inefficient investment

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.678053524704689
WordScorePoS
lack0NN
insurance0NN
lead0.0169905820958638NN
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stock0.0409791940864438NN
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inefficient0.0542519672965169JJ
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.580180311610563
WordScorePoS
lack0.0252035516550537NN
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lead0.0504071033101074NN
household0NN
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asset0NN
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consumption0.147812295323721NN
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investment0.0252035516550537NN

Rosenzweig and Wolpin argue that bullocks an essential productive asset in agriculture serve this purpose in rural India

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.828541909584585
WordScorePoS
essential0JJ
productive0.0714379839896614JJ
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agriculture0.148975141598503NN
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rural0.148975141598503JJ

They show using ICRISAT data covering three villages in semiarid areas in India that bullocks which constitute large part of households liquid wealth percent for the poorest farmers are bought and sold quite frequently percent of households had either bought or sold bullock in the previous year

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.765061391562924
WordScorePoS
datum0NN
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household0.0297950283197006NN
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farmer0.175025014152344NN
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Moreover they buy when they are flush with money and sell when they are broke

Label: 16, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
money0.107490825192354NN

Since people are not simultaneously selling and buying land they are not selling these animals because they no longer need them for production

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.644908446271574
WordScorePoS
people0.0159982027144574NNS
land0.123873694868802NN
animal0.0950205536020462NN
production0.016202004209163NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.41831864847575
WordScorePoS
people0.0257736572183839NNS
land0.0465651203624806NN
animal0.0357189919948307NN
production0.0548141757796873NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.402379878066451
WordScorePoS
people0.0108156764915259NNS
land0.0325677023224526NN
animal0.0749457204978913NN
production0.0383371018038178NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.373318530528017
WordScorePoS
people0.0119834723221875NNS
land0.0144336476662975NN
animal0NN
production0.118934074671047NN

Indeed from the view point of production most of these farmers should own two bullocks and never sell them

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.842334852817958
WordScorePoS
view0NN
production0.0548141757796873NN
farmer0.175025014152344NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.435880044272267
WordScorePoS
view0NN
production0.118934074671047NN
farmer0NN

If they are selling the reason is that they need the money for consumption

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.852658275772371
WordScorePoS
money0NN
consumption0.332151194779746NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.379445803144723
WordScorePoS
money0NN
consumption0.147812295323721NN

The data suggest that for poor or midsize farmers there is considerable underinvestment in bullocks presumably because of the borrowing constraints and the inability to borrow and accumulate financial assets to smooth consumption almost half the households in any given year hold no bullocks most of the others own exactly two

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.62248331687251
WordScorePoS
datum0NN
suggest0VB
poor0.0339811641917276JJ
farmer0NN
constraint0NN
financial0JJ
asset0NN
consumption0.332151194779746NN
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.396631171505611
WordScorePoS
datum0NN
suggest0VB
poor0.0548141757796873JJ
farmer0.175025014152344NN
constraint0NN
financial0.00896409157262106JJ
asset0NN
consumption0NN
household0.0297950283197006NN
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.358700946223335
WordScorePoS
datum0NN
suggest0VB
poor0JJ
farmer0NN
constraint0NN
financial0.0140083044329373JJ
asset0NN
consumption0NN
household0.0465610847355851NN
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.273047415325764
WordScorePoS
datum0NN
suggest0VB
poor0JJ
farmer0NN
constraint0NN
financial0.0370951943725875JJ
asset0NN
consumption0.147812295323721NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.249761384750914
WordScorePoS
datum0NN
suggest0VB
poor0.150659516460257JJ
farmer0NN
constraint0NN
financial0.0184786920895884JJ
asset0NN
consumption0NN
household0NN
hold0NN

There is also compelling evidence that sharecroppers lack incentives

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.720540826909716
WordScorePoS
evidence0.12939607756667NN
lack0NN
incentive0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.419473042048585
WordScorePoS
evidence0NN
lack0.0753297582301286NN
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.314970301052604
WordScorePoS
evidence0NN
lack0.0565629593551219NN
incentive0NN

Binswanger and Rosenzweig and Shaban both show that productivity is percent lower in sharecropped plots controlling for farmers fixed effects that is comparing the productivity of owner cultivated and farmed land for farmers who cultivate both their own land and that of others and for land characteristics

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.883178519974901
WordScorePoS
productivity0.0595900566394012NN
control0NN
farmer0.175025014152344NN
effect0.0440683498519077NN
compare0VB
cultivate0.0583416713841148VB
farm0.291708356920574NN
land0.0465651203624806NN
characteristic0JJ

Shaban shows that all the inputs are lower on sharecropped land including short term investments fertilizer and seeds

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.568856408469585
WordScorePoS
input0NN
land0NN
include0VB
term0.149793392961411NN
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.602633636851479
WordScorePoS
input0.0583416713841148NN
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Label: 7, with a score of: 0.366438225400157
WordScorePoS
input0NN
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Label: 15, with a score of: 0.311223130931162
WordScorePoS
input0NN
land0.123873694868802NN
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He also finds systematic differences in land quality ownercultivated land has higher price per hectare which could in part reflect longterm investment

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.822239586334877
WordScorePoS
land0.123873694868802NN
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hectare0.206935959588465NN
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.326719790793062
WordScorePoS
land0.0465651203624806NN
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On the impact of security of property Do and Iyer find that land reform that gave farmers the right to sell transfer or inherit their land use rights also increased agricultural investment particularly the planting of multiyear crops such as coffee

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.754458029111178
WordScorePoS
impact0NN
security0.0893850849591018NN
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Label: 15, with a score of: 0.414982490735827
WordScorePoS
impact0.0137637438743113NN
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land0.123873694868802NN
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.31248920189709
WordScorePoS
impact0NN
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land0.024255976440725NN
reform0.0911713013253052NN
farmer0NN
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crop0NN

Laffont and Matoussi use data from Tunisia to show that shift from sharecropping to owner cultivation raised output by percent and moving from short term tenancy contract to longer term contract increased output by

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.774612715057518
WordScorePoS
datum0.0739231123597559NN
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percent

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Security of property rights is often linked to the local power structure

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.496813188236835
WordScorePoS
security0NN
property0.0558185411034276NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.463588240276301
WordScorePoS
security0NN
property0.0736315832425121NN
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.387273733010622
WordScorePoS
security0.0893850849591018NN
property0NN
rights0NNS
local0.0155217067874935JJ
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.365147690075877
WordScorePoS
security0NN
property0NN
rights0NNS
local0.0130185595639838JJ
power0.036961556179878NN
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The connection between inequalities in power and underinvestment is nicely exemplified by the Goldstein and Udry study of investment in land in setting where land is allocated by custom rural Ghana

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.800653506236337
WordScorePoS
inequality0.635305170773079NN
power0NN
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rural0.0330412182586772JJ

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.302743269422347
WordScorePoS
inequality0NN
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land0.0465651203624806NN
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Label: 15, with a score of: 0.37893010457566
WordScorePoS
inequality0NN
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land0.123873694868802NN
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They show that individuals are less likely to leave their land fallow an investment in longrun productivity of the land if they do not hold position of power within either the hierarchy of the village or the hierarchy of the lineage

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.464790384902221
WordScorePoS
individual0JJ
leave0NN
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.353180878706609
WordScorePoS
individual0JJ
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power0.0454743001434393NN

The problem is that the land gets taken away from them when it is lying fallow

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.761742599229631
WordScorePoS
land0.123873694868802NN
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Label: 14, with a score of: 0.414168727867009
WordScorePoS
land0.0141533244035107NN
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Because women rarely hold these positions women land is not left fallow enough and is much less productive than men s

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.856266570100783
WordScorePoS
woman0.221979360474357NN
rarely0RB
hold0.18234260265061NN
land0.024255976440725NN
productive0JJ

Human capital According to the report of the Commission on Macroeconomics and Health returns to investing in health are on the order of percent

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.823821358995491
WordScorePoS
human0JJ
report0.0307735781890304NN
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health0.191387734041787NN
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But these numbers arrived at through cross country growth Inequality and investment regressions are not as easy to interpret as what would actually happen if someone were to invest an extra dollar in health

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.877957870624215
WordScorePoS
country0NN
growth0.11178243319132NN
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.254048913456423
WordScorePoS
country0NN
growth0.208565600657229NN
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Label: 3, with a score of: 0.241434078987875
WordScorePoS
country0NN
growth0NN
inequality0.0307735781890304NN
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happen0VB
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dollar0NN
health0.191387734041787NN

That said there clearly are examples of specific health interventions that have enormous private and social returns

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.59198692328496
WordScorePoS
specific0JJ
health0.191387734041787NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.361714081209723
WordScorePoS
specific0JJ
health0.0405241466500776NN
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.360803296457721
WordScorePoS
specific0JJ
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There is substantial experimental evidence that supplementation in iron and vitamin increases productivity at relatively low cost

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.700026273151053
WordScorePoS
substantial0JJ
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.381870380037276
WordScorePoS
substantial0JJ
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Basta Soekirman and Scrimshaw study iron supplementation among rubber tree tappers in Indonesia

Label: 15, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
study0.0517339898971162NN
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Baseline health measures indicated that percent of the study population was anemic

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.597377004573165
WordScorePoS
health0.191387734041787NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.395118695161279
WordScorePoS
health0.0405241466500776NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.324287835984023
WordScorePoS
health0NN
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The intervention combined an iron supplement and an incentive given to both treatment and control groups to take the pill on time

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.64030604808184
WordScorePoS
intervention0.0407408489778079NN
incentive0NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.439408751567816
WordScorePoS
intervention0NN
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Work productivity among those who got the treatment increased by percent or year at cost per worker year of

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.58114549378759
WordScorePoS
productivity0.0410992516792148NN
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increase0.00711043475673939NN
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.525980728047541
WordScorePoS
productivity0.0922368138456871NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.349065774241453
WordScorePoS
productivity0NN
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Even taking into account the cost of the incentive year the intervention suggests extremely high rates of returns

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.765026544753788
WordScorePoS
account0.0285977592242194NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.309821368846845
WordScorePoS
account0.0172128079963482NN
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Thomas and others obtain lower but still high estimates in larger experiment also in Indonesia

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.839149591835159
WordScorePoS
obtain0.0815069365350084VB
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They found that iron supplementation experiments in Indonesia reduced anemia increased the probability of participating in the labor market and increased earnings of selfemployed workers

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.605470726304935
WordScorePoS
reduce0.0055149369084567VB
increase0.00711043475673939NN
market0.0252035516550537NN
worker0.121575732851624NN

They estimate that for self employed males the benefits of iron supplementation amount to per year at cost of per year

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.468745893371829
WordScorePoS
estimate0NN
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.399654781747526
WordScorePoS
estimate0.0221298700466866NN
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Label: 14, with a score of: 0.353154515940368
WordScorePoS
estimate0.0195550357485727NN
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Label: 3, with a score of: 0.344585058047784
WordScorePoS
estimate0.059903311017139NN
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The cost benefit analysis of deworming program in Kenya reports estimates of similar order of magnitude

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Taking into account externalities because of the contagious nature of worms the program led to an average increase in schooling of

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.65508959387598
WordScorePoS
account0.0577345906651901NN
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Label: 13, with a score of: 0.477725139921359
WordScorePoS
account0NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.441944364905567
WordScorePoS
account0.0172128079963482NN
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Using reasonable figure for the returns to year of education this additional schooling will lead to benefit of over the life of the child at cost of

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.620824799086368
WordScorePoS
figure0NN
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.420518074366697
WordScorePoS
figure0NN
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Label: 3, with a score of: 0.369396477781267
WordScorePoS
figure0NN
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education0.0152605842304358NN
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per child per year

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.614417683772385
WordScorePoS
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Label: 4, with a score of: 0.439005712007529
WordScorePoS
child0.076326555629389NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.347374750571648
WordScorePoS
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.314234936000714
WordScorePoS
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Not all interventions have the same rates of return however

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.81786296345854
WordScorePoS
intervention0NN
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Label: 3, with a score of: 0.417641295414357
WordScorePoS
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.317802544157277
WordScorePoS
intervention0NN
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A study of Chinese cotton mill workers led to significant increase in fitness but no corresponding increase in productivity

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.623198802280341
WordScorePoS
study0NN
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.516759037927851
WordScorePoS
study0NN
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Measured returns to private investment in education tend not to be quite so high

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.589285644505308
WordScorePoS
measure0NN
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education0.244244978014045NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.401711881784105
WordScorePoS
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.395884448029791
WordScorePoS
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.307912892459107
WordScorePoS
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Banerjee and Duflo survey crosscountry evidence and conclude that Using the preferred data the Mincerian rates of returns seem to vary little across countries the mean rate of returns is

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.511005131124032
WordScorePoS
survey0.064698038783335NN
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.736527789208995
WordScorePoS
survey0NN
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with standard deviation of

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.742868974909555
WordScorePoS
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.66943684251528
WordScorePoS
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The maximum rate of returns to education Pakistan is

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.753528271029235
WordScorePoS
maximum0NN
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education0.244244978014045NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.523693508105071
WordScorePoS
maximum0NN
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percent and the minimum is

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

percent Italy

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

But most of the educational benefits of deworming mentioned above would be captured by child whose parents are willing to spend

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.454747833898106
WordScorePoS
educational0JJ
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Label: 15, with a score of: 0.410482749083313
WordScorePoS
educational0JJ
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Label: 6, with a score of: 0.399851669357056
WordScorePoS
educational0.0683326727248364JJ
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on the deworming medicine

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.953124978108576
WordScorePoS
medicine0.123094312756122NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.302576892881009
WordScorePoS
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This clearly offers return much higher than the measured Mincerian returns at affordable absolute cost although they are not strictly comparable

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.739878813370023
WordScorePoS
offer0NN
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Label: 13, with a score of: 0.31859076842594
WordScorePoS
offer0NN
return0NN
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affordable0.0171695137813101JJ
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Deworming does not require the child to spend more years in school but it does help the child get more out of the years he or she is already spending in school

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.756276194581053
WordScorePoS
require0VB
child0.076326555629389NN
school0.208127520578185NN
spending0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.306522979724906
WordScorePoS
require0VB
child0.0603953832457135NN
school0.0548954478802642NN
spending0NN

However when the deworming medicine was offered free to the children the take up was only percent

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.722313660042844
WordScorePoS
medicine0.123094312756122NN
offer0NN
free0JJ
child0.10682408961305NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.396559629950943
WordScorePoS
medicine0NN
offer0NN
free0.0499016491051341JJ
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.3100829635286
WordScorePoS
medicine0NN
offer0.0440683498519077NN
free0JJ
child0.0546336178945768NN

In this sense it is clear that at least some causes of underinvestment have to be found in the way the family makes decisions rather than in the lack of resources

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.635863854930701
WordScorePoS
sense0NN
family0NN
decision0.0519476926891779NN
lack0.0753297582301286NN
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.360162340052409
WordScorePoS
sense0NN
family0.0465610847355851NN
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lack0NN
resource0.0280166088658745NN

The fact that lack of connections alters the nature of human capital investment is nicely demonstrated in recent paper by Munshi and Rosenzweig forthcoming

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.621376243741184
WordScorePoS
lack0NN
nature0.162755901889551NN
human0.0101607690729067JJ
investment0NN

They show that in India trade liberalization increased returns to knowing the English language in families with connections in the blue collar sector compared with families with no connections

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

However there is much bigger gap between girls and boys in the increase in enrollment in English medium schools

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.770015886897896
WordScorePoS
gap0NN
girl0.393804437159645NN
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Label: 4, with a score of: 0.604985985133936
WordScorePoS
gap0NN
girl0.140824109342254NN
boy0.184698660975968NN
increase0.0144029596227568NN
medium0NN
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This is attributed to the fact that girls never really expected to get these blue collar jobs while for their brothers it depended on whether they had the right contacts

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.822057267245517
WordScorePoS
girl0.393804437159645NN
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Label: 4, with a score of: 0.312291942798794
WordScorePoS
girl0.140824109342254NN
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.271400028690147
WordScorePoS
girl0NN
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Inequalities and investment Four important points follow from this body of evidence first markets in developing countries are highly imperfect and WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT those who do not have enough wealth or social status tend to underinvest

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.932937617449372
WordScorePoS
inequality0.635305170773079NN
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The resources underused because of this underinvestment end up being used for some less productive purpose reducing overall productivity

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.538886045102546
WordScorePoS
resource0.0358563662904843NN
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.485392762116812
WordScorePoS
resource0.0123650647908625NN
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.341230693612022
WordScorePoS
resource0.0185001613201543NN
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Label: 11, with a score of: 0.31538832912803
WordScorePoS
resource0.0449504361447405NN
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In the example from the knitted garment industry in Tirupur the Gounders were overinvesting in their own relatively unproductive firms while the much more productive firms of the outsiders were starved of capital

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.931287719888026
WordScorePoS
garment0.0602029956716497NN
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The land owned by Ghanaian women was getting degraded because they did not have the social status needed to hold on to the land during the fallowing period

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.664356853663627
WordScorePoS
land0.024255976440725NN
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Label: 15, with a score of: 0.449773684327984
WordScorePoS
land0.123873694868802NN
woman0NN
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status0NN
hold0NN
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.325563834725219
WordScorePoS
land0.0465651203624806NN
woman0.0546336178945768NN
degrade0.0440683498519077VB
social0JJ
status0NN
hold0NN
period0.0440683498519077NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.306430744350849
WordScorePoS
land0.0319966432858631NN
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degrade0VB
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This once again is pure loss for society

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.686649437731541
WordScorePoS
loss0NN
society0.118536858482514NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.388330351369242
WordScorePoS
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.342721532737091
WordScorePoS
loss0NN
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The fact that other people who do have status and can fallow their land as needed is not in any way compensating for the loss of productivity on the lands of the powerless

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.707034973208672
WordScorePoS
people0.0159982027144574NNS
status0NN
land0.123873694868802NN
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.381523001439649
WordScorePoS
people0.0257736572183839NNS
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productivity0.0595900566394012NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.348260100641118
WordScorePoS
people0.0161552501392041NNS
status0NN
land0.0389167984372011NN
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productivity0.0373517915079663NN

This creates strong presumption that certain specific types of redistribution by empowering certain people or increasing their access to resources or contacts can promote efficiency and equity

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.338691623258365
WordScorePoS
create0VB
strong0JJ
specific0JJ
type0NN
empower0VB
people0.0108156764915259NNS
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.46000837661107
WordScorePoS
create0.0520080474473126VB
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.360300529927528
WordScorePoS
create0.0234335422829798VB
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.321052159018007
WordScorePoS
create0.0519476926891779VB
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empower0VB
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.310750058457907
WordScorePoS
create0VB
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efficiency0NN

Second this hypothesis would imply bias in favor of those kinds of redistribution that target the specific lack of access to resources or influence causing the inefficiency

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.425726574086562
WordScorePoS
kind0NN
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.420522886567919
WordScorePoS
kind0NN
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Label: 14, with a score of: 0.397413180970019
WordScorePoS
kind0.0531983120572613NN
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In some situations this will mean redistributing assets but it also might mean redistributing access to capital perhaps by promoting microcredit strengthening women land rights or access to jobs and welfare programs designing affirmative action programs to break down stereotyping and improving access to justice systems

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.47051532078317
WordScorePoS
situation0NN
asset0NN
access0.00780347258345989NN
promote0.00624783747184187VB
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woman0.221979360474357NN
land0.024255976440725NN
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welfare0NN
action0.0409315617631NN
improve0VB
justice0NN
system0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.42028356595705
WordScorePoS
situation0NN
asset0.0811931365363091NN
access0.00690021170452351NN
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strengthen0.0396437925143789VB
woman0NN
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rights0NNS
job0NN
welfare0NN
action0NN
improve0VB
justice0.214981650384708NN
system0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.309149696649508
WordScorePoS
situation0NN
asset0NN
access0.00344404437204141NN
promote0.0275746845422835VB
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woman0.0452169560888236NN
land0NN
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welfare0NN
action0NN
improve0.0150723186962745VB
justice0NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.339776952797864
WordScorePoS
situation0.0519476926891779NN
asset0NN
access0.00514687440545096NN
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strengthen0VB
woman0.0450489732120807NN
land0.0319966432858631NN
rights0.0519476926891779NNS
job0.0225244866060403NN
welfare0NN
action0.0269969049497485NN
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justice0NN
system0.0519476926891779NN

Third because investments build wealth and wealth makes it easier to invest in world where markets do not function very well little help can go long way

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.642561778629289
WordScorePoS
investment0.0182713919265625NN
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.567812654480326
WordScorePoS
investment0.0766240489430275NN
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world0.00418824502414673NN
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.311201819299197
WordScorePoS
investment0.0377086395700813NN
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world0.00257642711761688NN
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Starting the right business might be the biggest challenge once started the business might propel itself forward without any further help

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.783849706986869
WordScorePoS
business0.0909486002868787NN
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Label: 11, with a score of: 0.408410587655926
WordScorePoS
business0NN
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Fourth it is not clear that the beneficiaries from this kind of efficiency promoting redistribution have to be the poorest of the poor

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.492391428926919
WordScorePoS
kind0NN
efficiency0NN
promote0.0082416730319267VB
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poor0.150659516460257JJ

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.444298349085227
WordScorePoS
kind0NN
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Label: 6, with a score of: 0.462748392359095
WordScorePoS
kind0NN
efficiency0.0502364757923669NN
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Because the ideal is to promote productive investments the target should be those most likely to make these investments

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.658853930028453
WordScorePoS
promote0.0100599344419752VB
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.459361770752191
WordScorePoS
promote0.0275746845422835VB
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target0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.394754065865872
WordScorePoS
promote0.00799614078871077VB
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Whether the poorest are the right people from this point of view is an empirical question and one for which the answer might depend on the set of economic opportunities available

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.434610379677038
WordScorePoS
poorest0JJS
people0.0106656521351091NNS
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set0NN
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opportunity0.0361300980868102NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.424247672474654
WordScorePoS
poorest0.0330412182586772JJS
people0.00571634317201755NNS
view0NN
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set0NN
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.374755293976077
WordScorePoS
poorest0JJS
people0.00432344066632653NNS
view0.048933054487825NN
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set0.0978661089756501NN
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opportunity0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.330263606653089
WordScorePoS
poorest0JJS
people0.0371911007748996NNS
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set0NN
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The microcredit community in particular has long debated this last issue in trying to decide whether microcredit is best instrument for helping the poorest of the poor

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.548247674904216
WordScorePoS
community0NN
issue0NN
help0NN
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Label: 6, with a score of: 0.438493582788026
WordScorePoS
community0.0214003646985842NN
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help0NN
poorest0.0348974218717993JJS
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.38290748352755
WordScorePoS
community0.0169905820958638NN
issue0NN
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.374380914589396
WordScorePoS
community0.0182713919265625NN
issue0NN
help0NN
poorest0.0297950283197006JJS
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This clearly turns partly on whether the poorest are the ones who have the projects with the highest returns which could be the case if the poor and the less poor have the same kinds of production functions and if there are diminishing returns to scale

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.498246419804505
WordScorePoS
poorest0JJS
project0NN
return0NN
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function0NN
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.4531141720325
WordScorePoS
poorest0.0297950283197006JJS
project0NN
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.418888548789749
WordScorePoS
poorest0JJS
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Label: 6, with a score of: 0.374588585357749
WordScorePoS
poorest0.0348974218717993JJS
project0.041835863322702NN
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poor0.0642010940957526JJ
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production0.0214003646985842NN
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If instead the most productive technology in this area had fixed cost of production but say diminishing returns otherwise giving the poorest access to more capital may not be very productive even with all the capital they can get they may not be able to cover the fixed cost

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.412510523309725
WordScorePoS
productive0.0714379839896614JJ
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.384602172024745
WordScorePoS
productive0JJ
technology0NN
cost0.0660824365173543NN
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access0.00138439773401932NN
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.372784846031346
WordScorePoS
productive0JJ
technology0NN
cost0.0548954478802642NN
production0NN
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It may be more effective to help people who are slightly richer because with some help they may actually be able to start business

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.681668392602066
WordScorePoS
effective0JJ
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How good or bad is the assumption of decreasing returns in the production function of an individual firm

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.466663763416966
WordScorePoS
bad0JJ
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return0NN
production0.118934074671047NN
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.421763680053842
WordScorePoS
bad0JJ
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.38798714056543
WordScorePoS
bad0JJ
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Label: 6, with a score of: 0.352087129467893
WordScorePoS
bad0.0683326727248364JJ
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As mentioned above McKenzie and Woodruff estimate production function for small Mexican firms suggesting strong diminishing returns

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.651726738001323
WordScorePoS
estimate0.0221298700466866NN
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.437530291459271
WordScorePoS
estimate0.0199423462679015NN
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Mesnard and Ravallion find weak diminishing returns using Tunisian data

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.723185716189261
WordScorePoS
diminish0VB
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.497346065202893
WordScorePoS
diminish0VB
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But estimating production function that exhibits local increasing returns is inherently difficult

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.554299546588187
WordScorePoS
estimate0.0199423462679015NN
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.433141456969416
WordScorePoS
estimate0NN
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.365765924634071
WordScorePoS
estimate0NN
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A firm is likely to grow or shrink quickly when it is in the region of increasing returns

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.603172587270855
WordScorePoS
firm0NN
grow0VB
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region0.184259548107002NN
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Label: 3, with a score of: 0.455789384100991
WordScorePoS
firm0NN
grow0VB
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.351870607549198
WordScorePoS
firm0NN
grow0VB
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return0.107490825192354NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.311030662506511
WordScorePoS
firm0.0602029956716497NN
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So we will observe few firms in this region and be likely to reject too often the assumption of local increasing returns

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.642997071980882
WordScorePoS
firm0NN
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Label: 3, with a score of: 0.485882889245599
WordScorePoS
firm0NN
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.375102872950473
WordScorePoS
firm0NN
region0NN
local0JJ
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Certainly the natural interpretation of the results in Banerjee and Duflo showing close to percent returns in medium firms in India is that there are increasing returns over some range

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.502301099673913
WordScorePoS
natural0JJ
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corollary of this discussion is that the redistribution that maximizes productivity growth is not necessarily the one that has the strongest immediate effect on poverty

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.597027890254758
WordScorePoS
productivity0.0410992516792148NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.597012485716467
WordScorePoS
productivity0NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.315042802115659
WordScorePoS
productivity0NN
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.303618819733979
WordScorePoS
productivity0.0922368138456871NN
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Nor is it the one that does most to reduce inequality

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.995237534423301
WordScorePoS
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Indeed except under very special circumstances this discussion tells us nothing about the relation between some global measure of inequality and the efficiency of resource use or investment

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 7, with a score of: 0.216037815420685
WordScorePoS
special0JJ
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Consider the case discussed above in which the Inequality and investment production function has fixed cost but also diminishing returns

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.916482307607424
WordScorePoS
inequality0.635305170773079NN
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If all firms are equal and the maximum they can each invest is less than the fixed cost no one will be able to start firm

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.4676057075806
WordScorePoS
firm0NN
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.362579462756984
WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.35351156015956
WordScorePoS
firm0NN
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Increasing inequality will raise the productivity of capital by making it possible for some firms to pay the fixed cost

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.919916956902906
WordScorePoS
increase0.00285817158600878NN
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Because there are also diminishing returns however there will be point at which any further increase in overall inequality would be counterproductive

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.976731196831094
WordScorePoS
diminish0VB
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More generally the effect of inequality will depend on the shape of the production function and the size of the investment potential of the average person relative to the fixed cost

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.882584916292288
WordScorePoS
effect0NN
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Label: 13, with a score of: 0.183442896587111
WordScorePoS
effect0NN
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Obviously the issue gets even more complicated if different firms have different production functions and if productivity is correlated with the owner wealth as it might be if the owner education is an important input into production and richer people tend to be more educated

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WordScorePoS
issue0NN
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.50939638879364
WordScorePoS
issue0NN
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.396203232064481
WordScorePoS
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Several authors have tried to look for systematic relation in cross country data between inequality and growth presumably what investment is meant to achieve

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.926798046805204
WordScorePoS
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.271371301869688
WordScorePoS
relation0NN
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A lengthy body of literature estimated longrun equation with growth between and for example regressed on income in set of control variables and inequality in

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.927610593998147
WordScorePoS
estimate0NN
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.211772665941831
WordScorePoS
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Estimating these equations tended to generate negative coefficients for inequality

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.980890111098647
WordScorePoS
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But there are obvious concerns about whether such relation could be driven entirely by omitted variables

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.746303497125844
WordScorePoS
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To address this problem Li and Zou Forbes and others used the time series dimension of the Deininger and Squire data set to look effectively at the effect of short run changes in inequality on changes in growth

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.907923958841196
WordScorePoS
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.247590719565458
WordScorePoS
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.221024981612602
WordScorePoS
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The results change rather dramatically the coefficient of inequality in this specification is positive and significant

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.813912322113355
WordScorePoS
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Label: 13, with a score of: 0.526171337966208
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recent review paper by Voitchovsky concludes that both these effects are quite robust

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WordScorePoS
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Most studies that look at the cross sectional relationship between inequality and subsequent growth over relatively long period in cross country data and especially those that use measures of asset inequality find negative relationship often significant

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.159380561509255
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By contrast most studies that look at the relationship between changes in inequality and changes in growth including several studies that do the analysis at the subnational level within the same country find positive effect

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.925676326805566
WordScorePoS
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.267863962150616
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Both Banerjee and Duflo and Voitchovsky conclude that there is no reason to give one of these sets of results priority over the other

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WordScorePoS
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For example in the short run policies that allow large cuts in real wages might encourage investment but in the long run the consequent increase in poverty might make it harder for the population to maintain its human capital

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.394312089307728
WordScorePoS
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.390318400929919
WordScorePoS
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Or both could be wrong

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Most important among the many reasons for both the cross sectional and the time series evidence to be misleading are the following the possibility of nonlinear relationship between inequality and growth problems with comparability of cross country data and the difficult question of identifying the direction of causality when both variables are likely to influence one another

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.955637052231002
WordScorePoS
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.212652743343799
WordScorePoS
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This lack of clear cut results is perhaps disappointing but it is worth emphasizing that our focus here has been on redressing specific inequalities in productive opportunities rather than some overall measure of inequality

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.94244000611226
WordScorePoS
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Despite the great attention devoted to the question of systematic relationship between overall inequality and growth at the country level the body of evidence remains unconvincing

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.956318998688881
WordScorePoS
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.225678024894694
WordScorePoS
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But there clearly are situations in which there is strong presumption that reducing specific inequality would promote better investment

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.946837722137814
WordScorePoS
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One such example comes from Operation Barga tenancy reform in the Indian state of West Bengal in the late and s

Label: 5, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
reform0.0911713013253052NN

It has been known at least since the work of the great Victorian economist Alfred Marshall that sharecropping provides poor incentives and discourages effort

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.708309960235023
WordScorePoS
poor0.150659516460257JJ
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In such an environment government intervention that forces the landlords to give their sharecroppers higher share of the output than the market would give them should increase effort and productivity

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.526681976159677
WordScorePoS
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.470120974686033
WordScorePoS
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.416293633890338
WordScorePoS
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.336019560622671
WordScorePoS
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This is exactly what happened in West Bengal India when Left Front government came to power in

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.88801120417658
WordScorePoS
happen0.120405991343299VB
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.459821814681362
WordScorePoS
happen0VB
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The tenant share of output was set at minimum of percent as long as the tenant provided all WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT inputs

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.765790003940334
WordScorePoS
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.418696532598498
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In addition the tenant was guaranteed large measure of security of tenure which may have encouraged him or her to undertake more long term investments on the land

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.500893143471434
WordScorePoS
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.437206397005708
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Label: 7, with a score of: 0.379041926446433
WordScorePoS
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Label: 15, with a score of: 0.371669200355687
WordScorePoS
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.315719296851755
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Survey evidence shows substantial increase in both the security of tenure and the share of output going to the sharecropper

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.440017545410762
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Label: 7, with a score of: 0.371111871868691
WordScorePoS
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The fact that the implementation of this reform was bureaucratically driven and proceeded at different speeds in different areas suggests the possibility of using variation in the implementation of the reform to evaluate its impact

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

The evidence suggests that there was percent increase in the productivity of the land

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.436937440667812
WordScorePoS
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.55634595404784
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Label: 15, with a score of: 0.431901896994414
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.393287244809951
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different program also promoting equity and efficiency had to do with redressing the effects of intrafamily inequality

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.94773344973616
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Label: 7, with a score of: 0.210947991019525
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A long line of research claims that income and expenditures are often controlled by the male members of the family and that this leads to underinvestment especially in the health and education of girls

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.612812560219881
WordScorePoS
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Label: 4, with a score of: 0.422703732090842
WordScorePoS
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Label: 3, with a score of: 0.397158803892436
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.292184366382235
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.334094833813853
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One fallout of dismantling the apartheid regime in South Africa was the expansion of the South African social pension program to the black population

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.643725056027982
WordScorePoS
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Pension entitlements would accrue to elderly males and females and many older women living alone were entitled to receive the benefit

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.808319626520643
WordScorePoS
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Label: 3, with a score of: 0.343212038612765
WordScorePoS
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In many cases children of very poor parents were sent to live with grandparents who began to receive these pensions

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.641723450211409
WordScorePoS
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Label: 3, with a score of: 0.519684873247288
WordScorePoS
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Duflo compared the impact of these new transfers on the nutrition of children living with their grandparents separately for households in which the pension was given to the grandmother and those in which it was assigned to grandfather

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 3, with a score of: 0.369296163202242
WordScorePoS
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.312829131547733
WordScorePoS
compare0VB
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transfer0NN
nutrition0NN
child0NN
live0VB
household0.0554128417527413NN

For children born before the expansion in and height for age was slightly lower in families in which the grandmother would eventually get the pension

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.684571662922121
WordScorePoS
child0.10682408961305NN
bear0.0814816979556159NN
expansion0NN
height0NN
age0.0893142758861673NN
slightly0RB
family0.0624189222007589NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.560297671688181
WordScorePoS
child0.0450489732120807NN
bear0NN
expansion0NN
height0.120266261535276NN
age0.112994637345193NN
slightly0RB
family0NN

For children born after the expansion in and the children are significantly taller except for the newborns in those families

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.77399327599635
WordScorePoS
child0.10682408961305NN
bear0.0814816979556159NN
expansion0NN
significantly0RB
newborn0.0407408489778079JJ
family0.0624189222007589NN

There is no difference between noneligible families and families in which pension money goes to the grandfather

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.511092124496127
WordScorePoS
family0NN
money0.107490825192354NN

Boys are essentially unaffected

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.745515064408958
WordScorePoS
boy0.206598579091335NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.666488776154038
WordScorePoS
boy0.184698660975968NN

The estimates suggest that receipt of the pension which was about twice the per capita income among blacks was enough to help girls bridge half the gap in height for age between South African and American children

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.52319357836604
WordScorePoS
estimate0NN
suggest0VB
capita0NN
income0NN
girl0.393804437159645NN
gap0NN
height0NN
age0NN
south0RB
african0IN
child0.0170753354211044NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.347163307965667
WordScorePoS
estimate0.0299609328954485NN
suggest0VB
capita0NN
income0NN
girl0.140824109342254NN
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height0NN
age0.0255262687343935NN
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child0.076326555629389NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.26864086443808
WordScorePoS
estimate0NN
suggest0VB
capita0NN
income0.166475342664294NN
girl0NN
gap0NN
height0NN
age0.0202620733250388NN
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african0IN
child0.0242343960710022NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.41067847135576
WordScorePoS
estimate0NN
suggest0VB
capita0NN
income0.0442083771593746NN
girl0NN
gap0NN
height0.120266261535276NN
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child0.0450489732120807NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.393254103630682
WordScorePoS
estimate0.059903311017139NN
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girl0.0527926887119861NN
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age0.0893142758861673NN
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child0.10682408961305NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.322393278273602
WordScorePoS
estimate0.0221298700466866NN
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capita0NN
income0.110649350233433NN
girl0NN
gap0.0602029956716497NN
height0NN
age0NN
south0RB
african0IN
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These examples show that it is possible to enhance both equity and efficiency simultaneously

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.737206240524675
WordScorePoS
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efficiency0.134992154141495NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.311596624076753
WordScorePoS
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.300824429271866
WordScorePoS
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Judicious redistribution of income to grandmothers of power to poor women farmers of credit to entrepreneurs in small firms can increase the productivity of resources such as land human capital and physical capital

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.55215379626521
WordScorePoS
income0.0643370113878709NN
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farmer0.175025014152344NN
credit0NN
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increase0.0128868286091919NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.379089322318282
WordScorePoS
income0.0442083771593746NN
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poor0.150659516460257JJ
woman0.0450489732120807NN
farmer0NN
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resource0.0739147683583536NN
land0.0319966432858631NN
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.323761590299783
WordScorePoS
income0NN
power0NN
poor0JJ
woman0.221979360474357NN
farmer0NN
credit0NN
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human0.0170753354211044JJ

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.212184868946098
WordScorePoS
income0.166475342664294NN
power0NN
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woman0.0242343960710022NN
farmer0NN
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increase0.00285817158600878NN
productivity0NN
resource0NN
land0NN
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.454365206462626
WordScorePoS
income0.110649350233433NN
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poor0JJ
woman0NN
farmer0NN
credit0.0602029956716497NN
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land0NN
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If markets fail resources do not always flow to where their return is greatest particularly if that happens to be in projects run by people with limited wealth or influence

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.527479153346116
WordScorePoS
market0NN
resource0.0739147683583536NN
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project0NN
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.436202663801865
WordScorePoS
market0.0169905820958638NN
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.430159224860195
WordScorePoS
market0NN
resource0NN
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.348777720581049
WordScorePoS
market0.0913569596328122NN
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flow0NN
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Careful microeconomic case study evidence some of which was summarized in this chapter suggests that certain forms of redistribution can reduce waste and contribute to better use of resources while also reducing inequality of opportunity

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.825244546105135
WordScorePoS
careful0JJ
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.270225696329438
WordScorePoS
careful0JJ
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.195020996847502
WordScorePoS
careful0JJ
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In fact it enhances efficiency precisely because it reduces inequality of opportunity

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.916588449408662
WordScorePoS
enhance0.00994073584907126VB
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Label: 7, with a score of: 0.282186939390463
WordScorePoS
enhance0.0188084899376888VB
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This is not to say that one cannot easily imagine certain types of redistribution that hurt efficiency

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.728547639444426
WordScorePoS
type0NN
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.371668284641681
WordScorePoS
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But given the near universality of market failures and underinvestment in poor countries it should be possible with combination of good research and careful thinking to identify opportunities for redirecting resources to poorer people who are in position to make good use of them

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.470124137409978
WordScorePoS
market0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.465505686012864
WordScorePoS
market0.0913569596328122NN
poor0.0548141757796873JJ
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Label: 14, with a score of: 0.407620738477303
WordScorePoS
market0.0333211986002325NN
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.3454669383421
WordScorePoS
market0.0377086395700813NN
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In making the case for improvements in equity that are also efficiency enhancing this chapter used mainly microeconomic evidence on markets wealth and agency of individuals

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.576895594943867
WordScorePoS
improvement0.0924643738905717NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.525433572990078
WordScorePoS
improvement0NN
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.34188283359891
WordScorePoS
improvement0.0454743001434393NN
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The next chapter uses different set of historical macroeconomic and institutional evidence to argue that complex historical processes combined with inequalities in influence and power may lead to bad political and economic institutions which severely impair the development of poor countries

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.823425742685955
WordScorePoS
set0NN
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.24090723918864
WordScorePoS
set0NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.203626489268277
WordScorePoS
set0NN
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.174492664435125
WordScorePoS
set0NN
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focus on Spain Equity and development in the Spanish transition to democracy In the last half century Spain has gone from authoritarianism and underdevelopment to democracy and wealth

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.898990383534881
WordScorePoS
focus0.0279982034978914NN
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Spain history illustrates how the distribution of political agency and economic assets greatly influences the policy choices available to society

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.378459160964505
WordScorePoS
history0NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.552577102941538
WordScorePoS
history0NN
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.409705313458262
WordScorePoS
history0NN
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.357356526178627
WordScorePoS
history0NN
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.34637524160963
WordScorePoS
history0NN
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The fundamentals of economic and political structure influence and constrain the choices

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.328373307217714
WordScorePoS
fundamental0JJ
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.614048387084143
WordScorePoS
fundamental0.0558185411034276JJ
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.466493119941597
WordScorePoS
fundamental0JJ
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.354109388204741
WordScorePoS
fundamental0JJ
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But the process is not deterministic political agency and policies can shift the underlying fundamentals as happened in Spain in the and and open the space for new choices

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.545521674393786
WordScorePoS
process0.0558185411034276NN
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.513378800511958
WordScorePoS
process0.0737171311497939NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.451190672892626
WordScorePoS
process0NN
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Before the civil war social and economic polarization Until the second half of the twentieth century Spanish contemporary history was tale of political and economic failure

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.417634393222359
WordScorePoS
civil0JJ
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Label: 13, with a score of: 0.354268273582753
WordScorePoS
civil0JJ
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.526006650188381
WordScorePoS
civil0JJ
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.414427071712414
WordScorePoS
civil0JJ
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.388270309959892
WordScorePoS
civil0JJ
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After period of territorial expansion and European hegemony in the early modern ages Spain lapsed into economic decline and cultural stagnation in the following centuries

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.672299519653704
WordScorePoS
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Label: 13, with a score of: 0.353327443257926
WordScorePoS
period0NN
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.311856661231295
WordScorePoS
period0NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.303901315141645
WordScorePoS
period0NN
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During most of the nineteenth century its industrial takeoff was blocked by political instability inefficient legal institutions substantial inequalities and poorly educated population

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.826812580590546
WordScorePoS
century0NN
industrial0JJ
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.326851331195915
WordScorePoS
century0NN
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.326399463766655
WordScorePoS
century0NN
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Label: 13, with a score of: 0.239579818547124
WordScorePoS
century0.219293228426234NN
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In per capita income was in dollars two fifths that of Britain and less than twothirds that of France

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.690715698144468
WordScorePoS
capita0NN
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.459090469330567
WordScorePoS
capita0NN
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Spain was polarized by entrenched social and economic inequalities

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.935581534249892
WordScorePoS
social0.101310366625194JJ
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.199249733977631
WordScorePoS
social0.0504071033101074JJ
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In country still eminently agrarian the distribution of land was very unequal

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.833095789856162
WordScorePoS
country0NN
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About percent of the holdings occupied percent of the land

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.680349018301731
WordScorePoS
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Label: 11, with a score of: 0.615439493699709
WordScorePoS
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Educational attainment remained low strictly linked to circumstances of birth

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.522723449600478
WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.420236838421872
WordScorePoS
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Label: 3, with a score of: 0.39693951836142
WordScorePoS
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Social mobility was almost nonexistent

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.770462713807493
WordScorePoS
social0.101310366625194JJ
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.52442016246364
WordScorePoS
social0.112994637345193JJ
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Except for Catalonia and the Basque country which industrialized in the nineteenth century Spain lacked large middle class

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.80320556618342
WordScorePoS
country0NN
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.427678801079688
WordScorePoS
country0NN
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Against this backdrop of relative stagnation and high inequality democratic institutions were introduced in only the second time in Spanish history

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.920991795672997
WordScorePoS
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.31789047127616
WordScorePoS
relative0JJ
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The brief democratic period was characterized by huge political instability and social agitation

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.593108967975424
WordScorePoS
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period0NN
political0.0792212041430275JJ
social0.101310366625194JJ

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.460572976006469
WordScorePoS
democratic0JJ
period0NN
political0.111637082206855JJ
social0.0285529457667019JJ

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.429998073949147
WordScorePoS
democratic0.0804764811724088JJ
period0NN
political0JJ
social0.0504071033101074JJ

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.371226663886988
WordScorePoS
democratic0JJ
period0NN
political0JJ
social0.112994637345193JJ

The first Republican government pushed ahead with strong reformist program separation of church and state single system of state schools and goal to universalize education process of land reform law to decentralize political power to Catalonia and stepped up efforts to reform the army

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.527668585108936
WordScorePoS
government0NN
strong0JJ
single0JJ
system0NN
school0.208127520578185NN
goal0NN
education0.244244978014045NN
process0NN
land0NN
reform0NN
law0NN
political0JJ
power0NN
effort0.0255262687343935NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.264678081155091
WordScorePoS
government0NN
strong0JJ
single0JJ
system0NN
school0.0548954478802642NN
goal0NN
education0.0201317944152378NN
process0NN
land0NN
reform0NN
law0.164686343640793NN
political0JJ
power0NN
effort0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.62380046041843
WordScorePoS
government0NN
strong0JJ
single0JJ
system0NN
school0.0931221694711702NN
goal0NN
education0.0512260062633133NN
process0.0558185411034276NN
land0.024255976440725NN
reform0.0911713013253052NN
law0.0465610847355851NN
political0.111637082206855JJ
power0NN
effort0NN

These reforms elicited strong reaction from the right which came to power in and quickly moved to halt them

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.802132268822073
WordScorePoS
reform0NN
strong0JJ
power0NN
quickly0RB
move0NN
halt0.206935959588465NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.353401327294516
WordScorePoS
reform0.0911713013253052NN
strong0JJ
power0NN
quickly0RB
move0NN
halt0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.352538085886028
WordScorePoS
reform0NN
strong0.0454743001434393JJ
power0.0454743001434393NN
quickly0RB
move0NN
halt0NN

Two and half years later in the spring of new elections were held with victory for the left

Label: 5, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
hold0.18234260265061NN

The threat of more radical policies prompted military uprising supported by the landed classes much of the bourgeoisie and the church

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.485317080642202
WordScorePoS
threat0.064698038783335NN
policy0.0848203862485078NN
support0NN
land0NN
class0NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.427878534311652
WordScorePoS
threat0NN
policy0NN
support0.00794883334420673NN
land0.123873694868802NN
class0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.369609863472422
WordScorePoS
threat0NN
policy0NN
support0.00896409157262106NN
land0.0465651203624806NN
class0.0583416713841148NN

Spain became engulfed in three year civil war

Label: 17, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
civil0.0978661089756501JJ

The social polarization locked Spain into zero sum gain over the distribution of wealth

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.505493571548377
WordScorePoS
social0JJ
lock0.122412709674631NN
gain0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.466602389157572
WordScorePoS
social0.112994637345193JJ
lock0NN
gain0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.418353120328468
WordScorePoS
social0.101310366625194JJ
lock0NN
gain0NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.374080775678219
WordScorePoS
social0.0458109463416786JJ
lock0NN
gain0.04477822029736NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.344479661360834
WordScorePoS
social0.0169905820958638JJ
lock0NN
gain0.0664302389559493NN

There was little political space for compromise or reformist solutions

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.606161954584801
WordScorePoS
political0.111637082206855JJ
space0NN
solution0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.430151693313875
WordScorePoS
political0.0792212041430275JJ
space0NN
solution0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.400265927958831
WordScorePoS
political0.0368585655748969JJ
space0NN
solution0.0368585655748969NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.364498504567145
WordScorePoS
political0JJ
space0NN
solution0.0671298309154199NN

The haves opposed all attempts at even minimalist reform

Label: 5, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
reform0.0911713013253052NN

The have nots wanted radical change not gradual reform

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.922905383624169
WordScorePoS
change0.402565546215053NN
reform0NN

The Franco regime from autarky to growth With the defeat of the Republican government by the Nationalist army in Generalissimo Francisco Franco established an authoritarian regime that lasted until his death in

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.516171764748487
WordScorePoS
regime0NN
growth0.208565600657229NN
government0NN
establish0VB
last0JJ
death0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.479067572882818
WordScorePoS
regime0NN
growth0NN
government0NN
establish0VB
last0JJ
death0.193573191943949NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.605513589247754
WordScorePoS
regime0.048933054487825NN
growth0NN
government0.048933054487825NN
establish0.048933054487825VB
last0.048933054487825JJ
death0NN

The destruction caused by the civil war depressed the Spanish economy

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.534422473571832
WordScorePoS
cause0NN
civil0.0978661089756501JJ
economy0NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.458673671371778
WordScorePoS
cause0NN
civil0JJ
economy0.0839946104936743NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.44886557714933
WordScorePoS
cause0NN
civil0JJ
economy0.0821985033584295NN

Per capita income fell to its level and did not reach its level until

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.437476012213521
WordScorePoS
capita0NN
income0.166475342664294NN
fall0NN
level0NN
reach0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.49389222260724
WordScorePoS
capita0NN
income0NN
fall0NN
level0.0610668815653026NN
reach0.0658099748168827NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.323476186976861
WordScorePoS
capita0NN
income0NN
fall0.123094312756122NN
level0NN
reach0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.313908784155323
WordScorePoS
capita0NN
income0.0643370113878709NN
fall0.0440683498519077NN
level0.00552410547653725NN
reach0NN

The proportion of the active population in industry declined to percent in the level in and the share of employed in agriculture rose above percent

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.516381579881842
WordScorePoS
proportion0NN
active0JJ
population0NN
industry0.181897200573757NN
decline0NN
level0NN
share0.0377086395700813NN
employ0.0454743001434393VB
agriculture0NN
rise0.0221298700466866NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.47070083653733
WordScorePoS
proportion0.0182713919265625NN
active0JJ
population0.0310434135749871NN
industry0NN
decline0NN
level0.00552410547653725NN
share0.0365427838531249NN
employ0VB
agriculture0.148975141598503NN
rise0.0214456704626236NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.334633536017332
WordScorePoS
proportion0NN
active0JJ
population0NN
industry0NN
decline0.0236803262479443NN
level0.0415277415054218NN
share0NN
employ0VB
agriculture0NN
rise0.120914181920259NN

Growth averaged only

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.686393096286111
WordScorePoS
growth0.11178243319132NN
average0.146608885563018NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.554035596489963
WordScorePoS
growth0.208565600657229NN
average0NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.440015658242209
WordScorePoS
growth0NN
average0.1656430212089NN

percent year in the s

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Spain economic recovery was hampered above all by the autarkic and statist policies of the Franco regime

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.472799885362107
WordScorePoS
economic0.128463821595706JJ
recovery0NN
policy0.0452169560888236NN
regime0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.512044867399197
WordScorePoS
economic0.103276847978089JJ
recovery0NN
policy0.0848203862485078NN
regime0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.383941033037399
WordScorePoS
economic0.0959899298575892JJ
recovery0NN
policy0.0450489732120807NN
regime0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.347418757127409
WordScorePoS
economic0JJ
recovery0.107490825192354NN
policy0.0201317944152378NN
regime0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.307844593911538
WordScorePoS
economic0JJ
recovery0NN
policy0.0641521854453136NN
regime0.048933054487825NN

Inspired by the corporatist ideologies of Italian Fascism and German Nazism Franco regime generalized system of price controls and rationing and regulated foreign trade through quantitative controls

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

This interventionist strategy extended to the labor and housing market

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.802038630878056
WordScorePoS
strategy0NN
extend0VB
housing0.219415728260093NN
market0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.33394055843721
WordScorePoS
strategy0NN
extend0VB
housing0NN
market0.0913569596328122NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.310557919138196
WordScorePoS
strategy0NN
extend0.064698038783335VB
housing0NN
market0.0202620733250388NN

To quell one of the main forces that opposed the military insurrection Franco outlawed any independent labor unions

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Instead workers and employers had to affiliate in national trade union organization

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.754948333131111
WordScorePoS
worker0.121575732851624NN
employer0NN
national0.0055149369084567JJ
trade0.0591643007226199NN
organization0.0347609334428716NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.374533247312055
WordScorePoS
worker0NN
employer0NN
national0.0134132459226336JJ
trade0.0539615408530051NN
organization0.0422721924574123NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.324755486225901
WordScorePoS
worker0.0454743001434393NN
employer0.0454743001434393NN
national0.00412562425683033JJ
trade0NN
organization0NN

This repressive stance was compensated by strict labor legislation that made it hard for employers to dismiss workers or to hire them through temporary contracts

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.82450083749099
WordScorePoS
legislation0NN
employer0NN
worker0.121575732851624NN
contract0.0804764811724088NN

Emphasis on permanent jobs and cheap housing was seen as substitute for the lack of direct social policies an attempt by the regime to win legitimacy

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.584425625222163
WordScorePoS
job0.0136980135278128NN
housing0.219415728260093NN
lack0.0229054731708393NN
direct0.04477822029736JJ
social0.0458109463416786JJ
policy0.0136980135278128NN
regime0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.416014252482631
WordScorePoS
job0.135650868266471NN
housing0NN
lack0.0252035516550537NN
direct0JJ
social0.0504071033101074JJ
policy0.0452169560888236NN
regime0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.415072466530025
WordScorePoS
job0.0225244866060403NN
housing0NN
lack0.0753297582301286NN
direct0JJ
social0.112994637345193JJ
policy0.0450489732120807NN
regime0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.366157898630602
WordScorePoS
job0NN
housing0NN
lack0NN
direct0.0396106020715138JJ
social0.101310366625194JJ
policy0.0848203862485078NN
regime0NN

In the late Spain eventually moved to break with this interventionist system

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.643998126538705
WordScorePoS
move0NN
system0.0756001353333673NN

An acute political crisis associated with wave of strikes an economic recession and severe balance of payment crisis led the government to adopt stabilization plan in March

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.412670331778872
WordScorePoS
political0JJ
economic0.128463821595706JJ
lead0.0504071033101074NN
government0NN
adopt0VB
plan0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.547207538980011
WordScorePoS
political0.0792212041430275JJ
economic0.103276847978089JJ
lead0NN
government0NN
adopt0.0202620733250388VB
plan0.0344256159926965NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.49131199460424
WordScorePoS
political0.111637082206855JJ
economic0.0727679293221751JJ
lead0NN
government0NN
adopt0.0285529457667019VB
plan0NN

In addition to fiscal and monetary restraint the plan included wide ranging measures to liberalize the economy

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.705478586361079
WordScorePoS
addition0NN
fiscal0JJ
plan0.0291713033871158NN
include0VB
wide0.0414107553022249JJ
range0.0335649154577099NN
measure0.0710409787438328NN
economy0.0839946104936743NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.318356208298409
WordScorePoS
addition0NN
fiscal0JJ
plan0NN
include0VB
wide0JJ
range0NN
measure0.0347609334428716NN
economy0.0821985033584295NN

It was an outright success

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

From to the outbreak of the first oil crisis output expanded at an average annual rate of more than percent with very little interyear volatility

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.62932193411648
WordScorePoS
expand0.0201523636533764VB
average0.1656430212089NN
rate0NN
volatility0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.554893142891788
WordScorePoS
expand0VB
average0.146608885563018NN
rate0.0172128079963482NN
volatility0NN

Per capita income almost tripled from about in dollars to in years

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.690715698144468
WordScorePoS
capita0NN
income0.166475342664294NN
triple0RB
dollar0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.459090469330567
WordScorePoS
capita0NN
income0.110649350233433NN
triple0RB
dollar0NN

Productivity growth averaged percent

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.606011327005242
WordScorePoS
productivity0NN
growth0.11178243319132NN
average0.146608885563018NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.585544937037231
WordScorePoS
productivity0.0410992516792148NN
growth0.208565600657229NN
average0NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.388486531110587
WordScorePoS
productivity0NN
growth0NN
average0.1656430212089NN

The transformation of the Spanish economy led to significant structural changes in Spanish society

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.594366801278038
WordScorePoS
economy0.0821985033584295NN
lead0.0504071033101074NN
significant0JJ
society0.0591643007226199NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.471727118297639
WordScorePoS
economy0NN
lead0NN
significant0.033663879505068JJ
society0.118536858482514NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.366760285239394
WordScorePoS
economy0.0839946104936743NN
lead0NN
significant0.0343390275626203JJ
society0NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.312581671352017
WordScorePoS
economy0.0625160381065121NN
lead0.0383371018038178NN
significant0JJ
society0NN

The combination of economic growth industrial expansion and internal migration produced substantial decline in the levels of interregional inequality from standard deviation in per capita income of

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.822366157831656
WordScorePoS
economic0.103276847978089JJ
growth0.11178243319132NN
industrial0JJ
expansion0NN
migration0.12939607756667NN
produce0VB
substantial0JJ
decline0.02794560829783NN
level0NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
standard0NN
capita0NN
income0.166475342664294NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.372936253265446
WordScorePoS
economic0.0320338181740375JJ
growth0.0260040237236563NN
industrial0.318320101004075JJ
expansion0NN
migration0NN
produce0VB
substantial0JJ
decline0NN
level0NN
inequality0NN
standard0.0454743001434393NN
capita0NN
income0.110649350233433NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.275891414196451
WordScorePoS
economic0.128463821595706JJ
growth0.208565600657229NN
industrial0JJ
expansion0NN
migration0NN
produce0VB
substantial0JJ
decline0NN
level0.00761994916892276NN
inequality0NN
standard0NN
capita0.049270765107907NN
income0NN

Interhousehold inequality also declined considerably the Gini coefficient for wages and salaries of employees agrarian and industrial declined from

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.889825505548065
WordScorePoS
inequality0.635305170773079NN
decline0.02794560829783NN
industrial0JJ

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.409795754113157
WordScorePoS
inequality0NN
decline0NN
industrial0.318320101004075JJ

in the Gini coefficient for household income fell from

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.644464480988696
WordScorePoS
household0.0330412182586772NN
income0.166475342664294NN
fall0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.446405260384733
WordScorePoS
household0.0297950283197006NN
income0.0643370113878709NN
fall0.0440683498519077NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.397610664578675
WordScorePoS
household0NN
income0NN
fall0.123094312756122NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.357411814538328
WordScorePoS
household0NN
income0.110649350233433NN
fall0NN

The income share of the three central deciles went up from about percent to percent in that decade

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.456922964410996
WordScorePoS
income0.166475342664294NN
share0NN
central0JJ
decade0NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.482513116670869
WordScorePoS
income0.0449973847138318NN
share0.0383371018038178NN
central0.0924643738905717JJ
decade0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.4071964737251
WordScorePoS
income0.110649350233433NN
share0.0377086395700813NN
central0JJ
decade0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.397837512040934
WordScorePoS
income0.0643370113878709NN
share0.0365427838531249NN
central0.0440683498519077JJ
decade0NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.340978875941056
WordScorePoS
income0NN
share0NN
central0JJ
decade0.124232265906675NN

Still significant social and economic inequities remained

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.481408578193367
WordScorePoS
significant0JJ
social0.0504071033101074JJ
economic0.128463821595706JJ
remain0.049270765107907VB

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.600800298868692
WordScorePoS
significant0.0405241466500776JJ
social0.101310366625194JJ
economic0.103276847978089JJ
remain0.0396106020715138VB

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.520462346259091
WordScorePoS
significant0.0376648791150643JJ
social0.112994637345193JJ
economic0.0959899298575892JJ
remain0VB

Although the illiteracy rate had fallen to percent by only percent of the population had completed secondary studies

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.524125777407151
WordScorePoS
rate0.0433561464459019NN
fall0.123094312756122NN
population0NN
complete0JJ
secondary0JJ
study0NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.518796321131341
WordScorePoS
rate0.0216847879059514NN
fall0NN
population0NN
complete0.0815069365350084JJ
secondary0.0615662203253227JJ
study0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.325202216288137
WordScorePoS
rate0.0172128079963482NN
fall0NN
population0.0860640399817412NN
complete0JJ
secondary0JJ
study0NN

Wages remained dampened by repressive labor institutions

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.843582056164253
WordScorePoS
remain0VB
institution0.274477239401321NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.426387739497603
WordScorePoS
remain0.0396106020715138VB
institution0.0991236547760315NN

Taxation and public spending were low and redistributive social programs nonexistent

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.440636176526343
WordScorePoS
taxation0NN
public0.0172128079963482NN
spending0NN
social0.101310366625194JJ

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.420082613604892
WordScorePoS
taxation0NN
public0NN
spending0NN
social0.112994637345193JJ

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.387335086869404
WordScorePoS
taxation0NN
public0.0583751976558017NN
spending0NN
social0.0458109463416786JJ

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.376682814513064
WordScorePoS
taxation0NN
public0.0727679293221751NN
spending0NN
social0.0285529457667019JJ

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.372180540667374
WordScorePoS
taxation0.0542519672965169NN
public0.028867295332595NN
spending0NN
social0.0169905820958638JJ

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.353459506319472
WordScorePoS
taxation0NN
public0.0160169090870187NN
spending0.0602029956716497NN
social0.0188543197850406JJ

WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT Transitioning to democracy and building the welfare state Following Franco death in King Juan Carlos became the Spanish head of state

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.561002821131748
WordScorePoS
world0.00087176582269799NN
development0.00837573444202498NN
report0.0307735781890304NN
building0NN
welfare0NN
death0.193573191943949NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.482904035665935
WordScorePoS
world0.00418824502414673NN
development0.0469463607292177NN
report0NN
building0.149940347231585NN
welfare0NN
death0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.463634413185786
WordScorePoS
world0NN
development0.0368309542451156NN
report0NN
building0.109790895760528NN
welfare0NN
death0.0464294830712827NN

He immediately launched process of political change

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.835184844263773
WordScorePoS
process0NN
political0JJ
change0.402565546215053NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.347412738100492
WordScorePoS
process0.0558185411034276NN
political0.111637082206855JJ
change0NN

Employing the legal mechanisms put in place by the very technocratic generation that had reformed the economy in the early as well as pointing to wide popular support for democracy he secured the consent of the old Francoist Cortes to establish truly democratic parliament elected through direct competitive elections

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.48398987465673
WordScorePoS
employ0VB
legal0JJ
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WordScorePoS
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.407531923905421
WordScorePoS
employ0VB
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The political reform was ratified with overwhelming popular support in referendum in December

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.726003459021014
WordScorePoS
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.49667234903723
WordScorePoS
political0JJ
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Although conducted in climate of uncertainty particularly over the reaction of the army and the extent to which terrorist violence or labor mobilization could disrupt the negotiations democratic elections were held in June

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WordScorePoS
conduct0NN
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WordScorePoS
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.291856197605356
WordScorePoS
conduct0NN
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After protracted negotiations new constitution was approved in with the support of all parliamentary groups

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.761179421194436
WordScorePoS
negotiation0.036961556179878NN
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To reinforce the political pact in parliament the government also struck wide economic and social deal with employers and trade unions that same year

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.504950145639943
WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.48763646761214
WordScorePoS
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.482149039281888
WordScorePoS
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.331312116296964
WordScorePoS
reinforce0VB
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Spain democratization was rooted in the new economic and social conditions of the and s

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.450443569204581
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Rapid industrialization and urbanization deflated past conflicts around the distribution of land

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 11, with a score of: 0.364625755420838
WordScorePoS
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.293704758995043
WordScorePoS
rapid0JJ
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The expansion of literacy and the increase in productivity and incomes generated large middle class

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.335371384062006
WordScorePoS
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.552662511174108
WordScorePoS
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.473791953074571
WordScorePoS
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Sustained growth defused social conflict with the credible promise of higher incomes and more social mobility

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.680024913686284
WordScorePoS
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.523058782331188
WordScorePoS
sustained0JJ
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.344739861915577
WordScorePoS
sustained0JJ
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.328458027659987
WordScorePoS
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In short Spain had overcome the zero sum game it had been locked in for the past century and half

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.838343738998049
WordScorePoS
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Label: 7, with a score of: 0.467975821533558
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Economic growth resulted in different economic structure and better distributional outcomes supporting swift and successful transition to democracy

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.47672264439117
WordScorePoS
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.356013270927522
WordScorePoS
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In turn the transition to democracy changed the role and size of the public sector

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.8202935248944
WordScorePoS
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Democratization reinforced social demands for progressive and redistributive policies especially for public infrastructure and education health and social programs

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 3, with a score of: 0.299572650499753
WordScorePoS
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Label: 4, with a score of: 0.293695350948829
WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.429634055155354
WordScorePoS
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.356665154867997
WordScorePoS
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.352998088386554
WordScorePoS
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In more than percent of Spaniards agreed with the statement that the distribution of wealth in this country is totally unjust

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

In years social expenditure almost doubled to reach percent of the European average

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.798994632643051
WordScorePoS
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Label: 13, with a score of: 0.423354333566711
WordScorePoS
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Public expenditure in education steadily increased from percent of GDP in to

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.765298394846296
WordScorePoS
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.378795750247972
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percent in

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By almost percent of the population had completed secondary education times more than in the mid s

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.346871453858692
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.314971769764835
WordScorePoS
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An ambitious public investment program tripled the public highway network revamped and expanded metropolitan transportation and modernized the railroad system

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.561353753710701
WordScorePoS
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Spain transition to democracy and the resulting expansion of its welfare state shows how mutually reinforcing package of policy and institutional choices leading to greater equity helped underpin the development and modernization of the Spanish economy and its integration into the European Union

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

It illustrates how political and economic structures shape the possibilities for policy choice theme of chapter

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.38305253270814
WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.589570165577341
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.48202402583735
WordScorePoS
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.311060957645787
WordScorePoS
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But it also illustrates that specific policy choices matter across social sectors infrastructure the workings of markets and international integration and that there can be important complementarities for both equity and dynamic growth notably between greater social provisioning and greater reliance on markets

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.45738429113014
WordScorePoS
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WordScorePoS
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This takes us to the issue of practical policy design the central theme of part III of this report

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 7, with a score of: 0.455060308452066
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.417440680179689
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Sources Synthesized from Boix with references to Gunther Montero and Botella North and Thomas and Revenga

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Equity institutions and the development process chapter Product land labor and capital markets are crucial for the allocation of resources and development

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.500428522313306
WordScorePoS
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.43180451378293
WordScorePoS
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WordScorePoS
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Market institutions however exist and function in the context of whole set of nonmarket and political institutions

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.423939118502762
WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.404114529816921
WordScorePoS
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The nature of these other institutions and the way they function are influenced by inequalities in the political and social realm

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.231696443734852
WordScorePoS
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The most obvious of these other institutions are those that define and enforce property rights and contracts

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.335050277258106
WordScorePoS
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People will not invest if property rights are not well defined and enforced or if they believe that the contracts they write will not be honored or that courts of law will not be fair

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.427324771999144
WordScorePoS
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WordScorePoS
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.302395417681131
WordScorePoS
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The state must also provide whole set of other inputs apart from social order and fair contract enforcement

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.435765585256157
WordScorePoS
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.412604464811228
WordScorePoS
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.345865446844632
WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.337304111737869
WordScorePoS
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These include various types of public services and regulations

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WordScorePoS
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WordScorePoS
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Lying behind wellfunctioning markets are legal systems judges policemen and ultimately social groups and politicians

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 14, with a score of: 0.434971966209545
WordScorePoS
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This chapter considers the circumstances and processes for creating institutions that promote prosperity

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.429098789009983
WordScorePoS
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WordScorePoS
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These circumstances are closely related to the concerns of this report

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WordScorePoS
circumstance0.0332151194779746NN
related0.00833571598658786JJ
report0.0409791940864438NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.452693266607498
WordScorePoS
circumstance0.049270765107907NN
related0.0123650647908625JJ
report0NN

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.385564123881528
WordScorePoS
circumstance0NN
related0.0524959536790166JJ
report0NN

In essence societies that create institutions to generate sustained prosperity are equitable in important ways

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.747273821483971
WordScorePoS
society0.118536858482514NN
create0VB
institution0.274477239401321NN
generate0VB
sustained0JJ
prosperity0NN
equitable0JJ

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.411981767661339
WordScorePoS
society0.0221298700466866NN
create0.0520080474473126VB
institution0NN
generate0VB
sustained0.120405991343299JJ
prosperity0NN
equitable0.0221298700466866JJ

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.322828620618052
WordScorePoS
society0.0591643007226199NN
create0.0695218668857431VB
institution0.0410992516792148NN
generate0VB
sustained0JJ
prosperity0NN
equitable0JJ

Because talent and ideas are widely distributed in the population it is crucial that the property of all people is secure and that there is equality before the law for all not just for some

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.589732257516656
WordScorePoS
idea0NN
widely0RB
distribute0VB
population0.024255976440725NN
crucial0JJ
property0.0558185411034276NN
people0NNS
secure0JJ
equality0.18624433894234NN
law0.0465610847355851NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.310409318149652
WordScorePoS
idea0NN
widely0RB
distribute0VB
population0NN
crucial0JJ
property0NN
people0NNS
secure0JJ
equality0NN
law0.164686343640793NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.419494189939221
WordScorePoS
idea0NN
widely0RB
distribute0.064698038783335VB
population0.0860640399817412NN
crucial0JJ
property0NN
people0.00571634317201755NNS
secure0JJ
equality0.0330412182586772NN
law0.0330412182586772NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.329967132467469
WordScorePoS
idea0NN
widely0RB
distribute0VB
population0.0428212738652355NN
crucial0JJ
property0NN
people0.0106656521351091NNS
secure0.121575732851624JJ
equality0NN
law0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.324651614474253
WordScorePoS
idea0NN
widely0RB
distribute0VB
population0NN
crucial0JJ
property0.0736315832425121NN
people0.0371911007748996NNS
secure0JJ
equality0.0614198493690006NN
law0NN

Predetermined circumstances should not constrain anyone innovation or investment opportunities

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.616882386980623
WordScorePoS
circumstance0.0368585655748969NN
innovation0.122982418460916NN
investment0.0377086395700813NN
opportunity0.0135141354781442NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.56351087897448
WordScorePoS
circumstance0.049270765107907NN
innovation0.0821985033584295NN
investment0.0252035516550537NN
opportunity0.0361300980868102NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.370029794090037
WordScorePoS
circumstance0NN
innovation0.0499801157438617NN
investment0.0766240489430275NN
opportunity0NN

This implies that good institutional environment will not block entry into new lines of business and that the political system will provide access to services and public goods for all

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.435689685248576
WordScorePoS
institutional0JJ
environment0.0221298700466866NN
line0.030745604615229NN
business0.0909486002868787NN
political0.0368585655748969JJ
system0NN
provide0.00740117451847634VB
access0.0128821355880844NN
service0.0148023490369527NN
public0.0160169090870187NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.424502100943088
WordScorePoS
institutional0JJ
environment0NN
line0NN
business0NN
political0.111637082206855JJ
system0NN
provide0.0112083245137075VB
access0.00780347258345989NN
service0.022416649027415NN
public0.0727679293221751NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.403032784038246
WordScorePoS
institutional0JJ
environment0.0268848280079943NN
line0.0373517915079663NN
business0NN
political0JJ
system0.0315914058171786NN
provide0.0269743071558856VB
access0.00626002771693937NN
service0.0269743071558856NN
public0.0583751976558017NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.335746670296203
WordScorePoS
institutional0JJ
environment0.079769385071606NN
line0NN
business0.0409791940864438NN
political0JJ
system0NN
provide0.0200087191734851VB
access0.00232174891244877NN
service0.00666957305782837NN
public0.028867295332595NN

Institutions must be equitable

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.89796270800201
WordScorePoS
institution0.274477239401321NN
equitable0JJ

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.324286799385936
WordScorePoS
institution0.0991236547760315NN
equitable0JJ

To take an extreme example institutions were severely inequitable in slave societies such as Haiti or Barbados in the eighteenth century

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.673286625416662
WordScorePoS
extreme0JJ
institution0.274477239401321NN
severely0RB
society0.118536858482514NN
century0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.504563683311842
WordScorePoS
extreme0.294526332970048JJ
institution0NN
severely0RB
society0NN
century0NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.433180405795677
WordScorePoS
extreme0.0335649154577099JJ
institution0NN
severely0RB
society0NN
century0.219293228426234NN

Even though property rights in land and people were well defined and even well enforced although subject to potential slave rebellions most people had no property rights and were thus subject to expropriation by others particularly their masters

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.634026880006683
WordScorePoS
property0.0736315832425121NN
rights0.0519476926891779NNS
land0.0319966432858631NN
people0.0371911007748996NNS
enforce0VB
potential0NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.34570329104321
WordScorePoS
property0NN
rights0NNS
land0.123873694868802NN
people0.0159982027144574NNS
enforce0VB
potential0.0390772412228479NN

For percent of society there were no incentives to engage in socially desirable activities

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.521204922945182
WordScorePoS
society0.118536858482514NN
incentive0NN
engage0VB
socially0RB
activity0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.448056116234124
WordScorePoS
society0NN
incentive0NN
engage0.0819583881728876VB
socially0RB
activity0.0199423462679015NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.39021691473021
WordScorePoS
society0.0591643007226199NN
incentive0NN
engage0VB
socially0RB
activity0.0295821503613099NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.320698214509127
WordScorePoS
society0.0359743605686701NN
incentive0.036961556179878NN
engage0VB
socially0RB
activity0NN

A similar although somewhat less extreme example of inequitable institutions is South Africa under apartheid

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.693333990284812
WordScorePoS
extreme0.294526332970048JJ
institution0NN
south0RB
africa0IN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.646137130481403
WordScorePoS
extreme0JJ
institution0.274477239401321NN
south0RB
africa0IN

Institutions there were good for the whites but left percent of the population without incentives or opportunities to engage in economically productive activities

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.549567531682727
WordScorePoS
institution0.274477239401321NN
population0NN
incentive0NN
opportunity0NN
engage0VB
economically0RB
productive0JJ
activity0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.496902912927736
WordScorePoS
institution0.0410992516792148NN
population0.0428212738652355NN
incentive0NN
opportunity0.0361300980868102NN
engage0VB
economically0RB
productive0.0985415302158139JJ
activity0.0295821503613099NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.428946548867721
WordScorePoS
institution0.0991236547760315NN
population0.0860640399817412NN
incentive0NN
opportunity0.029046330719385NN
engage0VB
economically0RB
productive0JJ
activity0NN

The distribution of power and institutional quality circles vicious and virtuous How do societies develop equitable nonmarket institutions

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.77701213614269
WordScorePoS
power0NN
institutional0JJ
quality0NN
society0.118536858482514NN
develop0VB
equitable0JJ
institution0.274477239401321NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.320361305885332
WordScorePoS
power0.036961556179878NN
institutional0.036961556179878JJ
quality0.00916459792075908NN
society0.0359743605686701NN
develop0VB
equitable0.017987180284335JJ
institution0.0249900578719309NN

First there must be sufficient political equality equality in access to the political system and in the distribution of political power political rights and influence

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.848757251781897
WordScorePoS
sufficient0JJ
political0.111637082206855JJ
equality0.18624433894234NN
access0.00780347258345989NN
system0NN
power0NN
rights0.078760887431929NNS
influence0NN

Poor institutions will emerge and persist in societies when power is concentrated in the hands of narrow group or an elite

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.78970077992915
WordScorePoS
poor0JJ
institution0.274477239401321NN
emerge0VB
persist0VB
society0.118536858482514NN
power0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.302726895276871
WordScorePoS
poor0.150659516460257JJ
institution0NN
emerge0VB
persist0VB
society0NN
power0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.345156134078883
WordScorePoS
poor0JJ
institution0.0991236547760315NN
emerge0VB
persist0.0488696285210061VB
society0.0237821918091848NN
power0NN

Such an elite may grant property rights to itself but the property rights of most citizens will be unstable

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.664414874651099
WordScorePoS
property0.0558185411034276NN
rights0.078760887431929NNS
unstable0JJ

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.619981372970455
WordScorePoS
property0.0736315832425121NN
rights0.0519476926891779NNS
unstable0JJ

There may be equality before the law for particular elite group but not for the majority of people

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.598036092988261
WordScorePoS
equality0.18624433894234NN
law0.0465610847355851NN
majority0NN
people0NNS

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.423050184843268
WordScorePoS
equality0NN
law0.164686343640793NN
majority0NN
people0NNS

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.442460704245944
WordScorePoS
equality0.0614198493690006NN
law0NN
majority0.0736315832425121NN
people0.0371911007748996NNS

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.387943715689482
WordScorePoS
equality0.0330412182586772NN
law0.0330412182586772NN
majority0.0792212041430275NN
people0.00571634317201755NNS

Government policies may favor such an elite granting them rents and monopolies but most people will be excluded from entering profitable lines of business

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.584972256309664
WordScorePoS
government0NN
policy0.011275328195446NN
people0.0186171553883251NNS
enter0.0368585655748969VB
line0.030745604615229NN
business0.0909486002868787NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.457458146358999
WordScorePoS
government0.048933054487825NN
policy0.0641521854453136NN
people0.00432344066632653NNS
enter0.0299586785922821VB
line0NN
business0NN

The education system may invest heavily in the children of such elites but most will be excluded

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.73650963962508
WordScorePoS
education0.244244978014045NN
system0NN
invest0VB
heavily0RB
child0.076326555629389NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.433250003344515
WordScorePoS
education0NN
system0.0756001353333673NN
invest0.0583416713841148VB
heavily0RB
child0.0546336178945768NN

Many things determine the distribution of political power in society the constitution WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT the nature of checks and balances and the ability of different groups to solve collective action problems

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.580409063333776
WordScorePoS
determine0VB
political0JJ
power0NN
society0NN
world0.00464349782489754NN
development0.022306853314744NN
report0.0409791940864438NN
nature0.162755901889551NN
ability0.0409791940864438NN
action0.0121782716594324NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.418024287939829
WordScorePoS
determine0VB
political0.111637082206855JJ
power0NN
society0.0335134328085675NN
world0.00585260443759492NN
development0.0124956749436837NN
report0NN
nature0NN
ability0NN
action0.0409315617631NN

But economic inequality often underpins political inequality

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.983409313797571
WordScorePoS
economic0.103276847978089JJ
inequality0.635305170773079NN
political0.0792212041430275JJ

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.0869395009992449
WordScorePoS
economic0.128463821595706JJ
inequality0NN
political0JJ

In society with large inequalities of assets and incomes the rich will tend to have more influence and an advantage in adapting and distorting institutions to their benefit

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.875017792305484
WordScorePoS
society0.0237821918091848NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
asset0.0488696285210061NN
income0.166475342664294NN
influence0NN
institution0.0991236547760315NN
benefit0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.426210482232602
WordScorePoS
society0.118536858482514NN
inequality0NN
asset0.0811931365363091NN
income0NN
influence0NN
institution0.274477239401321NN
benefit0NN

Because the distribution of power through its impact on institutions helps to determine the distribution of income the possibility of vicious and virtuous circles is clear

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.620386970395004
WordScorePoS
power0NN
impact0.0285977592242194NN
institution0.274477239401321NN
help0NN
determine0VB
income0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.543674529767261
WordScorePoS
power0NN
impact0NN
institution0.0991236547760315NN
help0NN
determine0VB
income0.166475342664294NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.352367435955521
WordScorePoS
power0.0454743001434393NN
impact0.0160169090870187NN
institution0NN
help0NN
determine0VB
income0.110649350233433NN

A society with greater equality of control over assets and incomes will tend to have more equal distribution of political power

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.651151364658599
WordScorePoS
society0.0335134328085675NN
equality0.18624433894234NN
control0.0465610847355851NN
asset0NN
income0NN
equal0.114211783066808JJ
political0.111637082206855JJ
power0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.491705315189061
WordScorePoS
society0.0237821918091848NN
equality0.0330412182586772NN
control0NN
asset0.0488696285210061NN
income0.166475342664294NN
equal0.0202620733250388JJ
political0.0792212041430275JJ
power0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.308786483103111
WordScorePoS
society0.118536858482514NN
equality0NN
control0NN
asset0.0811931365363091NN
income0NN
equal0.033663879505068JJ
political0JJ
power0NN

It will therefore tend to have institutions that generate equality of opportunity for the broad mass of citizens

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.662320631233857
WordScorePoS
institution0.274477239401321NN
generate0VB
equality0NN
opportunity0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.498796830450512
WordScorePoS
institution0NN
generate0VB
equality0.18624433894234NN
opportunity0.02046578088155NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.389006776901689
WordScorePoS
institution0.0991236547760315NN
generate0VB
equality0.0330412182586772NN
opportunity0.029046330719385NN

This will tend to spread rewards and incomes widely thereby reinforcing the initial distribution of incomes

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.733801300901306
WordScorePoS
spread0NN
income0.166475342664294NN
widely0RB
reinforce0VB

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.487727706972862
WordScorePoS
spread0NN
income0.110649350233433NN
widely0RB
reinforce0VB

In contrast society with greater inequality of assets and incomes will tend to have less egalitarian distribution of power and worse institutions which tend to reproduce the initial conditions

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.860854979504906
WordScorePoS
society0.0237821918091848NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
asset0.0488696285210061NN
income0.166475342664294NN
power0NN
institution0.0991236547760315NN
condition0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.419311949052379
WordScorePoS
society0.118536858482514NN
inequality0NN
asset0.0811931365363091NN
income0NN
power0NN
institution0.274477239401321NN
condition0NN

The evidence in this chapter suggests that the first type of society will tend to be more prosperous

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.516138574601973
WordScorePoS
evidence0.12939607756667NN
suggest0VB
type0NN
society0.0237821918091848NN
prosperous0JJ

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.652175403642654
WordScorePoS
evidence0NN
suggest0VB
type0.0688661930304451NN
society0.0335134328085675NN
prosperous0.0911713013253052JJ

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.399413346450852
WordScorePoS
evidence0NN
suggest0VB
type0NN
society0.118536858482514NN
prosperous0JJ

We argue that societies prosper Figure

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.717246957434656
WordScorePoS
society0.118536858482514NN
figure0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.498182575355363
WordScorePoS
society0.0221298700466866NN
figure0.0602029956716497NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.357993414245141
WordScorePoS
society0.0591643007226199NN
figure0NN

Countries with more secure property rights have higher average incomes GDP per capita PPP in log KWT LUX USA CHE NOR JPN DNK CAN AUS ISL AUT NLD SWEBEL SGP FRA ITA FIN GBR IRL NZL ESP PR QAT OMN BHS ISR MLT SAU GRCBHR KOR CZE TTO GAB HUN URY MYS CHL RUS ZAF VEN MEXPOL BRA TURTHA BGR BWA PAN TUN PRY CRI COL IRN DZA ROM SLV PER SYR DOM ECU EGY JAM GTM PHL IDN JOR MAR LKA PNG ZWE GIN CHN BOL GUY HND CIV CMR IND COG PAK NIC SEN AGO VNM STP MNG KEN GHA BGD GMB BFA SLE YEM ZMB TGO MDG NER NGA MOZ UGA MWI GNB ETH TZA ETH ARG HTI SDN MLI ZAR Average protection against risk of expropriation Sources Political Risk Services International Country Risk Guide ICRG and World Bank database

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.547957305065915
WordScorePoS
country0NN
secure0JJ
property0NN
rights0NNS
average0.146608885563018NN
income0.166475342664294NN
gdp0NN
capita0NN
protection0.0660824365173543NN
risk0NN
source0NN
political0.0792212041430275JJ
service0.00795378154685591NN
international0.00571634317201755JJ
world0.00276879546803864NN
bank0NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.312476159295157
WordScorePoS
country0NN
secure0JJ
property0NN
rights0NNS
average0.1656430212089NN
income0NN
gdp0NN
capita0NN
protection0NN
risk0NN
source0.0123065238088614NN
political0JJ
service0NN
international0.00726580379728728JJ
world0.00351929966767313NN
bank0NN

Note The figure shows the relationship between GDP per capita in and measure of the security of property rights protection against expropriation risk averaged over the period to

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.370436647509355
WordScorePoS
figure0NN
gdp0NN
capita0NN
measure0.0710409787438328NN
security0NN
property0NN
rights0NNS
protection0NN
risk0NN
average0.1656430212089NN
period0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.332885452001489
WordScorePoS
figure0NN
gdp0NN
capita0NN
measure0NN
security0NN
property0NN
rights0NNS
protection0.0660824365173543NN
risk0NN
average0.146608885563018NN
period0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.632714841565694
WordScorePoS
figure0NN
gdp0NN
capita0NN
measure0.103895385378356NN
security0NN
property0.0736315832425121NN
rights0.0519476926891779NNS
protection0.122839698738001NN
risk0.0519476926891779NN
average0NN
period0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.327191967727478
WordScorePoS
figure0NN
gdp0NN
capita0NN
measure0.0504000902222448NN
security0.0893850849591018NN
property0NN
rights0NNS
protection0NN
risk0.0252000451111224NN
average0NN
period0.0440683498519077NN

The data on institutions come from Political Risk Services private company that assesses the risk that investments will be expropriated in different countries

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.449597564671143
WordScorePoS
datum0NN
institution0.274477239401321NN
political0JJ
risk0NN
service0NN
private0JJ
company0NN
investment0NN
country0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.434750631119502
WordScorePoS
datum0.0739231123597559NN
institution0.0249900578719309NN
political0JJ
risk0NN
service0NN
private0.0898760357768464JJ
company0NN
investment0.0766240489430275NN
country0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.338349343937255
WordScorePoS
datum0NN
institution0.0991236547760315NN
political0.0792212041430275JJ
risk0NN
service0.00795378154685591NN
private0JJ
company0NN
investment0.0202620733250388NN
country0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.311013442964532
WordScorePoS
datum0NN
institution0NN
political0.111637082206855JJ
risk0NN
service0.022416649027415NN
private0.0558185411034276JJ
company0NN
investment0NN
country0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.304532649337807
WordScorePoS
datum0NN
institution0NN
political0JJ
risk0.0519476926891779NN
service0.0443555132287109NN
private0JJ
company0NN
investment0.0376648791150643NN
country0NN

These data first used by Knack and Keefer and subsequently by Hall and Jones and Acemoglu Johnson and Robinson are imperfect as measure of the relevant institutions because they pertain to investments by foreigners only

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.702939190188715
WordScorePoS
datum0NN
measure0NN
relevant0.0548954478802642JJ
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investment0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.427960444751175
WordScorePoS
datum0.0739231123597559NN
measure0NN
relevant0.0249900578719309JJ
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Even so they seem in practice to capture how stable property rights are in general

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.661584591462557
WordScorePoS
practice0.0393804437159645NN
capture0NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.477588957086625
WordScorePoS
practice0NN
capture0NN
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.363380433129632
WordScorePoS
practice0NN
capture0NN
stable0.0607878664258118JJ
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The findings are robust to using other available measures of related institutions

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.798231867942341
WordScorePoS
measure0NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.335688093655981
WordScorePoS
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ous today are so because they have developed more egalitarian distributions of political power while poor societies often suffer from unbalanced distributions

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.415729378508082
WordScorePoS
develop0VB
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.554553358212092
WordScorePoS
develop0VB
political0.111637082206855JJ
power0NN
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society0.0335134328085675NN
suffer0.0558185411034276VB

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.327090220817451
WordScorePoS
develop0VB
political0JJ
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society0.118536858482514NN
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We also consider how some societies made the transition from one equilibrium to the other

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.817514436311207
WordScorePoS
society0.118536858482514NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.408039073872828
WordScorePoS
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Because institutions have distributional effects conflict arises naturally

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.841629705657636
WordScorePoS
institution0.274477239401321NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.364224837973275
WordScorePoS
institution0NN
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One set of institutions will benefit some people while another will benefit different people

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.680864017770881
WordScorePoS
set0NN
institution0.274477239401321NN
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.326204438402264
WordScorePoS
set0.0978661089756501NN
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Label: 15, with a score of: 0.301093667584617
WordScorePoS
set0NN
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benefit0.0446918591208085NN
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Thus there will be incentives for people to control power to create or keep the institutions that benefit them and to avoid or weaken the institutions that disadvantage them

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.803662781910506
WordScorePoS
incentive0NN
people0NNS
control0NN
power0NN
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institution0.274477239401321NN
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If the groups in conflict are defined along ascriptive lines such as ethnicity then this may induce more severe form of conflict than when groups are defined along other lines or when there are cross cutting cleavages

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.800348964038582
WordScorePoS
conflict0.147263166485024NN
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.46071552537816
WordScorePoS
conflict0.0658099748168827NN
line0NN
ethnicity0NN
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More polarized conflict seems to be an independent force leading to bad institutions that can help to explain the relatively weak performance in some societies discussed below in comparison between Guyana and Mauritius

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.797023084809961
WordScorePoS
conflict0.0658099748168827NN
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institution0.274477239401321NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.255810778497092
WordScorePoS
conflict0.147263166485024NN
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.333123417572553
WordScorePoS
conflict0NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.325886622640895
WordScorePoS
conflict0NN
force0NN
lead0NN
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institution0.0991236547760315NN
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Political equality also matters for the quality of public policy

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WordScorePoS
political0.111637082206855JJ
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.417172488522004
WordScorePoS
political0.0792212041430275JJ
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The basic role of the state is to provide public services

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.563897772341553
WordScorePoS
basic0.0583751976558017JJ
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.45561070964676
WordScorePoS
basic0.0639932865717261JJ
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.35146496192295
WordScorePoS
basic0JJ
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But politicians have the correct incentives to provide public services only when they have to appeal to the broad mass of citizens to attain power

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.551822307863354
WordScorePoS
correct0JJ
incentive0.036961556179878NN
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If they can win power with small number of key supporters or with few votes they will tend to be clientelistic and more inclined to buy votes or make individual exchanges of patronage for support without providing the goods and services critical to raising the mass of people out of poverty

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.678423514854682
WordScorePoS
power0NN
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Some simple patterns in the cross country data show that more egalitarian distributions of political power and income are associated with sustained and enduring prosperity

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WordScorePoS
simple0JJ
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.710477887573949
WordScorePoS
simple0JJ
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.352019086660648
WordScorePoS
simple0.048933054487825JJ
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Figure

Label: 9, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
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indicated that more secure property rights are associated with higher incomes

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.464429809955361
WordScorePoS
secure0JJ
property0NN
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income0.166475342664294NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.473670431884101
WordScorePoS
secure0JJ
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.436145119476484
WordScorePoS
secure0.121575732851624JJ
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.375447182857684
WordScorePoS
secure0JJ
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.30868749616708
WordScorePoS
secure0JJ
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.302427257472353
WordScorePoS
secure0.0440683498519077JJ
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Crucially however better institutions and secure property rights are associated with greater political equality

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.683131392309687
WordScorePoS
institution0NN
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political0.111637082206855JJ
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.4335745509595
WordScorePoS
institution0.274477239401321NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.333913382731968
WordScorePoS
institution0.0991236547760315NN
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.311877187578257
WordScorePoS
institution0.0410992516792148NN
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Although there is no perfect way of measuring political equality protection against expropriation risk is highly correlated with measures of democracy and measures of constraints on the executive from the Polity IV database

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.45435663159857
WordScorePoS
measure0NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.722730191691417
WordScorePoS
measure0.103895385378356NN
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This second variable is designed to capture the extent to Equity institutions and the development process which those who control political power are constrained or checked by others

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.60758133116873
WordScorePoS
capture0NN
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.442085039815232
WordScorePoS
capture0NN
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power0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.382689093454526
WordScorePoS
capture0NN
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.368979311798674
WordScorePoS
capture0NN
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The types of checks and balances and separation of powers written into the U

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.69909866129031
WordScorePoS
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Constitution are classic examples of such constraints

Label: 9, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
constraint0.0602029956716497NN

There is negative correlation between constraints on the executive and the Gini coefficient of income distribution

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.651236533539157
WordScorePoS
constraint0NN
income0.166475342664294NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.668358975651015
WordScorePoS
constraint0.0602029956716497NN
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The simple correlations suggest complementarities between relatively egalitarian distribution of political power good institutions and prosperity and relatively egalitarian distribution of economic resources

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.457188327397693
WordScorePoS
simple0JJ
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.303032125105496
WordScorePoS
simple0JJ
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.469088647991448
WordScorePoS
simple0JJ
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.353824184268544
WordScorePoS
simple0JJ
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.321590518096529
WordScorePoS
simple0JJ
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The correlations are consistent with many different causal stories but recent research suggests that one can tell causal story about this data along exactly the lines we are suggesting which the rest of this chapter discusses

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.889671039493262
WordScorePoS
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The different evolutions of banking systems in Mexico and the United States in the nineteenth century provide good example of the sort of historic argument we rely on box

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.816081122089023
WordScorePoS
banking0NN
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Institutions and political inequality matter for development historical evidence Figure

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.930114498077851
WordScorePoS
institution0.0991236547760315NN
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.301371838908136
WordScorePoS
institution0.274477239401321NN
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showed the relationship between security of property and prosperity for the whole world but to interpret this causally we need to find source of variation in institutions

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.717278371170028
WordScorePoS
security0NN
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.300433243664604
WordScorePoS
security0.0893850849591018NN
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Doing this is not easy but Acemoglu Johnson and Robinson provide partial answer

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

They show that the same basic pattern holds for smaller sample of countries those colonized by Europeans after

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.764244979160057
WordScorePoS
basic0JJ
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.404003937369855
WordScorePoS
basic0.0144336476662975JJ
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Indeed colonization of much of the world by Europeans provides something of large natural experiment

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.608218732343093
WordScorePoS
world0.00464349782489754NN
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Beginning in the early fifteenth century and massively intensifying after Europeans conquered many other nations

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.985297928724981
WordScorePoS
century0.219293228426234NN
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Colonization transformed the institutions in many diverse lands conquered or controlled by Europeans

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.70320953529624
WordScorePoS
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institution0.274477239401321NN
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Label: 7, with a score of: 0.397059165044796
WordScorePoS
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Label: 15, with a score of: 0.38505307734086
WordScorePoS
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Most important Europeans created very different sets of institutions in different parts of their global empire as exemplified most sharply by the contrast between the institutions in the northeast of America and those in the plantation societies of the Caribbean

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.855508407575869
WordScorePoS
create0VB
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This experience persuasively establishes the central role of institu BOX

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.580583271407137
WordScorePoS
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Banking in the nineteenth century Mexico and the United States Much recent work on growth and development has focused on financial and capital markets

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.648550750369634
WordScorePoS
banking0.0804764811724088NN
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Label: 13, with a score of: 0.537987932646782
WordScorePoS
banking0NN
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A central issue is to understand why financial systems differ

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 7, with a score of: 0.451009797530165
WordScorePoS
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.343515974892592
WordScorePoS
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.322568080150846
WordScorePoS
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For example studies of the development of banking in the United States in the nineteenth century demonstrate rapid expansion of financial intermediation which most scholars see as crucial facilitator of the economy rapid growth and industrialization

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.440525145319317
WordScorePoS
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Label: 13, with a score of: 0.410995729956794
WordScorePoS
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Haber investigated the development of banks in the nineteenth century in Mexico and the United States

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.866662786225239
WordScorePoS
development0NN
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.346732750123215
WordScorePoS
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He shows that Mexico had series of segmented monopolies that were awarded to group of insiders

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

In the United States had roughly banks and highly competitive market structure Mexico had banks two of which controlled percent of total banking assets and virtually none of which actually competed with another bank

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.767722191640755
WordScorePoS
unite0VB
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Why this huge difference

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The relevant technology was certainly widely available and it is difficult to see why the various types of moral hazard or adverse selection connected with financial intermediation should have limited the expansion of banks in Mexico but not the United States

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WordScorePoS
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Indeed Haber shows when the U

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Constitution was put into effect in the structure of U

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.611454211547748
WordScorePoS
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.568234552919858
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.550666178413466
WordScorePoS
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banking looked remarkably like that arising later in Mexico

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.806966221957443
WordScorePoS
banking0.0804764811724088NN
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State governments stripped of revenues by the Constitution started banks as way to generate tax revenues and restricted entry to generate rents

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.834865386102886
WordScorePoS
government0.048933054487825NN
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.461926946109545
WordScorePoS
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Yet this system did not last because states began competing among themselves for investment and migrants

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.614035146656797
WordScorePoS
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.408968917374607
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WordScorePoS
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.374884431785109
WordScorePoS
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As Haber puts it The pressure to hold population and business in the state was reinforced by second related factor the broadening of the suffrage

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.560352887880864
WordScorePoS
pressure0NN
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By the most states had dropped all property and literacy requirements and by virtually all states

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WordScorePoS
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The broadening of the suffrage however served to undermine the political coalitions that supported restrictions on the number of bank charters

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.420090915187064
WordScorePoS
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.404488528691552
WordScorePoS
broaden0.107490825192354VB
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That is it created second source of political competition competition within states over who would hold office and the policies they would enact

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.374018258489534
WordScorePoS
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The situation was very different in Mexico

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.534767843685244
WordScorePoS
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WordScorePoS
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After years of endemic political instability the country became unified under the highly centralized year dictatorship of Porfirio Díaz until the revolution in

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WordScorePoS
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In Haber argument political institutions in the United States allocated political power to people who wanted access to credit and loans

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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.50336193309158
WordScorePoS
political0.0792212041430275JJ
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.401092497994515
WordScorePoS
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As result they forced state governments to allow free competitive entry into banking

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.568086241032605
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In Mexico political institutions were very different

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.507942828330118
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.317952844990095
WordScorePoS
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There were no competing federal states and suffrage was highly restrictive

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As result the central government granted monopoly rights to banks which restricted credit to maximize profits

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WordScorePoS
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The granting of monopolies turned out to be rational way for the government to raise revenue and redistribute rents to political supporters North

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.492732716893217
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Haber documents that market regulation was not aimed at solving market failures and it is precisely during this period that the huge economic gap between the United States and Mexico opened on which see Coatsworth Engerman and Sokoloff

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Haber and Maurer examined in detail how the structure of banking influenced the Mexican textile industry between and

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WordScorePoS
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They show that only firms with personal contacts with banks were able to get loans and that such firms were less efficient

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.393681974869951
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Even though economic efficiency was hurt by regulations those with political power were able to sustain them

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.309774710360597
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tions in development

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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.432469942010676
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.38754542632484
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It also provides fairly clear cut evidence to support our conjectures about the joint evolution of prosperity and political and economic equality

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Colonial origins of contemporary institutions Acemoglu Johnson and Robinson building on the research of Engerman and Sokoloff explain that Europeans created good institutions in some colonies particularly the United States Canada and Australasia what WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT Crosby calls the neo Europes and bad ones in others particularly in Latin America and Sub Saharan Africa

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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.360766728222045
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These institutions had strong tendency to persist and thus today generate the results seen in figure

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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.530870785326412
WordScorePoS
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Why did different institutions develop in different European colonies

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.335143345875739
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The simplest answer is that Europeans shaped the institutions in various colonies to benefit themselves

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.325276585713045
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And because conditions and endowments differed among colonies Europeans consciously created different institutions

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.599023627377849
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There are several important empirical regularities connecting initial conditions to current outcomes

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.440180911650973
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Of particular importance are initial population density the disease environFigure

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 6, with a score of: 0.476958367737583
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Label: 11, with a score of: 0.316390866646958
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Low population density in is associated with lower risk of expropriation today Average protection against risk of expropriation USA CAN NZL SGP AUS BRA BWA URA VEN PR ZAF ARG GUY GMB MYS GAB BHS IDN MEX COL TTO JAM PNG MAR CIV CRI MWI TGO ZMB MOZ TZA GIN DZA TUN CMR ECU GHA VNM DOM KEN SEN LKA ZWE PAN SLE MMR PER BOL NGA PHL AGO HND LBY NIC GTM NER SLV COG GNB UGA MDG BFA MLI SDN HTI ZAR IND CHL MLT EGY PAK BGD SOM Population density in log Source Political Risk Services International Country Risk Guide ICRG and Acemoglu Johnson and Robinson

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WordScorePoS
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Figure

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Worse environments for European settlers are associated with worse institutions today Average protection against risk of expropriation NZL AUS USA CAN SGP IND MYS MLT ZAF GMB BRA CHL BHS MEXTTO COL VEN MAR URY CRI PRY EGY ECU TUN ARGDZA PAK LKA GUY PER MMR BOL HND GTM BGD SLV CIV TGO JAM TZA CMR VNM DOM SEN KEN PAN GIN GHA SLE NGA AGO NIC GNB NER COG BFA UGA MDG SDN GAB IDN PNG HTI MLI ZAR Settler mortality log Source Political Risk Services International Country Risk Guide ICRG and Acemoglu Johnson and Robinson

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.480958746912858
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.311188941448107
WordScorePoS
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Label: 13, with a score of: 0.196396976450064
WordScorePoS
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ment and the factor endowments that influenced economic organization

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There is strong inverse relationship between population density in and current protection against expropriation risk for former European colonies figure

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Label: 11, with a score of: 0.429085603230588
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And colonies with disease environments that were worse for European settlers also have worse institutions today figure

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WordScorePoS
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Other aspects of factor endowments are more difficult to measure directly but Engerman and Sokoloff point out that where the climate and soils were suitable for crops such as sugarcane which could be grown on large plantations with slave labor such as northeastern Brazil much worse institutions and more skewed distributions of political power evolved than in climates where wheat or other nonplantation crops could be grown

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WordScorePoS
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Why did Europeans introduce better institutions in previously relatively unsettled and healthy areas than in previously densely settled and unhealthy areas

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WordScorePoS
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How did factor endowments influence institutions

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.32964357822037
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Europeans were more likely to introduce or maintain bad institutions where there were lot of resources and rents to extract gold silver and most important people to provide the labor

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.362883042506941
WordScorePoS
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Label: 11, with a score of: 0.303649764262392
WordScorePoS
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In places with large indigenous population Europeans could exploit the population through taxes tributes or employment as forced labor in mines or plantations

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.338530755175905
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And where plantation crops could be profitably grown slavebased societies emerged

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These types of colonization were incompatible with institutions providing economic or civil rights or equality of opportunity to the majority of the population

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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.328511208815767
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.498403163740033
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.362471549484565
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So more developed civilization with denser population structure and particular climatic and agricultural conditions made it more profitable for the Europeans to introduce bad institutions

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.535300183821264
WordScorePoS
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.400769787447341
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.361162941093012
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In contrast in places with little to extract where plantation agriculture was not profitable and in sparsely settled places where the Europeans became the majority of the population it was in their interests to introduce much better institutions

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.577167860627657
WordScorePoS
agriculture0NN
majority0NN
population0NN
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institution0.274477239401321NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.453650651790979
WordScorePoS
agriculture0.148975141598503NN
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population0.0310434135749871NN
introduce0VB
institution0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.555996259807744
WordScorePoS
agriculture0NN
majority0.0792212041430275NN
population0.0860640399817412NN
introduce0VB
institution0.0991236547760315NN

In addition the disease environments differed markedly among the colonies with obvious consequences for the attractiveness of European Equity institutions and the development process settlement

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.590178777291632
WordScorePoS
addition0NN
disease0NN
environment0NN
institution0.274477239401321NN
development0.0368309542451156NN
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Label: 3, with a score of: 0.424263069996001
WordScorePoS
addition0NN
disease0.215415047323213NN
environment0NN
institution0NN
development0.00837573444202498NN
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Label: 11, with a score of: 0.347284702028329
WordScorePoS
addition0NN
disease0NN
environment0.0268848280079943NN
institution0NN
development0.0100241617629471NN
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settlement0.146277152173395NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.31415445583705
WordScorePoS
addition0.0368585655748969NN
disease0NN
environment0.0221298700466866NN
institution0NN
development0.0330049940546426NN
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settlement0NN

When Europeans settled they established institutions under which they themselves had to live

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.857579218264744
WordScorePoS
establish0VB
institution0.274477239401321NN
live0.013214597504793VB

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.342896006218519
WordScorePoS
establish0VB
institution0.0991236547760315NN
live0.0159075630937118VB

This research suggests that most of the gap in per capita income between rich and poor countries today is due to differences in institutions

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.437500085525553
WordScorePoS
research0NN
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gap0NN
capita0NN
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institution0.274477239401321NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.423348705885754
WordScorePoS
research0NN
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gap0NN
capita0NN
income0.166475342664294NN
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country0NN
due0JJ
institution0.0991236547760315NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.393409086868803
WordScorePoS
research0NN
suggest0VB
gap0NN
capita0NN
income0.0442083771593746NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
country0NN
due0.0519476926891779JJ
institution0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.534083563479192
WordScorePoS
research0.104016094894625NN
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gap0.0602029956716497NN
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income0.110649350233433NN
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More precisely if one takes two typical countries in the sense that they both lie on the regression line with high and low expropriation risk such as Nigeria and Chile almost the entire difference in income per capita between them can be explained by the differences in the historically shaped measure of the security of property rights

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.395045993561763
WordScorePoS
country0NN
sense0.064698038783335NN
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rights0NNS

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.556461625984972
WordScorePoS
country0NN
sense0NN
lie0NN
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risk0.0519476926891779NN
income0.0442083771593746NN
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measure0.103895385378356NN
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The research also presented regression evidence showing that once the effect of institutions on GDP per capita is properly controlled for geographic variables such as latitude whether or not country is landlocked the current disease environment have no explanatory power for current prosperity

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.48280053059129
WordScorePoS
research0NN
evidence0.12939607756667NN
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.406173503657641
WordScorePoS
research0NN
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Label: 3, with a score of: 0.375603162186423
WordScorePoS
research0.0175975629039954NN
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.388551401318462
WordScorePoS
research0.104016094894625NN
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Different types of societies thus developed in different colonies with radically different implications for subsequent development

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.647261596547779
WordScorePoS
type0NN
society0.118536858482514NN
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development0.0368309542451156NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.478569977160346
WordScorePoS
type0.0688661930304451NN
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.345447345315043
WordScorePoS
type0NN
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Crucially the societies that emerged in the neo Europes had distributions of economic resources and political power that were much broader

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.40354721720419
WordScorePoS
society0.0591643007226199NN
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.496248936115212
WordScorePoS
society0.0335134328085675NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.416233270770502
WordScorePoS
society0.0237821918091848NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.342834519245536
WordScorePoS
society0NN
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.312753119357497
WordScorePoS
society0.0221298700466866NN
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And they placed constraints on the exercise of political power and the ability of elites to adopt policies favorable to themselves but deleterious for society figure

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.500520914559641
WordScorePoS
constraint0.0602029956716497NN
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figure0.0602029956716497NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.441049945469519
WordScorePoS
constraint0NN
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society0.0237821918091848NN
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.440558793325471
WordScorePoS
constraint0NN
political0.111637082206855JJ
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.350085461661866
WordScorePoS
constraint0NN
political0JJ
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.323047937827741
WordScorePoS
constraint0NN
political0JJ
power0.036961556179878NN
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adopt0.0153248097886055VB
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Development and inequality in the Americas case study in colonial origins The colonization of Latin America began with the discovery of the Indies by Columbus in the assault on Mexico by Cortés after and the conquest of Peru by Pizzaro after

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.983167461386388
WordScorePoS
development0.0177346522508396NN
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From the beginning the Spanish were interested in the extraction of gold and silver and later in taking tribute and raising taxes

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.664565053444073
WordScorePoS
raise0NN
tax0.0811931365363091NN

The colonial societies that emerged were authoritarian based on the political power of small Spanish elite who created set of institutions to extract wealth from the indigenous population

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.605821981613505
WordScorePoS
society0.118536858482514NN
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institution0.274477239401321NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.444239783247892
WordScorePoS
society0.0237821918091848NN
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.329535703602724
WordScorePoS
society0.0359743605686701NN
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.327728213424554
WordScorePoS
society0.0591643007226199NN
emerge0VB
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political0JJ
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After Pizzaro conquered Peru he imposed institutions to extract rents from the newly conquered Indians

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.928024905735602
WordScorePoS
institution0.274477239401321NN
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The main such institutions were the encomienda which gave Span Figure

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.909377145895439
WordScorePoS
institution0.274477239401321NN
figure0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.328408965594247
WordScorePoS
institution0.0991236547760315NN
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worse environment for settlers is associated with fewer constraints on the executive at independence Constraint on the executive at independence

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

AUS NZL USA CAN ZAF MUS IND PAK FJI BRA

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

BOLURY ECU CRI TTO JAM CHL COL PRY ARG LKA

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

MYS GUY PNG NIC PAN VEN MDG DOM HND SLV BGD MEX GTM BEN MLI HTI NER CAF PER

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

TUN MMR SGP EGY MAR VNM DZA

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

GNB KENSEN LAO IDN DJI AFG SDN COG MRT AGO TZA GHA GMB UGA GIN CMR BDI BFA TCD RWA SLE CIV TGO NGA ZAR Settler mortality log Source Acemoglu Johnson and Robinson

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.943989236959972
WordScorePoS
mortality0.276962203701274NN
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The analysis indicates that that the same factors that gave rise to good institutions gave rise to more egalitarian distribution of power

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.653943720727161
WordScorePoS
rise0NN
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Label: 13, with a score of: 0.576157572745058
WordScorePoS
rise0.120914181920259NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.349485158853363
WordScorePoS
rise0.0237821918091848NN
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Without some measure of voice it is impossible for person property rights to be guaranteed or for them to have real access to the legal system to make sure that contracts are honored

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.626834150855356
WordScorePoS
measure0.103895385378356NN
voice0NN
person0.0442083771593746NN
property0.0736315832425121NN
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system0.0519476926891779NN
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.499342875175245
WordScorePoS
measure0.0347609334428716NN
voice0NN
person0.0295821503613099NN
property0NN
rights0.0347609334428716NNS
guarantee0.0804764811724088NN
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contract0.0804764811724088NN

A more egalitarian distribution of political power is also associated with more egalitarian distribution of economic resources

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.339473351644308
WordScorePoS
political0JJ
power0NN
economic0.128463821595706JJ
resource0.0123650647908625NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.512050341996105
WordScorePoS
political0.111637082206855JJ
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economic0.0727679293221751JJ
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.439918450054731
WordScorePoS
political0.0792212041430275JJ
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economic0.103276847978089JJ
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.409561694645209
WordScorePoS
political0JJ
power0NN
economic0.0959899298575892JJ
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.320280550560429
WordScorePoS
political0.0368585655748969JJ
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economic0.0320338181740375JJ
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To get better understanding of the mechanisms we need to look further into historical analysis

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.912530837756453
WordScorePoS
mechanism0.147846224719512NN
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Label: 15, with a score of: 0.319310562247106
WordScorePoS
mechanism0NN
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ish conquistadors the right to Amerindian labor the mita system of forced labor used in the mines and the repartimiento the forced sale of goods to Indians typically at highly inflated prices

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Pizzaro created encomenderos under whose care the entire Indian population was placed

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.469802961951772
WordScorePoS
create0VB
care0.0931221694711702NN
population0.024255976440725NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.449650485358586
WordScorePoS
create0.0695218668857431VB
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population0.0428212738652355NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.416383508530412
WordScorePoS
create0VB
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.344469071195819
WordScorePoS
create0VB
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.331219330048802
WordScorePoS
create0.0520080474473126VB
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In other colonies the situation was similar

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.650426114935323
WordScorePoS
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.534767843685244
WordScorePoS
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Label: 4, with a score of: 0.362423244389547
WordScorePoS
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For instance in the territory of modern Colombia there were about encomenderos

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.991466484147939
WordScorePoS
modern0.462321869452858JJ

The encomienda did not last for long in all parts of the empire because the Spanish Crown attempted to curtail it by the end of the sixteenth century

Label: 13, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
century0.219293228426234NN

But the mita from the Quechua word mit meaning turn became central institution until independence and forced labor lasted far beyond this in most of Latin America until in Guatemala

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.812964333346115
WordScorePoS
central0JJ
institution0.274477239401321NN
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The effects of the encomienda also persisted because the concentration of political power that it was associated with led to the emergence of large landed estates

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.447430307509922
WordScorePoS
effect0.0454743001434393NN
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Label: 15, with a score of: 0.427338594292233
WordScorePoS
effect0NN
persist0VB
concentration0NN
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power0NN
lead0.016202004209163NN
land0.123873694868802NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.414578324711458
WordScorePoS
effect0NN
persist0VB
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political0.111637082206855JJ
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land0.024255976440725NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.390775535890084
WordScorePoS
effect0NN
persist0.0488696285210061VB
concentration0NN
political0.0792212041430275JJ
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The feasibility and attraction of this type of economic system was determined by the higher population densities of indigenous people in many parts of the Spanish empire and the extent to which such societies had already developed into complex societies

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.46615802112012
WordScorePoS
type0NN
economic0.128463821595706JJ
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population0.0428212738652355NN
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people0.0106656521351091NNS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.376649317290806
WordScorePoS
type0NN
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.361583677204405
WordScorePoS
type0.0688661930304451NN
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Other institutions were designed to reinforce this system

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.903813091961282
WordScorePoS
institution0.274477239401321NN
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For instance indigenous WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT people were not allowed to give testimony in some cases and in others the testimony of indigenous people was equal to that of Spaniard

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.470783702656897
WordScorePoS
indigenous0.0499016491051341JJ
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.320150389627731
WordScorePoS
indigenous0JJ
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Although indigenous people did use the legal system to challenge aspects of colonial rule they could not alter the main parameters of the system

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.536545330995356
WordScorePoS
indigenous0JJ
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legal0.0811931365363091JJ
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.468510016017272
WordScorePoS
indigenous0.0357189919948307JJ
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system0.0756001353333673NN
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Label: 11, with a score of: 0.383526385244025
WordScorePoS
indigenous0JJ
people0.0161552501392041NNS
legal0JJ
system0.0315914058171786NN
challenge0.0947742174515357NN
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In addition the Spanish Crown created complex web of mercantilistic policies and monopolies from salt to gunpowder from tobacco to alcohol and playing cards to raise revenues for the state

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Spanish colonies that had small populations of Amerindians such as Costa Rica Argentina or Uruguay seem to have followed different paths of institutional development

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

The sharp contrasts along many institutional dimensions between Costa Rica and Guatemala where population density was greater have been much studied

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.653806473369848
WordScorePoS
institutional0JJ
dimension0.181686110904276NN
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density0NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.485565492615544
WordScorePoS
institutional0JJ
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Although the formal political institutions of the Spanish empire were the same everywhere the way they functioned depended on the local conditions

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.636340327560399
WordScorePoS
political0JJ
institution0.274477239401321NN
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.426778937724377
WordScorePoS
political0JJ
institution0.0410992516792148NN
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local0.0214106369326177JJ
condition0.121575732851624NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.413469714978199
WordScorePoS
political0.0792212041430275JJ
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The institutions that emerged in the main Spanish colonies greatly benefited the Spanish crown and the Spanish settler elite but they did not promote prosperity in Latin America

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.849894091214013
WordScorePoS
institution0.274477239401321NN
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benefit0NN
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Most of the population had no property rights nor incentives to enter socially desirable occupations or to invest

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.689748023076061
WordScorePoS
population0.024255976440725NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.403524178778072
WordScorePoS
population0NN
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Europeans developed coercive regimes monopolizing military and political power and respecting few constraints on their power unless imposed by the mother country in Europe

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.556837620928593
WordScorePoS
develop0VB
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In North America the initial attempts at colonization were also based on economic motives

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.504372763449115
WordScorePoS
north0RB
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economic0.128463821595706JJ

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.550444527203734
WordScorePoS
north0RB
base0.0442083771593746NN
economic0.0959899298575892JJ

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.405484038758848
WordScorePoS
north0RB
base0NN
economic0.103276847978089JJ

British colonies were founded by such entities as the Virginia Company and the Providence Island Company with the aim of profits

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.928805227412506
WordScorePoS
company0.108503934593034NN
island0NN
aim0.0277064208763707NN

The model was not so different from that of the Spanish or Portuguese system that other British colonizing entities such as the East India Company used to great effect

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.660427690174025
WordScorePoS
system0.0756001353333673NN
company0NN
effect0.0440683498519077NN

Yet these companies made no money

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.710415605052727
WordScorePoS
company0.108503934593034NN
money0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.703782401099635
WordScorePoS
company0NN
money0.107490825192354NN

Indeed both the Virginia Company and the Providence Island Company went bankrupt

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.944614600327513
WordScorePoS
company0.108503934593034NN
island0NN

Because of the absence of large indigenous population and complex societies colonial model involving the exploitation of indigenous labor and tribute systems was simply not feasible in these places

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.472881256925395
WordScorePoS
indigenous0JJ
population0NN
society0.118536858482514NN
involve0VB
exploitation0.0811931365363091NN
system0NN
feasible0JJ

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.421626301568168
WordScorePoS
indigenous0.0357189919948307JJ
population0.0310434135749871NN
society0NN
involve0VB
exploitation0NN
system0.0756001353333673NN
feasible0JJ

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.375776084664844
WordScorePoS
indigenous0JJ
population0.0860640399817412NN
society0.0237821918091848NN
involve0.0488696285210061VB
exploitation0NN
system0NN
feasible0JJ

Historical accounts show that initial conditions had large impact on the institutions that the settlers built

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.717557601619032
WordScorePoS
historical0JJ
account0.0285977592242194NN
condition0NN
impact0.0285977592242194NN
institution0.274477239401321NN
build0VB

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.400921284905798
WordScorePoS
historical0JJ
account0.0577345906651901NN
condition0.0409791940864438NN
impact0.0866018859977851NN
institution0NN
build0VB

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.351939280452562
WordScorePoS
historical0JJ
account0NN
condition0.121575732851624NN
impact0NN
institution0.0410992516792148NN
build0VB

Because there was low population density and no way to extract resources from indigenous peoples early commercial developments had to import British labor

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.436513071799999
WordScorePoS
population0NN
density0NN
resource0.0375923735942499NN
indigenous0JJ
people0.00432344066632653NNS
commercial0JJ
development0.0469463607292177NN
import0.0978661089756501NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.382742759049541
WordScorePoS
population0.0194583992186006NN
density0.0731385760866977NN
resource0.0449504361447405NN
indigenous0JJ
people0.0161552501392041NNS
commercial0JJ
development0.0100241617629471NN
import0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.338157604014418
WordScorePoS
population0.0144336476662975NN
density0NN
resource0.0416785799329393NN
indigenous0JJ
people0.0119834723221875NNS
commercial0.0542519672965169JJ
development0.022306853314744NN
import0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.337526871832202
WordScorePoS
population0.0310434135749871NN
density0NN
resource0.0358563662904843NN
indigenous0.0357189919948307JJ
people0.0257736572183839NNS
commercial0JJ
development0.0159922815774215NN
import0NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.316850861704054
WordScorePoS
population0.0137637438743113NN
density0NN
resource0.0317953333768269NN
indigenous0.0633470357346975JJ
people0.0159982027144574NNS
commercial0JJ
development0.0106357666046841NN
import0NN

And relative to much of the colonial world the disease environment was benign stimulating settlement

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.647524715918981
WordScorePoS
relative0.0731385760866977JJ
world0.00626002771693937NN
disease0NN
environment0.0268848280079943NN
stimulate0VB
settlement0.146277152173395NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.554524601699649
WordScorePoS
relative0JJ
world0.00087176582269799NN
disease0.215415047323213NN
environment0NN
stimulate0VB
settlement0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.362431493108674
WordScorePoS
relative0JJ
world0.00172202218602071NN
disease0NN
environment0.0591643007226199NN
stimulate0.0804764811724088VB
settlement0NN

Indeed the Pilgrim fathers decided to migrate to the United States rather than Guyana because of the high mortality rates in Guyana

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.889296815428903
WordScorePoS
migrate0VB
unite0VB
mortality0.276962203701274NN
rate0.0433561464459019NN

But these same conditions made it impossible to profitably exploit labor whose bargaining power forced elites to extend political rights and create equal access to land and the law

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.295986463600051
WordScorePoS
condition0NN
power0NN
force0NN
extend0VB
political0JJ
rights0NNS
create0VB
equal0.033663879505068JJ
access0.00690021170452351NN
land0NN
law0.164686343640793NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.619791271771558
WordScorePoS
condition0NN
power0NN
force0.0465610847355851NN
extend0VB
political0.111637082206855JJ
rights0.078760887431929NNS
create0VB
equal0.114211783066808JJ
access0.00780347258345989NN
land0.024255976440725NN
law0.0465610847355851NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.462630451933088
WordScorePoS
condition0.121575732851624NN
power0NN
force0.0410992516792148NN
extend0VB
political0JJ
rights0.0347609334428716NNS
create0.0695218668857431VB
equal0.0504071033101074JJ
access0.00344404437204141NN
land0NN
law0NN

These forces were reinforced by the fact that plantation agriculture and slavery were not profitable at least in the northern United States and Canada

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.570721764566657
WordScorePoS
force0.0297950283197006NN
reinforce0VB
agriculture0.148975141598503NN
slavery0NN
northern0JJ
unite0VB

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.51714603240846
WordScorePoS
force0.0465610847355851NN
reinforce0VB
agriculture0.0465610847355851NN
slavery0NN
northern0.0688661930304451JJ
unite0VB

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.388129165024068
WordScorePoS
force0.0410992516792148NN
reinforce0VB
agriculture0NN
slavery0.0804764811724088NN
northern0JJ
unite0VB

These colonies ultimately provided access to land to broad cross section of society and the legal system became fairly impartial ensuring secure property rights for smallholders and potential investors

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.428623712187053
WordScorePoS
ultimately0RB
access0.00749031153171887NN
land0.0465651203624806NN
society0NN
legal0JJ
system0.0756001353333673NN
ensure0.0159922815774215VB
secure0.0440683498519077JJ
property0NN
rights0NNS
smallholder0.0583416713841148NN
potential0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.413655854546732
WordScorePoS
ultimately0RB
access0.00514687440545096NN
land0.0319966432858631NN
society0NN
legal0JJ
system0.0519476926891779NN
ensure0.0247250190957801VB
secure0JJ
property0.0736315832425121NN
rights0.0519476926891779NNS
smallholder0NN
potential0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.395224624151978
WordScorePoS
ultimately0RB
access0.00690021170452351NN
land0NN
society0.118536858482514NN
legal0.0811931365363091JJ
system0NN
ensure0.0220985725470694VB
secure0JJ
property0NN
rights0NNS
smallholder0NN
potential0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.378319073411949
WordScorePoS
ultimately0RB
access0.00344404437204141NN
land0NN
society0.0591643007226199NN
legal0JJ
system0NN
ensure0VB
secure0.121575732851624JJ
property0NN
rights0.0347609334428716NNS
smallholder0NN
potential0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.36743832734825
WordScorePoS
ultimately0RB
access0.00780347258345989NN
land0.024255976440725NN
society0.0335134328085675NN
legal0JJ
system0NN
ensure0.0124956749436837VB
secure0JJ
property0.0558185411034276NN
rights0.078760887431929NNS
smallholder0NN
potential0NN

The new institutions made investment possible through financial development and secure contracting and business relationships

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.632582536467824
WordScorePoS
institution0.274477239401321NN
investment0NN
financial0.016515769558553JJ
development0.0368309542451156NN
secure0JJ
business0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.444760366105855
WordScorePoS
institution0.0410992516792148NN
investment0.0252035516550537NN
financial0.0370951943725875JJ
development0.0055149369084567NN
secure0.121575732851624JJ
business0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.347648731464329
WordScorePoS
institution0NN
investment0.0377086395700813NN
financial0.0185001613201543JJ
development0.0330049940546426NN
secure0JJ
business0.0909486002868787NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.322139250179509
WordScorePoS
institution0.0991236547760315NN
investment0.0202620733250388NN
financial0.0298222075472138JJ
development0.0177346522508396NN
secure0JJ
business0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.315684271467573
WordScorePoS
institution0.0249900578719309NN
investment0.0766240489430275NN
financial0.0150369494376999JJ
development0.0469463607292177NN
secure0JJ
business0NN

Underpinning these institutions were fairly representative political institutions and fairly egalitarian distribution of resources

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.875657602688816
WordScorePoS
institution0.274477239401321NN
representative0.107490825192354NN
political0JJ
resource0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.370125906979942
WordScorePoS
institution0.0991236547760315NN
representative0NN
political0.0792212041430275JJ
resource0NN

As in Latin America there was synergy between economic and political institutions but this time it was virtuous not vicious

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.518959725661212
WordScorePoS
economic0JJ
political0JJ
institution0.274477239401321NN
time0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.320596367775191
WordScorePoS
economic0.128463821595706JJ
political0JJ
institution0.0410992516792148NN
time0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.647397664671352
WordScorePoS
economic0.103276847978089JJ
political0.0792212041430275JJ
institution0.0991236547760315NN
time0.0607862199751165NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.348658323737125
WordScorePoS
economic0.0727679293221751JJ
political0.111637082206855JJ
institution0NN
time0NN

Institutions giving and protecting property rights for the mass of people and institutions of democratic politics complemented each other ensuring an environment conducive to investment and economic progress

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.561057050263142
WordScorePoS
institution0.274477239401321NN
give0VB
protect0.0241291244414115VB
property0NN
rights0NNS
people0NNS
democratic0JJ
complement0NN
ensure0.0220985725470694VB
environment0NN
conducive0JJ
investment0NN
economic0JJ
progress0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.469600143996935
WordScorePoS
institution0.0410992516792148NN
give0VB
protect0.0180650490434051VB
property0NN
rights0.0347609334428716NNS
people0.0106656521351091NNS
democratic0.0804764811724088JJ
complement0NN
ensure0VB
environment0.0591643007226199NN
conducive0JJ
investment0.0252035516550537NN
economic0.128463821595706JJ
progress0.0591643007226199NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.378072469114903
WordScorePoS
institution0.0991236547760315NN
give0.064698038783335VB
protect0VB
property0NN
rights0NNS
people0.00571634317201755NNS
democratic0JJ
complement0NN
ensure0.00886732612541978VB
environment0NN
conducive0JJ
investment0.0202620733250388NN
economic0.103276847978089JJ
progress0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.302736865973811
WordScorePoS
institution0NN
give0VB
protect0VB
property0.0736315832425121NN
rights0.0519476926891779NNS
people0.0371911007748996NNS
democratic0JJ
complement0NN
ensure0.0247250190957801VB
environment0NN
conducive0JJ
investment0.0376648791150643NN
economic0.0959899298575892JJ
progress0NN

Representative political institutions in Virginia were direct result of the authorities realizing that because of the different conditions the colonization strategy that worked in Peru would not work in the United States

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.708182781263488
WordScorePoS
representative0.107490825192354NN
political0JJ
institution0.274477239401321NN
direct0JJ
result0NN
realize0VB
condition0NN
strategy0NN
unite0VB

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.404097407253311
WordScorePoS
representative0NN
political0.0792212041430275JJ
institution0.0991236547760315NN
direct0.0396106020715138JJ
result0NN
realize0VB
condition0NN
strategy0NN
unite0VB

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.356451769470587
WordScorePoS
representative0NN
political0JJ
institution0.0410992516792148NN
direct0JJ
result0NN
realize0VB
condition0.121575732851624NN
strategy0.0295821503613099NN
unite0VB

Virginia had many competing and fragmented tribes not large central tribal empire

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.902717615649585
WordScorePoS
central0.0924643738905717JJ

It had no gold or silver and the Indians not used to paying tribute or engaging in forced labor would not work

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.621209357577551
WordScorePoS
pay0.078760887431929NN
engage0VB
force0.0465610847355851NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.548338593861204
WordScorePoS
pay0.0695218668857431NN
engage0VB
force0.0410992516792148NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.406260105745198
WordScorePoS
pay0NN
engage0.0819583881728876VB
force0NN

So the settlers of Jamestown starved

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

In response to these early failures the Virginia Company tried various incentive schemes Equity institutions and the development process BOX

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.757512803780242
WordScorePoS
response0NN
company0NN
incentive0NN
institution0.274477239401321NN
development0.0368309542451156NN
process0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.318304653507656
WordScorePoS
response0NN
company0.108503934593034NN
incentive0NN
institution0NN
development0.022306853314744NN
process0NN

Growth with poor institutions does not last The elite had good investment opportunities in Argentina in the golden age from the to the in Czarist Russia in the decades leading up to World War in Colombia in the half century after and in the Côte Ivoire for the first two decades after independence Widner

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.531917068388376
WordScorePoS
growth0NN
poor0JJ
institution0NN
investment0NN
opportunity0NN
age0NN
decade0.124232265906675NN
lead0NN
world0.00351929966767313NN
century0.219293228426234NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.438298402345746
WordScorePoS
growth0.208565600657229NN
poor0JJ
institution0.0410992516792148NN
investment0.0252035516550537NN
opportunity0.0361300980868102NN
age0.0252035516550537NN
decade0NN
lead0.0504071033101074NN
world0.00172202218602071NN
century0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.401626712438054
WordScorePoS
growth0.0519476926891779NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
institution0NN
investment0.0376648791150643NN
opportunity0NN
age0.112994637345193NN
decade0NN
lead0NN
world0.00257343720272548NN
century0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.309794685424358
WordScorePoS
growth0NN
poor0JJ
institution0.274477239401321NN
investment0NN
opportunity0NN
age0NN
decade0NN
lead0NN
world0NN
century0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.319691015691649
WordScorePoS
growth0.11178243319132NN
poor0JJ
institution0.0991236547760315NN
investment0.0202620733250388NN
opportunity0.029046330719385NN
age0.0202620733250388NN
decade0NN
lead0NN
world0.00276879546803864NN
century0NN

Such situations are rarely sustainable for three reasons

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.626221278781054
WordScorePoS
situation0.0631828116343571NN
rarely0RB
sustainable0.00782503464617421JJ

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.503519465668571
WordScorePoS
situation0.0519476926891779NN
rarely0RB
sustainable0.00514687440545096JJ

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.387388703352721
WordScorePoS
situation0.0352060273355634NN
rarely0RB
sustainable0.00872035848132902JJ

First the possibilities for sustained growth are by definition limited because institutions exclude the majority of the population from effectively investing

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.420513893067403
WordScorePoS
sustained0JJ
growth0.208565600657229NN
definition0NN
limited0JJ
institution0.0410992516792148NN
majority0NN
population0.0428212738652355NN
effectively0RB
invest0VB

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.394622110791866
WordScorePoS
sustained0JJ
growth0NN
definition0NN
limited0JJ
institution0.274477239401321NN
majority0NN
population0NN
effectively0RB
invest0VB

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.540858753372765
WordScorePoS
sustained0JJ
growth0.11178243319132NN
definition0NN
limited0JJ
institution0.0991236547760315NN
majority0.0792212041430275NN
population0.0860640399817412NN
effectively0RB
invest0VB

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.526367181567394
WordScorePoS
sustained0JJ
growth0.0519476926891779NN
definition0.120266261535276NN
limited0.120266261535276JJ
institution0NN
majority0.0736315832425121NN
population0NN
effectively0RB
invest0VB

Second in the rare situations in which elites manage to create arrangements so that they can benefit directly from growth without the need to create good institutions more generally such arrangements tend to be fragile vulnerable to shocks or crises

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.456239364703075
WordScorePoS
situation0NN
manage0VB
create0.0695218668857431VB
benefit0NN
growth0.208565600657229NN
institution0.0410992516792148NN
fragile0JJ
vulnerable0JJ
shock0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.322162478024453
WordScorePoS
situation0NN
manage0VB
create0VB
benefit0NN
growth0NN
institution0.274477239401321NN
fragile0JJ
vulnerable0JJ
shock0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.658836324864348
WordScorePoS
situation0.0519476926891779NN
manage0VB
create0.0519476926891779VB
benefit0NN
growth0.0519476926891779NN
institution0NN
fragile0.120266261535276JJ
vulnerable0.112994637345193JJ
shock0.120266261535276NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.348892277529139
WordScorePoS
situation0NN
manage0.0660824365173543VB
create0VB
benefit0NN
growth0.11178243319132NN
institution0.0991236547760315NN
fragile0JJ
vulnerable0.0202620733250388JJ
shock0NN

Third bad institutions create power struggles that undermine growth because they generate large rents for those who control power

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.57958495283956
WordScorePoS
bad0JJ
institution0.0410992516792148NN
create0.0695218668857431VB
power0NN
growth0.208565600657229NN
generate0VB
control0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.498400679832825
WordScorePoS
bad0JJ
institution0.274477239401321NN
create0VB
power0NN
growth0NN
generate0VB
control0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.38296704620421
WordScorePoS
bad0JJ
institution0.0991236547760315NN
create0VB
power0NN
growth0.11178243319132NN
generate0VB
control0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.306801808788509
WordScorePoS
bad0JJ
institution0NN
create0.0520080474473126VB
power0.0454743001434393NN
growth0.0260040237236563NN
generate0VB
control0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.300182359617571
WordScorePoS
bad0JJ
institution0NN
create0.0519476926891779VB
power0NN
growth0.0519476926891779NN
generate0VB
control0.0614198493690006NN

Consider the growth of Argentina in the half century before

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.666997048229248
WordScorePoS
growth0NN
century0.219293228426234NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.634368151715761
WordScorePoS
growth0.208565600657229NN
century0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.339994780128716
WordScorePoS
growth0.11178243319132NN
century0NN

After its independence from Spain in Argentina plunged into years of civil wars and conflicts over control of the country mainly clashes between those in control of Buenos Aires and the littoral and those in the interior

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.843454004946311
WordScorePoS
civil0JJ
conflict0.147263166485024NN
control0.0614198493690006NN
country0NN

These conflicts abated after the constitution and the presidency of Bartolomé Mitre with compromise between the Pampas and the interior

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.872195925125213
WordScorePoS
conflict0.147263166485024NN

Pampean mercantile and agrarian interests would be allowed to cre ate institutions to take advantage of the huge economic opportunities emerging on world markets but the structure of the political rules such as their overrepresentation in national political institutions guaranteed the interior provinces large slice of the benefits Samuels and Snyder

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.665595090028384
WordScorePoS
institution0.274477239401321NN
economic0JJ
opportunity0NN
emerge0VB
world0NN
market0NN
structure0NN
political0JJ
rule0.162386273072618NN
national0.0294647633960925JJ
guarantee0NN
benefit0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.323189846053699
WordScorePoS
institution0.0410992516792148NN
economic0.128463821595706JJ
opportunity0.0361300980868102NN
emerge0VB
world0.00172202218602071NN
market0.0252035516550537NN
structure0NN
political0JJ
rule0NN
national0.0055149369084567JJ
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WordScorePoS
institution0.0991236547760315NN
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emerge0VB
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Although the majority was excluded from the political system the economy boomed with the property rights of the Pampean elite guaranteed

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WordScorePoS
majority0NN
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economy0.0465610847355851NN
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WordScorePoS
majority0.0736315832425121NN
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.400832391629356
WordScorePoS
majority0NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.321668165046195
WordScorePoS
majority0.0792212041430275NN
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But the huge rents created by this system began to cause conflict

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.843444851228118
WordScorePoS
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In the the Radical Party emerged under Hipólito Yrigoyen and after series of revolts it was incorporated into the political system by the democratizing impact of the Sáenz Peña Law in

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.551128787342499
WordScorePoS
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.451085022588146
WordScorePoS
party0NN
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Although Yrigoyen was elected president in the traditional interests were confident that they could keep control of the polity and the economy

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WordScorePoS
traditional0JJ
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Label: 13, with a score of: 0.437680021233485
WordScorePoS
traditional0JJ
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.428320846823709
WordScorePoS
traditional0JJ
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They were mistaken

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Significant changes in the social structure had occurred with rapid immigration from Europe induced by economic success and the associated urbanization

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WordScorePoS
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WordScorePoS
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WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.475814576034764
WordScorePoS
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The vote share of the Conservatives declined rapidly and the prospect of Radical Party majority was key factor behind the coup of

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Smith notes this situation contrasts sharply with that in Sweden and Great Britain

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

where traditional elites continued to dominate systems after the extension of including highly punitive almost penal effort to make money

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WordScorePoS
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Such efforts quickly collapsed however and by the Company had created an unusually representative set of institutions for that era general assembly with adult male suffrage

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 4, with a score of: 0.378227458138006
WordScorePoS
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The early history of the United States shows possible path to good institutions

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.301989136840144
WordScorePoS
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Early attempts to create an oligarchic society with close control of labor quickly collapsed

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.4842900099015
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.463170432966749
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What emerged instead was relatively egalitarian society with representative institutions giving even the poorest colonists access to the law and some political representation

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.457908819197072
WordScorePoS
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WordScorePoS
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This laid the basis for economic and social institutions that underpinned the takeoff of the United States in the nineteenth century and its divergence from the fortunes of much of Latin America

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WordScorePoS
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WordScorePoS
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.353561214043633
WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.488158828451413
WordScorePoS
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WordScorePoS
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Some countries with weak and unequal institutions have experienced periods of rapid growth but these have proved to be unsustainable over the long term box

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.487804443005244
WordScorePoS
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.341498385064621
WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.489468795083928
WordScorePoS
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suffrage

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

From this point onward political conflicts intensified with stream of coups and redemocratizations that lasted until

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.652096081163256
WordScorePoS
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.4943402043918
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Though among the richest countries in the world in the Argentina gradually slid back to being developing country

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Argentina shows that even with poor institutions for political inclusion and conflict management growth is possible if elites have good investment opportunities and can manage to forge compromises

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.401682952800581
WordScorePoS
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.367109874869608
WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.53636989580066
WordScorePoS
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But the booms eventually unravel

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Even when elites such as the agriculturalists of the Argentine Pampas face very good investment opportunities growth cannot be sustained forever by agricultural export booms

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WordScorePoS
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WordScorePoS
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.381166753726466
WordScorePoS
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.304796263930266
WordScorePoS
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Moreover the rents created by bad institutions create conflict without fundamental balances of power in society

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.763357465123467
WordScorePoS
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.365442838492252
WordScorePoS
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.348198909741393
WordScorePoS
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This meant that democracy in Argentina after was unstable

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WordScorePoS
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The unchecked power of President Yrigoyen in the induced coup in as did that of Perón in the and in and again in after his return from exile

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WordScorePoS
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Although temporary political solutions can sometimes ease conflict for while as they did in Argentina after in the absence of broader institutional inclusion conflict ultimately reemerges undermining the incentives to investment

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WordScorePoS
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Institutions and political inequality matter for development contemporary evidence Our review of comparative history supports two conclusions

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WordScorePoS
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WordScorePoS
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First institutions especially those that underpin property rights for all and broad based investment have causative influence on long run development processes

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.412290189725472
WordScorePoS
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.373549159988318
WordScorePoS
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.30663224603412
WordScorePoS
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And second greater political equality can lay the basis for better economic institutions

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.441791183529672
WordScorePoS
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.272924162995991
WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.506472982680515
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By greater political equality we mean in particular checks on the predatory behavior of political and economic elites and the political need for the state to be responsive to middle and poorer population groups

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.202291930671112
WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.543325362733745
WordScorePoS
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The basis for greater political equalities is often associated with underlying economic structures although causation can run both ways

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.349788090848443
WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.488698858735326
WordScorePoS
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How does this perspective relate to the variety of contemporary development experiences

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 13, with a score of: 0.451969787750145
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.393250970442145
WordScorePoS
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It is consistent with the perspective WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT that institutions and governance are central to wide variety of development performance from growth to service delivery

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.604351797441535
WordScorePoS
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.374317748340638
WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.426833192490644
WordScorePoS
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.334400493754104
WordScorePoS
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While debate continues an important thrust of this research has been to support the view that causation runs at least in part from better institutions to higher incomes rather than the other way

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.515109828070542
WordScorePoS
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.454940100608402
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What is additional to this ongoing debate is the second part of the argument that the nature and management of inequalities in power shapes the formation of institutions

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.332238399857866
WordScorePoS
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.238138536259486
WordScorePoS
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Some cross country analysis is suggestive Rodrik argues that the capacity of societies to manage adverse shocks itself crucial determinant of growth depends on the depth of latent social conflict and the strength of conflict management mechanisms

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.364156855914725
WordScorePoS
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.252243355726193
WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.33380736369334
WordScorePoS
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To illustrate the argument we continue to draw on comparative development experiences

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We first look at East Asia and then look at agricultural pricing polices in Africa

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.383541256177462
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We then examine in greater depth the comparative experience of Mauritius and Guyana countries that started with similar initial conditions but then followed radically different development paths

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This is also related to different experiences in managing polarization which can be contributory factors for violent social conflict

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Shared growth in East Asia the Republic of Korea Taiwan China and Indonesia Elites may be forced by threats of social disorder to promote the prosperity of most citizens

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Indeed societies that have political necessity to appeal to or appease middle and lower groups initially the peasantry can grow substantially in the short run

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Longrun prosperity however requires institutionalized rather than contingent checks and balances on elite power and capacities to adjust to changing circumstances

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The response of elites to social disturbances sometimes leads to solutions that permanently change the political equilibrium in beneficial way as may have happened with the agrarian reforms in the Republic of Korea and Taiwan China in the late and early s

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More often however the transitory ability of citizens to act collectively dissipates without elites having to propose anything more than transitory solution as may have been the case in Indonesia under the New Order

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The rapid economic development of the Republic of Korea after the mid was not due to set of institutions put in place through domestic balance of political power

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Instead as in Indonesia under the New Order regime precarious geopolitical situation particularly after the rundown of U

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aid in the early induced the Park regime to create pro growth environment

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This at least led to contingent commitment to good institutions as it did under an authoritarian regime in Taiwan China where fairly egalitarian distribution of assets and incomes perhaps eased the transition in the toward democracy greater equality of political influence and good institutions

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As in much of East Asia there was political necessity to deliver income growth and services to the peasantry

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In Indonesia Suharto New Order government also recognized that economic growth was necessary to keep the regime in power and that to achieve this good economic policies had to be in place

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This induced Suharto to delegate macroeconomic policy to technocrats and to respond to the oil booms wisely

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It also led him to intervene to attempt to control corruption and excesses that would put in jeopardy the underpinnings of the regime

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Yet this constraint real though it was at least in the and is only part of the story about Indonesian growth

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Suharto managed to create system that while not introducing good institutions induced investments and growth from which the regime could benefit

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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.448801575766572
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One of the secrets behind this appears to have been the role of Sino Indonesian businessmen the cukong entrepreneurs

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Many firms and businesses were controlled by Indonesians of Chinese origin who were very marginal politically

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Suharto granted such businessmen monopoly rights and placed members of the military and his supporters on their boards of directors

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Rock argues There is little doubt that the

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distortions in New Order microeconomic policies thwarted competition rewarded cronies and encouraged substantial investment in uneco Equity institutions and the development process nomic projects

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Yet they also generated wealth economic growth and rents for the regime

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It was precisely the political marginality of the cukong entrepreneurs that made them an attractive business partner for the regime

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The economic success of Indonesia after elevated it into the class of an Asian miracle economy

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The East Asia financial crisis in however exposed and exacerbated Indonesia institutional weaknesses plummeting the country into an economic and political crisis from which it is only now beginning to recover doing so on the basis of new foundation of decentralization and democracy which have progressively institutionalized greater relationships of accountability between citizens and state

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See focus on Indonesia for further discussion of the relationship between social and political context and policy choices

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Agricultural pricing policies in Africa Another important example illustrating the connections between institutions the distribution of political power and growth comes from the seminal studies of price regulation prices in agricultural markets in Africa by Robert Bates

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Bates demonstrated that poor agricultural performance in Ghana Nigeria and Zambia was due to government controlled marketing boards systematically paying farmers prices much below world levels

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The marketing board surpluses were given to the government as form of taxation

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As result of this pernicious taxation reaching up to percent of the value of the crop in Ghana in the investment in agriculture collapsed as did the output of cocoa and other crops

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In poor countries with comparative advantage in agriculture this meant negative rates of economic growth

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Why were resources extracted in this way

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Although part of the motivation was to promote industrialization the main one was to generate resources that could be either expropriated or redistributed to maintain power

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As Bates put it governments face dilemma urban unrest which they cannot successfully eradicate through co optation or repression poses serious challenge to their interests

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WordScorePoS
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Their response has been to try to appease urban interests not by offering higher money wages but by advocating policies aimed at reducing the cost of living and in particular the cost of food

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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.421842536018455
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.367801848655647
WordScorePoS
response0NN
urban0JJ
money0.107490825192354NN
policy0.0201317944152378NN
aim0NN
reduce0.0220985725470694VB
cost0.0548954478802642NN
live0.013214597504793VB
food0NN

Agricultural policy thus becomes byproduct of political relations between governments and urban constituents

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.539031747804015
WordScorePoS
agricultural0JJ
policy0.0136980135278128NN
political0JJ
relation0NN
government0NN
urban0.27622591898666JJ

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.464865710203729
WordScorePoS
agricultural0.250032943963815JJ
policy0NN
political0JJ
relation0NN
government0NN
urban0JJ

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.516136084677706
WordScorePoS
agricultural0JJ
policy0.0848203862485078NN
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government0NN
urban0.0488696285210061JJ

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.374830018904642
WordScorePoS
agricultural0.0558185411034276JJ
policy0.0341506708422088NN
political0.111637082206855JJ
relation0NN
government0NN
urban0JJ

In contrast to the situation in Ghana Nigeria and Zambia Bates Bates showed that agricultural policy in Kenya over this period was much more profarmer

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.831622780325951
WordScorePoS
situation0.0252000451111224NN
agricultural0.250032943963815JJ
policy0NN
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The difference was due to who controlled the marketing board

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.730142854604534
WordScorePoS
due0.0519476926891779JJ
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Label: 6, with a score of: 0.380189364518717
WordScorePoS
due0.0590310971343993JJ
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In Kenya farmers were not smallholders as they were in Ghana Nigeria and Zambia and concentrated landownership made it much easier to act collectively

Label: 2, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
farmer0.175025014152344NN
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Moreover farming was important in the Kikuyu areas an ethnic group closely related to the ruling political party the Kenya African National Union KANU under Jomo Kenyatta

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.835481844545848
WordScorePoS
farm0.291708356920574NN
related0.00896409157262106JJ
political0JJ
party0NN
african0IN
national0.00399807039435538JJ

Farmers in Kenya therefore formed powerful lobby and were able to guarantee themselves high prices

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.74069976459841
WordScorePoS
farmer0.175025014152344NN
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.423759503865629
WordScorePoS
farmer0NN
form0.158049144643351NN
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.374403218624032
WordScorePoS
farmer0NN
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Even though the government of Kenya engaged in land reform after independence Bates argued that percent of the former white highlands were left intact and

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

the government took elaborate measures to preserve the integrity of the large scale farms

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.929819749096135
WordScorePoS
government0NN
measure0.0504000902222448NN
scale0.0357189919948307NN
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[which] readily combine in defense of their interests

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

One of the most important collective efforts is the Kenya National Farmer Union KNFU

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.912402724458278
WordScorePoS
effort0NN
national0.00399807039435538JJ
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The organization

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.622329916437505
WordScorePoS
organization0.0422721924574123NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.511749392383329
WordScorePoS
organization0.0347609334428716NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.411414385338659
WordScorePoS
organization0.02794560829783NN

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.338287701878992
WordScorePoS
organization0.0229784274580034NN

is dominated by the largescale farmers

Label: 2, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
farmer0.175025014152344NN

[but] it can be argued that the KNFU helps to create framework of public policies that provides an economic environment favorable to all farmers

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.52382557910745
WordScorePoS
help0NN
create0.0695218668857431VB
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public0NN
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.298145662088564
WordScorePoS
help0NN
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public0NN
policy0NN
economic0JJ
environment0.0214456704626236NN
farmer0.175025014152344NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.423099143272371
WordScorePoS
help0.0542519672965169NN
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framework0.028867295332595NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.341413666345543
WordScorePoS
help0NN
create0.0519476926891779VB
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public0NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.311559450164037
WordScorePoS
help0NN
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farmer0NN

Bates concluded that in Kenya large farmers

Label: 2, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
farmer0.175025014152344NN

have secured public policies that are highly favorable by comparison to those in other nations

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.532221729666406
WordScorePoS
secure0.121575732851624JJ
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.451973685123158
WordScorePoS
secure0JJ
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.424923467302097
WordScorePoS
secure0JJ
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highly0RB
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.341168444938956
WordScorePoS
secure0JJ
public0.0727679293221751NN
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highly0RB
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Bates demonstrated why economic policies were better in Kenya than Ghana in the and but this advantage did not survive the coming to power of Daniel arap Moi in Kenya

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.483301212926248
WordScorePoS
economic0.128463821595706JJ
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.523417862711956
WordScorePoS
economic0.103276847978089JJ
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.392468722400421
WordScorePoS
economic0.0959899298575892JJ
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The change in the ethnic basis of the regime from Kikuyu to Kalenjin undermined the coalition that had supported good agricultural policies because the export farmers were not only large but WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT Figure

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.69557839711843
WordScorePoS
change0.0756001353333673NN
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agricultural0.250032943963815JJ
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Label: 13, with a score of: 0.46245559504415
WordScorePoS
change0.402565546215053NN
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agricultural0JJ
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.410024442075206
WordScorePoS
change0NN
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agricultural0JJ
policy0.0641521854453136NN
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farmer0NN
world0.00418824502414673NN
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Constraints on the executive are greater in Mauritius than in Guyana Constraint on the executive

Label: 9, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
constraint0.0602029956716497NN

Mauritius

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

The contrasting experience of Mauritius and Guyana Guyana

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Source Polity IV data set downloaded from InterUniversity Consortium for Political and Social Research

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.52600213087979
WordScorePoS
source0.0135141354781442NN
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.439559249199241
WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.434167487462148
WordScorePoS
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.337148521743442
WordScorePoS
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.336671175714628
WordScorePoS
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Variable described in Gurr

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Figure

Label: 9, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
figure0.0602029956716497NN

GDP per capita is rising in Mauritius not in Guyana GDP per capita log

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.512014509564954
WordScorePoS
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Mauritius

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Guyana

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Source World Bank

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.737559496131694
WordScorePoS
source0.0130963126055467NN
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Label: 6, with a score of: 0.426402661922482
WordScorePoS
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.33813808928791
WordScorePoS
source0.0109843026967392NN
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also predominantly Kikuyu

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

As result economic performance declined precipitously in the and s

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.436746623255163
WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.666083365579008
WordScorePoS
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.326343068507961
WordScorePoS
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The balance of power that sustained good policies in the did not endure

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.754337612095395
WordScorePoS
power0.0454743001434393NN
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.43054743927634
WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.361169505853067
WordScorePoS
power0NN
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Mauritius and Guyana in the were both poor societies dominated by the production and export of sugarcane

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.387334952196552
WordScorePoS
poor0.150659516460257JJ
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.508439947750551
WordScorePoS
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.416963169417573
WordScorePoS
poor0.0153248097886055JJ
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.393134254819285
WordScorePoS
poor0.0339811641917276JJ
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.304749872378394
WordScorePoS
poor0JJ
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They had similar histories factor endowments social and political cleavages and institutions

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.608023988637936
WordScorePoS
history0NN
social0JJ
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institution0.274477239401321NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.619494301420899
WordScorePoS
history0NN
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.310549975515878
WordScorePoS
history0NN
social0.0285529457667019JJ
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If anything Guyana although slightly poorer had better prospects because of its proximity to the large U

Label: 9, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
slightly0RB
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market

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.79660429075857
WordScorePoS
market0.0913569596328122NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.32880761576271
WordScorePoS
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Yet Mauritius has become one of the most dynamic and successful and equal developing countries industrializing and maintaining competitive democratic politics

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.571153099088402
WordScorePoS
successful0JJ
equal0.0504071033101074JJ
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.498400270048636
WordScorePoS
successful0JJ
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Guyana slumped into dictatorship and poverty

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.93523444252407
WordScorePoS
poverty0.269969049497485NN

The divergence between Mauritius and Guyana since independence is fascinating example of economic and political divergence in apparently similar societies figures

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.446907976366398
WordScorePoS
economic0.128463821595706JJ
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society0.0591643007226199NN
figure0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.51905593771599
WordScorePoS
economic0.0727679293221751JJ
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figure0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.491335122049845
WordScorePoS
economic0.103276847978089JJ
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figure0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.360200642525539
WordScorePoS
economic0.0320338181740375JJ
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society0.0221298700466866NN
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What can explain this

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Both countries have similar histories

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.717662758988433
WordScorePoS
country0NN
history0.0414107553022249NN

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.696390812949963
WordScorePoS
country0NN
history0.0401833161726777NN

Mauritius was taken from the French and Guyana from the Dutch during the Napoleonic wars

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

In the nineteenth century both developed sugarcane economies and after the abolition of slavery in the British Empire in imported large numbers of indentured laborers from India

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.828208320910105
WordScorePoS
century0.219293228426234NN
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.444227425247809
WordScorePoS
century0NN
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economy0.0821985033584295NN
slavery0.0804764811724088NN
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Both have similar population structure with Indo Guyanese and Indo Mauritians forming the majority of the population with significant minorities of people of African European and Chinese descent

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.3603147468271
WordScorePoS
population0NN
structure0NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.559304640504798
WordScorePoS
population0.0860640399817412NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.445249453154531
WordScorePoS
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After World War II both colonies were moved by the British toward independence with early elections for democratic legislative assemblies dominated by pro independence political parties led by Seewoosagur Ramgoolam in Mauritius and Cheddi Jagan in Guyana

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Both groups used extensive socialist rhetoric and proposed land reforms and fairly radical policies

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.586457415142858
WordScorePoS
land0.024255976440725NN
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Label: 15, with a score of: 0.48567751846378
WordScorePoS
land0.123873694868802NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.332559344031402
WordScorePoS
land0NN
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Many of the political struggles with British administrators over postindependence institutions such as the form of the electoral system were fought over similar issues

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.76213277915364
WordScorePoS
political0JJ
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.373866988790051
WordScorePoS
political0.111637082206855JJ
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.314252420175385
WordScorePoS
political0.0792212041430275JJ
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As independence arrived however political forces re formed into situa tion in which parties led by Indo Mauritians and Indo Guyanese faced coalition of parties supported by the non Indian population led by Gaetan Duval in Mauritius and Forbes Burnham in Guyana

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.278637876202819
WordScorePoS
political0JJ
force0NN
form0.158049144643351NN
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.498914248607687
WordScorePoS
political0.111637082206855JJ
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party0NN
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Yet at independence politics and economics diverged

Label: 6, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
economics0.0683326727248364NNS

The Mauritian Labour Party won power initially and quickly abandoned its radical policies by the early investment in the export processing zone had begun

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.82221780333246
WordScorePoS
labour0.563335368206862NN
party0NN
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.374451004440892
WordScorePoS
labour0NN
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The political hegemony of the Labour Party was quickly contested by strong socialist party the MMM Mouvement Militant Mauricien led by Paul Berenger and Dev Virahsawmy

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.934715870483587
WordScorePoS
political0JJ
labour0.563335368206862NN
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In response the Labour Party entered coalition with Duval and his PMSD Parti Mauricien Social Democrate and the previous opposition groups

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.924968809072823
WordScorePoS
response0NN
labour0.563335368206862NN
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The Labour Party drew back from repressing the new political forces allowed the MMM to contest the election and instead adopted social policies such as the provision of universal secondary education to improve its popularity

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.702091189966278
WordScorePoS
labour0.563335368206862NN
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force0.0410992516792148NN
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Label: 4, with a score of: 0.3409849526948
WordScorePoS
labour0NN
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.428667175438035
WordScorePoS
labour0NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.311883596879565
WordScorePoS
labour0NN
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It also quickly dropped populist macroeconomic policies and in the late implemented serious stabilization program under the IMF

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.680145606514159
WordScorePoS
quickly0RB
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The final test of Mauritian institutions was the election of an MMM government for the first time in

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.775706838206937
WordScorePoS
final0JJ
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.451925207393657
WordScorePoS
final0JJ
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.354663122397259
WordScorePoS
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Once in power the MMM abandoned its more radical policies and when the broad political consensus for good institutions became clear the export processing zone boomed

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.496305354353999
WordScorePoS
power0NN
abandon0VB
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consensus0NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.552326251550852
WordScorePoS
power0NN
abandon0VB
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.399236384855836
WordScorePoS
power0.036961556179878NN
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.310908745592746
WordScorePoS
power0.0454743001434393NN
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The contrast with Guyana is stark

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

The first election on the eve of independence was won by Burnham and his People National Party in coalition against Jagan People Progressive Party

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Burnham maintained power by increasingly fraudulent means finally changing the constitution in to make himself executive president

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.8440294260536
WordScorePoS
maintain0VB
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.343294919795346
WordScorePoS
maintain0.0881366997038154VB
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He assassinated opponents most famously the radical economist and political activist Walter Rodney in

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.787478371167659
WordScorePoS
political0.111637082206855JJ

The economic policies of Burnham regime were disaster

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.489495257231708
WordScorePoS
economic0.0389167984372011JJ
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.403738299122052
WordScorePoS
economic0.128463821595706JJ
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.448616599739997
WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.437250790954818
WordScorePoS
economic0.103276847978089JJ
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He expropriated the sugar plantations creating highly inefficient state industries and he aggressively promoted his party members through patronage particularly in the civil service

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.722105801232941
WordScorePoS
create0.0520080474473126VB
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party0NN
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The implied or actual threat to property and person led to huge diaspora of Indo Guyanese from the country including most of the professional and middle class people

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Only in the Equity institutions and the development process did democratized Guyana begin to slowly recover from this legacy

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.838767980689956
WordScorePoS
institution0.274477239401321NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.314855208479019
WordScorePoS
institution0.0991236547760315NN
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But the ethnic divide endures and the country continues to suffer from weak governance lack of political transparency and ethnic tensions that hamper economic and social development

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.34978672069815
WordScorePoS
country0NN
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governance0NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.475785896177331
WordScorePoS
country0NN
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.4603717228552
WordScorePoS
country0NN
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governance0NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.43991446734445
WordScorePoS
country0NN
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What can explain such divergent outcomes in such apparently similar circumstances

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.590806618085749
WordScorePoS
outcome0.030745604615229NN
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In Guyana there were fewer constraints on the use of power and political conflict was more polarized defined solely along ethnic lines

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WordScorePoS
constraint0NN
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.603576309459174
WordScorePoS
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.388855771079269
WordScorePoS
constraint0NN
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And although both countries started independence as democracies what the majority could do or wanted to do to the minority was limited in Mauritius but not in Guyana

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.912541589060357
WordScorePoS
country0NN
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In Mauritius the British colonial state faced powerful and homogeneous French planter class that did not leave the island after Mauritius was annexed to Britain in

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

In the when Britain was reducing the autonomy of colonial administrations it was forced to create legislative assembly

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.603278369213413
WordScorePoS
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Although this was initially dominated by the planters by the turn of the twentieth century the first Indo Mauritians were elected

Label: 13, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
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This was clear sign that the greater political autonomy of the island was allowing for more open society with greater upward mobility of former indentured laborers

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.658853765298503
WordScorePoS
political0.0792212041430275JJ
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.473132928068618
WordScorePoS
political0.111637082206855JJ
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.386382996518669
WordScorePoS
political0JJ
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The power of the colonial state was checked evident in the fact that Mauritian independence leaders were able in the to negotiate postindependence institutions closer to the ones they wanted

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.886962784673082
WordScorePoS
power0NN
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This juxtaposition of different local interests and the weakening of the legacy of the colonial state gave rise to more balanced distribution of political power in Mauritius

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.545693181518935
WordScorePoS
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.449591655872985
WordScorePoS
local0JJ
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And from this situation more fluid interests emerged

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.599809509342361
WordScorePoS
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.493151843948968
WordScorePoS
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Label: 3, with a score of: 0.386762602097975
WordScorePoS
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Label: 4, with a score of: 0.334219219370023
WordScorePoS
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Though ethnic identities were certainly important in politics so were different cleavages as is clear from the development of the MMM into powerful political force and the coalition of Ramgoolam and Duval in the s

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.630267559548076
WordScorePoS
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.532891724215647
WordScorePoS
identity0.107490825192354NN
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Politics became much less polarized than they might have been

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

In Guyana there was no indigenous planter class to check the power of the colonial state

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.686290890962776
WordScorePoS
indigenous0.0357189919948307JJ
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After the departure of the Dutch the plantations came to be owned by absen tee British companies

Label: 12, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
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The authoritarian tendencies of the colonial state were reinforced by British military intervention promoted in by the United States to remove Jagan from power because of his socialist tendencies

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Guyanese politicians unlike those in Mauritius had far less ability to get what they wanted from the colonial state

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.829181342245405
WordScorePoS
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This meant that there were fewer indigenous checks on the exercise of power and unfettered use of political power was the norm

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.507876924716895
WordScorePoS
indigenous0JJ
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The best example here is the electoral system

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.741794688487528
WordScorePoS
system0.0756001353333673NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.509714993843493
WordScorePoS
system0.0519476926891779NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.30997744823737
WordScorePoS
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Britain imposed proportional representation system on Guyana because it was afraid that the overrepresentation of large parties inherent in majoritarian systems would allow Jagan to win an absolute majority in the election the People Progressive Party won

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

percent of the vote in the election

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

This system facilitated Burnham rise to power

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.510452247163425
WordScorePoS
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Label: 13, with a score of: 0.50489170321225
WordScorePoS
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.390872267497297
WordScorePoS
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.330850043113679
WordScorePoS
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Although the British tried to do the same thing in Mauritius political elites there held out and forced compromise system with relatively large electoral districts with the three politicians who got the most votes being elected and with the eight best losers from the entire country being elected to parliament

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.937814737090114
WordScorePoS
political0.111637082206855JJ
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This system maintained elements of the majoritarian institutions that Mauritian leaders believed were essential to maintaining the country governability

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.690174232278768
WordScorePoS
system0NN
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.553638288283583
WordScorePoS
system0.0756001353333673NN
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Politics in Guyana became completely defined along ethnic lines

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

This occurred because the previous evolution of the economy and the dominant power of colonial interests left little room for the varied interests that emerged in Mauritius

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.68623448171479
WordScorePoS
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Label: 13, with a score of: 0.515126192547742
WordScorePoS
occur0VB
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While Guyana has not suffered outright social conflict high levels of polarization and weak conflict management institutions can be contributory factors to civil wars box

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.644005888130579
WordScorePoS
suffer0VB
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.577483401235894
WordScorePoS
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Implications In Mauritius property rights are secure and the country has experienced open democratic politics

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.756630023903845
WordScorePoS
property0NN
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.429988103780866
WordScorePoS
property0.0558185411034276NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.401232159474175
WordScorePoS
property0.0736315832425121NN
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There has been intensive investment in education and free access into profitable investment opportunities illustrated most clearly by the export processing zone

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.488725355676427
WordScorePoS
intensive0JJ
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.579657826965773
WordScorePoS
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.349454735150494
WordScorePoS
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.301117030143229
WordScorePoS
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In Guyana the opposite was true in the and s

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

The puzzle is why institutions have been so good in one case and so BOX

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.928024905735602
WordScorePoS
institution0.274477239401321NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.335143345875739
WordScorePoS
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WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT Polarization conflict and growth Researchers have long recognized that deep social divisions make it harder to implement policies that benefit all

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.452619607564785
WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.43799380181765
WordScorePoS
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Getting more precise measure of the nature and extent of such divisions however has proved problematic

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 13, with a score of: 0.525469215315231
WordScorePoS
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.433751530553561
WordScorePoS
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For much of the scholars used measure known as ethno linguistic fractionalization first compiled by Russian social scientists in the to show that economic growth was slower controlling for other factors in societies where there was low probability that two citizens drawn randomly from population group were of the same ethnic group

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.490447748743495
WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.490411371915124
WordScorePoS
measure0NN
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Africa growth tragedy was in part blamed on its high level of fractionalization Easterly and Levine

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.808003638575144
WordScorePoS
africa0IN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.417792090266912
WordScorePoS
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More recent work has sought to refine measures of social diversity by focusing instead on polarization or the extent to which small number of influential groups dominate society thereby providing more theoretically informed basis for explaining the relationship between diver sity and conflict and through this channel economic growth Esteban and Ray

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.517142458509249
WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.33668915911098
WordScorePoS
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By this measure country with three groups that comprise respectively percent percent and percent of the population will be more polarized than counterpart country where those same groups comprise percent percent and percent of the population

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

The polarization measure is far more robust predictor of civil conflict than either measures of the inequality of individual incomes or fragmentation

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.866503736378299
WordScorePoS
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.399273918941142
WordScorePoS
measure0.103895385378356NN
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This statistical association is illustrated by the fact that by this measure of the most polarized societies in the world have experienced major civil conflict in the past few decades including Eritrea Guatemala Nigeria Sierra Leone and Bosnia and Herzegovina García Montalvo and Reynal Querol forthcoming

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 13, with a score of: 0.556520244972643
WordScorePoS
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This is only one influence on conflict of course and other work has emphasized the role of resource dependence and state capacities see World Bank

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.435758355848409
WordScorePoS
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.349535016177006
WordScorePoS
influence0NN
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.307362502189769
WordScorePoS
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bad in the other given such apparently similar histories and circumstances

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.601908422666289
WordScorePoS
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But the two cases make sense in more detail

Label: 10, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
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The colonial history of Mauritius diverged from Guyana in significant ways that allowed the development of stronger domestic political society

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.466199995927224
WordScorePoS
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.447282545030611
WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.381574983957392
WordScorePoS
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WordScorePoS
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.340733061293744
WordScorePoS
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WordScorePoS
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Mauritius resisted the colonial state more effectively and ultimately generated more egalitarian distribution of political power and less polarized structure of political conflict

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.410645151318407
WordScorePoS
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In Guyana however there was no powerful domestic interest group that had vested interest in opposing the colonial state or that was able to block the state from expropriating land and other assets after independence

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.556397827899222
WordScorePoS
domestic0JJ
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The use of power was unconstrained and politics were highly polarized along ethnic lines

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WordScorePoS
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Indonesia shows that growth is possible even with underlying bad institutions when elites can credibly make contingent commitment to improve institutions and when they manage to forge mechanisms that indirectly benefit from encouraging the investment opportunities of others

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.529574457452383
WordScorePoS
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.479917021182404
WordScorePoS
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.374146722097752
WordScorePoS
growth0NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.496194549910467
WordScorePoS
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The acceleration of growth after and particularly the pro poor aspect of growth was clearly driven by the threat of communism and rural social disorder

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.462269876975302
WordScorePoS
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.31969596925849
WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.531525488393077
WordScorePoS
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The spillover from the conflicts of and was redistribution of power toward the rural sector with sustained inclusive growth necessary for the political survival of the regime

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.362736090098916
WordScorePoS
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.301924975377742
WordScorePoS
conflict0NN
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.497866832457966
WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.378503554883234
WordScorePoS
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Yet the redistribution of power in Indonesia was not institutionalized unlike what occurred in the Republic of Korea for example

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Moreover it did not force the New Order Regime to improve institutions outside the rural and education sectors although the connection between promoting economic development and social order may well have helped the government to sustain its relationship with the cukong entrepreneurs

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.411895087167045
WordScorePoS
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.365167574002256
WordScorePoS
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Label: 4, with a score of: 0.324198802532573
WordScorePoS
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.250872643837054
WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.441251006978
WordScorePoS
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As the constraints on economic policies of the New Order Regime relaxed in the it appears to have been more difficult to avoid massive and debilitating upsurge in corruption and rent seeking

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.318374404985146
WordScorePoS
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.478998755128532
WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.344801225700514
WordScorePoS
constraint0NN
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Moreover the collusive agreement that the state forged with the Sino Indonesian entrepreneurs appears to have been very fragile

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.856874185982408
WordScorePoS
agreement0NN
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It rested on shared expectations about the longevity of the relationship expectations that clearly deteriorated with Suharto failing health and could not survive the financial crisis in

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.801662694377292
WordScorePoS
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Transitions to more equitable institutions So far we have examined cases illustrating the mechanisms that create good institutions and sustain prosperity

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.797994615491101
WordScorePoS
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.313720051765464
WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.345765159146851
WordScorePoS
equitable0JJ
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They involve institutions that allow for greater equality of opportunity and behind such set of institutions lies relative balance of economic resources and political power

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.548907535631545
WordScorePoS
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.419095898680465
WordScorePoS
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.259135326296085
WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.491660491830771
WordScorePoS
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Such institutions have emerged in some societies but not others

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WordScorePoS
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Although systems of institutions often tend to reinforce one another and persist for long periods they also change

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.552560904662429
WordScorePoS
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.303364612027419
WordScorePoS
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Countries with unequal distributions of resources and political power become more egalitarian and democratic and previously powerless people gain power and influence

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WordScorePoS
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Although institutions are sometimes created by colonialism or military conquest they can often evolve through good decisions virtuous paths and the intrinsic dynamics of the development process as in Mauritius

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.331615917418813
WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.30252145779234
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It is also possible that even transitory condi Equity institutions and the development process tional solutions lead to permanent change because growth unleashes transformations that induce beneficial changes in institutions

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 13, with a score of: 0.49302512557223
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.363906029562114
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.344044437880947
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This message from modernization theory is precisely what may have happened in the Republic of Korea

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WordScorePoS
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The biggest challenge is to understand processes of change and to distill from them lessons about how poorer societies can undergo beneficial institutional transitions

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WordScorePoS
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This does not appear to have happened in Argentina box

Label: 9, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
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or Guyana but it did happen in Britain in the seventeenth eighteenth and nineteenth centuries and in Finland Sweden Spain and the Republic of Korea in the twentieth century

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WordScorePoS
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It also happened in Mauritius

Label: 9, with a score of: 1
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Here we briefly review three such transitions early modern Britain Finland and Sweden in the early twentieth century and China in the last years

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The transitions and policy choices in Spain are discussed in focus on Spain

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Early modern Britain Around most European countries were highly hierarchical feudal societies ruled by absolute monarchs whose powers were endowed by God

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.798920216948637
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.485452201241371
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The most prosperous places such as the Italian city states of Venice Genoa and Florence had escaped feudalism and were ruled by republican governments strongly representing mercantile interests

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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.247129182455872
WordScorePoS
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The Netherlands also escaped intense feudalism and was relatively prosperous but it was part of the autocratic Habsburg Empire

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.749710497040329
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.661765948525264
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Nevertheless the differences in income between the most and the least prosperous places were relatively small

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.382844790117206
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After this picture began to change rapidly

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WordScorePoS
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First the Netherlands and then Britain became much more prosperous than the rest of Europe and the Mediterranean world went into decline

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WordScorePoS
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As North and Thomas argued the most plausible explanation for these changes is the emergence of constitutional government in the Netherlands and Britain diverging prosperity within the early modern period was tied to the evolution of political institutions

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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.457764975447935
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Institutions improved because of change in the distribution of resources and political power

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.435217450754054
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.30200103685806
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Indeed there was virtuous circle of changes in institutions the broader distribution of resources and power and subsequent changes in institutions

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.319552892646509
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These changes included the collapse of feudalism and serfdom and the move to free labor market the changes in land distribution the commercialization of agriculture and the development of interoceanic commerce

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Label: 15, with a score of: 0.39623430787445
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.354192688599081
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.329151419845233
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Yet even after the political system was at root oligarchic

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.453737624589604
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Further changes were needed in the distribution of power toward greater political equality to sustain Britain development path and eventually deliver more egalitarian society

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WordScorePoS
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WordScorePoS
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Even though Britain was constitutional regime it was very limited democracy in

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WordScorePoS
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Before the first reform act of set in motion political liberalizations that culminated in full democracy in fewer than percent of adult males could vote

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.747457192239821
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The reason for these changes seems to have been the effect of early industrialization and urbanization on the ability of the disenfranchised to contest the power of political elites

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WordScorePoS
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British democratization in the nineteenth century was the outcome of series of strategic concessions by political elites to avoid social disorder

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WordScorePoS
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While the political system of the eighteenth century was consistent with individual initiative invention and the start of the industrial revolution in Britain sustained long run growth called for broad investment particularly in human capital

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Such institutions had to wait for mass democracy to begin to arrive after

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.335143345875739
WordScorePoS
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However the longer history of the Poor Laws provide an example of how provisioning for adverse risks was also supportive of greater dynamism box

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WordScorePoS
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theme we return to in chapter

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The types of political reforms in nineteenthcentury Britain led to economic institutions that clearly influenced the distribution of income most obviously the promotion of education after

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But the same period also saw extensive labor market reforms that strengthened the bargaining power of labor and led to the rise of the Labor Party

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After the Liberal government of Herbert Asquith also began to introduce the basics of welfare state further extended by the Labor government after

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As Britain began to adopt institutions that promoted prosperity BOX

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WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT Aiding equitable growth in early modern Britain the role of the Poor Laws Far from being consequence of successful economic growth recent historical research on seventeenth and eighteenth century Britain has found that widespread but unique institutions of social security were in existence for several centuries before the industrial revolution

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Indeed scholars increasingly argue that previously underestimated influence on Britain industrial revolution in fact lies in its prior agricultural revolution

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The principal comparator here is with the immensely advanced Dutch rural and trading economy of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries

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WordScorePoS
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Many of the most important technical innovations in British agriculture during this period such as land drainage engineering new crop types and rotations were directly borrowed from the Dutch

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WordScorePoS
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Yet it was the British agricultural and service economy that was increasingly outpacing the Dutch as the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries progressed

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WordScorePoS
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Attention has recently been given to one major institutional difference between the two countries the nationwide system of social security created in England by the Poor Laws which gradually evolved during the course of the sixteenth century culminating in the famous Elizabethan statutes of and

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This was Christian humanist response imbued with new optimism about what government could and should be able to achieve in the face of perceptions of increased poverty amid plenty in time of population growth

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WordScorePoS
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The Poor Law was mandated by the central state but most important for its practical effectiveness its implementation was entirely locally devolved it was funded by local tax on property in every parish administered by local officials but also rigorously enforced by local magistrates

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WordScorePoS
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It went side by side with relatively efficient nationwide population registration system the Church of England parish registers which was instituted in

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WordScorePoS
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This placed the English population on an entirely different basis in terms of social security from that of the rest of Europe

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The comprehensive social security system provided by the Poor Laws had number of highly significant economic consequences

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In combination with laws dating from the thirteenth century granting complete alienability of land it encouraged labor mobility and reduced the attachment to land holding as the only form of security for peasants

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Individuals had relative certainty of being provided for wherever they moved to work in the economy no matter what their property ownership status

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Landlords and farmers could reap the economic gains to be had from increased farm sizes from enclosure and from laying off workers or changing their labor contracts to more efficient weekly or day labor without provoking the same degree of peasant protest as occurred on the continent

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But equally employers in England had strong incentive only to do this if it made economic sense because through the Poor Law they would also have to reckon with their liability to pay for the families of the laid off workers

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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.254823186575007
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.429895195270287
WordScorePoS
employer0NN
strong0.0488696285210061JJ
incentive0NN
economic0.103276847978089JJ
sense0.064698038783335NN
poor0JJ
law0.0330412182586772NN
pay0.02794560829783NN
family0NN
worker0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.378554423702684
WordScorePoS
employer0NN
strong0JJ
incentive0NN
economic0.0727679293221751JJ
sense0NN
poor0JJ
law0.0465610847355851NN
pay0.078760887431929NN
family0.0465610847355851NN
worker0NN

What the Poor Law created in England was public system of acknowledgment of collective responsibility for the basic subsistence of all including for strikingly nonmoralistic approach to the support of single mothers and their illegitimate children

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.489046808804585
WordScorePoS
poor0.150659516460257JJ
law0NN
create0.0519476926891779VB
public0NN
system0.0519476926891779NN
responsibility0NN
basic0.0639932865717261JJ
include0VB
approach0NN
support0.0184786920895884NN
single0JJ
mother0NN
child0.0450489732120807NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.381080390919501
WordScorePoS
poor0JJ
law0NN
create0VB
public0.021678073222951NN
system0NN
responsibility0NN
basic0JJ
include0VB
approach0NN
support0.00625975725959118NN
single0JJ
mother0.162963395911232NN
child0.10682408961305NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.324702914189257
WordScorePoS
poor0JJ
law0.164686343640793NN
create0VB
public0.0285977592242194NN
system0NN
responsibility0NN
basic0JJ
include0VB
approach0NN
support0NN
single0JJ
mother0NN
child0.0603953832457135NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.32346190237755
WordScorePoS
poor0.0229054731708393JJ
law0NN
create0.0315914058171786VB
public0.0583751976558017NN
system0.0315914058171786NN
responsibility0NN
basic0.0583751976558017JJ
include0VB
approach0NN
support0.0224752180723703NN
single0JJ
mother0NN
child0.0273960270556257NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.32300593336697
WordScorePoS
poor0.0548141757796873JJ
law0NN
create0VB
public0NN
system0.0756001353333673NN
responsibility0NN
basic0JJ
include0VB
approach0NN
support0.00896409157262106NN
single0.0583416713841148JJ
mother0NN
child0.0546336178945768NN

The comparative evidence suggests relative lack of correspondence in England alone in all of Europe between fluctuations in the price of food and the death rate and England but not Ireland was the first nation in the world to cease to experience famine related mortality

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.655990575840365
WordScorePoS
evidence0NN
suggest0VB
relative0JJ
lack0NN
price0NN
food0NN
death0.193573191943949NN
rate0.0433561464459019NN
nation0NN
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experience0.0249430985430622NN
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.490429886745816
WordScorePoS
evidence0NN
suggest0VB
relative0JJ
lack0NN
price0.0583416713841148NN
food0.292342270824999NN
death0.0252000451111224NN
rate0.0155217067874935NN
nation0NN
world0.0124838525528648NN
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related0.00896409157262106JJ
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.28255201809134
WordScorePoS
evidence0.12939607756667NN
suggest0VB
relative0JJ
lack0NN
price0NN
food0NN
death0NN
rate0.0172128079963482NN
nation0.0396106020715138NN
world0.00276879546803864NN
experience0NN
related0JJ
mortality0.0488696285210061NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.23743275355966
WordScorePoS
evidence0NN
suggest0VB
relative0JJ
lack0NN
price0NN
food0.186896403054502NN
death0NN
rate0NN
nation0NN
world0.00464349782489754NN
experience0NN
related0.00833571598658786JJ
mortality0NN

Sources Szreter drawing on Slack Wrigley Solar Solar King King Lees

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

it was still highly unequal society and inequality almost certainly increased until the early or mid nineteenth century figure

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.911910663922291
WordScorePoS
highly0RB
society0.0237821918091848NN
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Label: 13, with a score of: 0.322122214670085
WordScorePoS
highly0RB
society0NN
inequality0NN
increase0.0145316075945746NN
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Although precise measures of inequality differ depending on the sources inequality appears to have risen until the early and perhaps mid nineteenth century

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.933740269992665
WordScorePoS
measure0NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
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Label: 13, with a score of: 0.30554122380636
WordScorePoS
measure0.0710409787438328NN
inequality0NN
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source0.0123065238088614NN
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After about there is wide consensus that inequality fell substantially for the next century

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.908248687902722
WordScorePoS
wide0JJ
consensus0.064698038783335NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
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Label: 13, with a score of: 0.338261379262008
WordScorePoS
wide0.0414107553022249JJ
consensus0NN
inequality0NN
fall0NN
substantially0RB
century0.219293228426234NN

The fall in inequality after is closely correlated with the Second Reform Act of which was the first reform that really expanded voting rights to working people

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.869664749427532
WordScorePoS
fall0NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
reform0NN
expand0VB
rights0NNS
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.354235382646977
WordScorePoS
fall0NN
inequality0NN
reform0.0911713013253052NN
expand0VB
rights0.078760887431929NNS
people0NNS

When democracy enfranchises the relatively poor they usually can use democracy to tilt economic institutions and the distribution of income in society in their favor

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.543186021043329
WordScorePoS
poor0JJ
economic0JJ
institution0.274477239401321NN
income0NN
society0.118536858482514NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.542693908490238
WordScorePoS
poor0JJ
economic0.103276847978089JJ
institution0.0991236547760315NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.401995512819015
WordScorePoS
poor0.150659516460257JJ
economic0.0959899298575892JJ
institution0NN
income0.0442083771593746NN
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.316124823140916
WordScorePoS
poor0JJ
economic0.128463821595706JJ
institution0.0410992516792148NN
income0NN
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Twentieth century Finland and Sweden Finland and Sweden are popularly identified as prosperous countries with generous welfare states that in some measure are products of small and ethnically homogenous population

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.724416578631237
WordScorePoS
century0.219293228426234NN
identify0VB
prosperous0JJ
country0NN
welfare0NN
measure0.0710409787438328NN
product0NN
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But closer reading of their economic histories shows that their contemporary virtuous circles with growth and equity mutually reinforcing are the outcome of long and difficult political struggle to establish institutions and enact policies that provide broad economic opportunities and respond to the inherently wrenching social transitions of positive economic growth structural change and negative shocks macroeconomic crises civil war

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.532665634571186
WordScorePoS
economic0.128463821595706JJ
history0NN
growth0.208565600657229NN
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political0JJ
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institution0.0410992516792148NN
policy0.0452169560888236NN
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opportunity0.0361300980868102NN
social0.0504071033101074JJ
positive0JJ
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macroeconomic0JJ
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Label: 13, with a score of: 0.248068632302458
WordScorePoS
economic0JJ
history0.0414107553022249NN
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mutually0RB
reinforce0VB
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political0JJ
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institution0NN
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social0JJ
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change0.402565546215053NN
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macroeconomic0JJ
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.212447146043754
WordScorePoS
economic0JJ
history0NN
growth0NN
mutually0RB
reinforce0.0811931365363091VB
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political0JJ
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institution0.274477239401321NN
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opportunity0NN
social0JJ
positive0JJ
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macroeconomic0JJ
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.524245933847379
WordScorePoS
economic0.103276847978089JJ
history0NN
growth0.11178243319132NN
mutually0RB
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opportunity0.029046330719385NN
social0.101310366625194JJ
positive0JJ
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macroeconomic0JJ
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.382140111107988
WordScorePoS
economic0.0959899298575892JJ
history0NN
growth0.0519476926891779NN
mutually0RB
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political0JJ
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policy0.0450489732120807NN
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macroeconomic0JJ
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Finland was part of Sweden in the Middle Ages but following war between Russia and Sweden in it became part of the Russian empire

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.679694633217545
WordScorePoS
middle0JJ
age0.112994637345193NN

It experienced one of the last European famines in an event that ushered in major demographic and economic changes as entire regions were devastated

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.776254451408763
WordScorePoS
experienced0JJ
event0.0908430554521382NN
major0JJ
economic0.0959899298575892JJ
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.313508640321905
WordScorePoS
experienced0JJ
event0NN
major0.0214106369326177JJ
economic0.128463821595706JJ
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The Russian revolution of led to collapse of imperial authority in Finland and the country soon declared its independence

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

But this immediately gave birth to bloody civil war between white guards bourgeois nationalists and red guards socialists loyal to Russia

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

More than troops alone lost their lives

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.783620988089078
WordScorePoS
lose0.0781544824456958VB
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.401063345094276
WordScorePoS
lose0.0440683498519077VB
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In the aftermath however many progressive reforms laid the foundation for the modern Finnish economy and society

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.833166749069928
WordScorePoS
reform0NN
foundation0NN
modern0.462321869452858JJ
economy0.0625160381065121NN
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.36045886149497
WordScorePoS
reform0.0911713013253052NN
foundation0.0558185411034276NN
modern0JJ
economy0.0465610847355851NN
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.320909016941493
WordScorePoS
reform0NN
foundation0NN
modern0.0607878664258118JJ
economy0.0821985033584295NN
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Land reform major cause of the civil war was enacted almost immediately

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.591341753776211
WordScorePoS
land0.123873694868802NN
reform0NN
major0.0137637438743113JJ
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.495918621351079
WordScorePoS
land0.024255976440725NN
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.420469292696792
WordScorePoS
land0NN
reform0NN
major0JJ
civil0.0978661089756501JJ

A law passed in allowed sharecroppers to buy their land and amendments in facilitated the subsidized expansion of small farms

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.792755706858834
WordScorePoS
law0NN
land0.0465651203624806NN
facilitate0.0252000451111224VB
expansion0NN
farm0.291708356920574NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.35918995667962
WordScorePoS
law0.164686343640793NN
land0NN
facilitate0VB
expansion0NN
farm0NN

Progressive income and wealth taxation were in place by soon followed by expansions of women rights although universal suffrage in parliamentary elections had been in place since and commitments by the central Equity institutions and the development process government not just local municipalities to primary education

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.511885183361161
WordScorePoS
income0NN
taxation0NN
expansion0NN
woman0.221979360474357NN
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universal0.02046578088155JJ
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central0JJ
institution0NN
development0.0124956749436837NN
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government0NN
local0JJ
primary0.0970239057629001JJ
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Label: 4, with a score of: 0.471326317997138
WordScorePoS
income0NN
taxation0NN
expansion0NN
woman0.0610612445035112NN
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universal0.0182963616752599JJ
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government0NN
local0JJ
primary0.108423939529757JJ
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.342707727334822
WordScorePoS
income0NN
taxation0NN
expansion0NN
woman0NN
rights0NNS
universal0JJ
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central0JJ
institution0.274477239401321NN
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process0NN
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local0JJ
primary0.0285977592242194JJ
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.318121655915029
WordScorePoS
income0.166475342664294NN
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expansion0NN
woman0.0242343960710022NN
rights0NNS
universal0.0145231653596925JJ
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process0NN
government0NN
local0JJ
primary0JJ
education0.0121171980355011NN

From the late until the early the economy expanded steadily with per capita incomes catching up with Great Britain in the and Sweden in the from roughly half century earlier

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.705601951315332
WordScorePoS
economy0.0839946104936743NN
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capita0NN
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century0.219293228426234NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.363174786854764
WordScorePoS
economy0NN
expand0VB
capita0NN
income0.166475342664294NN
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.351342209418578
WordScorePoS
economy0.0821985033584295NN
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Label: 7, with a score of: 0.33271041304276
WordScorePoS
economy0.0625160381065121NN
expand0.0449973847138318VB
capita0NN
income0.0449973847138318NN
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This success was product of Asian style governed markets collaboration between the state and private sector was harnessed to rapidly industrialize an economy that as late as the generated percent of its output from agriculture

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.587493197004302
WordScorePoS
product0NN
market0.0913569596328122NN
private0JJ
sector0.0182713919265625NN
rapidly0RB
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.399941321929934
WordScorePoS
product0NN
market0NN
private0.0558185411034276JJ
sector0.0571058915334038NN
rapidly0RB
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.372229920240077
WordScorePoS
product0.0591643007226199NN
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.35809413933624
WordScorePoS
product0.017987180284335NN
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crucial counterpart to Finland activist industrial policy based on high rates of capital accumulation and public saving low interest rates on credit and major investments in manufacturing infrastructure however was the construction of welfare state to cushion citizens of all ages against the unsettling social changes wrought by such rapid economic transformation

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.729996956169098
WordScorePoS
crucial0.0602029956716497JJ
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policy0.011275328195446NN
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welfare0NN
age0NN
social0.0188543197850406JJ
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.208828080430806
WordScorePoS
crucial0JJ
industrial0JJ
policy0.0452169560888236NN
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major0.0214106369326177JJ
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age0.0252035516550537NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.407124456300503
WordScorePoS
crucial0JJ
industrial0JJ
policy0.0450489732120807NN
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age0.112994637345193NN
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Strong and credible political leadership was central to making this possible

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.648472261390896
WordScorePoS
strong0.0488696285210061JJ
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.607147944810447
WordScorePoS
strong0JJ
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Label: 7, with a score of: 0.311016819512228
WordScorePoS
strong0JJ
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leadership0NN
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In the aftermath of World War II President Urho Kekkoken famously asked his nation Do we have the patience to prosper

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Thereafter he set about negotiating the arrangements social corporatism among industrialists trade unions and citizen groups that would enable all to act as complements

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.76738168891927
WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.320327352216941
WordScorePoS
set0NN
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trade0.0237821918091848NN
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The Finnish model has its problems high unemployment but it shows how state market and society can jointly generate the institutions policies and spaces needed to generate equitable development outcomes

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.609720843974466
WordScorePoS
unemployment0NN
market0NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.377726832776805
WordScorePoS
unemployment0NN
market0.0202620733250388NN
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.347796537563605
WordScorePoS
unemployment0.0804764811724088NN
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.339643425280825
WordScorePoS
unemployment0NN
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Sweden is perhaps most closely associated with the welfare state today

Label: 12, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
welfare0.0542519672965169NN

Less well known is the timing and sequencing of events putting it in place

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.785613217795739
WordScorePoS
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.504540363151966
WordScorePoS
event0NN
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Label: 13, with a score of: 0.358121339737116
WordScorePoS
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Importantly the Swedish welfare state was the product of not precursor to the country transition to modern economic growth

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.637382127682726
WordScorePoS
welfare0NN
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modern0.462321869452858JJ
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.630019726536379
WordScorePoS
welfare0NN
product0.0591643007226199NN
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modern0.0607878664258118JJ
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Indeed it was designed in response to the very problems old age security unemployment generated by such growth

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.700092979640017
WordScorePoS
response0NN
age0.0252035516550537NN
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.434868521180821
WordScorePoS
response0NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.367467213536175
WordScorePoS
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But to make such growth possible and to have in place sociopolitical conditions that would enable the articulation of and sustained support for something like the welfare state when such system existed only in rather embryonic forms elsewhere in the capitalist world it was vital that prior set of equi Figure

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.591969974216856
WordScorePoS
growth0.208565600657229NN
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enable0VB
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.225035708843458
WordScorePoS
growth0NN
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.396108804501339
WordScorePoS
growth0NN
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.337362716675616
WordScorePoS
growth0.0260040237236563NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.30379525066237
WordScorePoS
growth0.0519476926891779NN
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Inequality in Britain began to fall around Gini coefficient

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.969699903110422
WordScorePoS
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Lindert and Williamson

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Williamson Bourguignon and Morrison

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Sources Lindert and Williamson Lindert and Williamson Williamson and Bourguignon and Morrisson

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

table institutional arrangements be in place

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.91318849194418
WordScorePoS
institutional0.0828215106044499JJ

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.407537456169018
WordScorePoS
institutional0.036961556179878JJ

In Sweden these prior arrangements were unusually favorable to upward mobility by subordinate groups long history of peasant autonomy correspondingly weak aristocracy and an emerging nation state able to secure support from farmers while also repudiating aristocratic claims on its powers

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.644845374040603
WordScorePoS
mobility0NN
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Sweden was also the first country to have central bank in and among the first to grant basic property rights

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.602418215655548
WordScorePoS
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.427662622330971
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country0NN
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.420117389364175
WordScorePoS
country0NN
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As such inclusion of the peasantry in the transformation of the agrarian economy and institutional arrangements that sustained egalitarianism were to become fundamental elements in the rise of the Swedish industrial market economy

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.677594220130344
WordScorePoS
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Label: 13, with a score of: 0.561488601909157
WordScorePoS
inclusion0NN
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This was an economy increasingly grounded in broad political rights and social opportunities

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WordScorePoS
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WordScorePoS
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.42736214806241
WordScorePoS
economy0.0821985033584295NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.346394461815363
WordScorePoS
economy0NN
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But history is not destiny

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.717662758988433
WordScorePoS
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Label: 14, with a score of: 0.696390812949963
WordScorePoS
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Equitable development is as much function of key choices and decisions at pivotal historic junctures

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.444670909559713
WordScorePoS
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.402275734826098
WordScorePoS
equitable0.0214456704626236JJ
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Label: 6, with a score of: 0.368121353235835
WordScorePoS
equitable0.0502364757923669JJ
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The Middle Ages the industrial revolution and the tumultuous twentieth century unleashed sweeping forces on Swedish society

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.732450981671124
WordScorePoS
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Label: 13, with a score of: 0.476604205304143
WordScorePoS
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Some were leveling rising agricultural productivity others wrenching mass unemployment

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Label: 13, with a score of: 0.366964519409696
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.341625485730953
WordScorePoS
level0NN
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Each attempt to respond to these forces established the political contours for subsequent attempts

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WordScorePoS
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Drawing on and extending the equitable institutional foundations during these pivotal historic junctures have been the unifying elements of Sweden development strategy

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Its achievements to date have been remarkable even as twenty first century realities present distinctive challenges to its welfare state

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.715503093667453
WordScorePoS
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.570986039941666
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WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT The main implications of the Finnish and Swedish cases for today developing countries are that economic growth and sociopolitical equity can be powerfully reinforcing and can be underpinned by institutional transitions

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.653605189571865
WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.447226422366588
WordScorePoS
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These cases should not be seen as blueprints for others to follow

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Instead they should be read as examples of how commitments to equity in given context help lay the foundations for short and long term prosperity by consolidating virtuous circles linking institutions and incentives

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.576499304869661
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China in the late twentieth century Economic development in China since has been nothing short of spectacular

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.642126721202041
WordScorePoS
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.392311890004107
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.354341620246977
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.329340292030871
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With the quadrupling of GDP per capita over the last years China has transformed itself from poor centrally planned economy to lower middle income emerging market economy

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.343139024835199
WordScorePoS
gdp0NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.302341573042655
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gdp0NN
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Label: 7, with a score of: 0.453730084732412
WordScorePoS
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.370613805867062
WordScorePoS
gdp0NN
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.32660774979253
WordScorePoS
gdp0NN
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.323586688666987
WordScorePoS
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As result the number of people living in poverty under per day fell from million in to million in

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From the perspective of this chapter what is interesting is that the world largest country has undergone profound economic transformation without substantially changing the political institutional structure that remains dominated by the Chinese Communist Party

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.779554132018087
WordScorePoS
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.169553769537839
WordScorePoS
perspective0NN
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Yet institutional improvement did take place in China along with economic reform

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.429091530446301
WordScorePoS
institutional0JJ
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.54758557315928
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.344962653361306
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.32062307814298
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Label: 7, with a score of: 0.308847107392845
WordScorePoS
institutional0JJ
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And the large increase in nonstate investment and free entry into profitable economic opportunities suggest that property rights are secure despite the absence of Western style judicial system

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.504160353131322
WordScorePoS
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.444127177435875
WordScorePoS
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.429177309021759
WordScorePoS
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.315542408658377
WordScorePoS
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While the particular institutional form is different from other cases reviewed here the experience in China is broadly consistent with the thesis of this chapter

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.489128334858781
WordScorePoS
institutional0JJ
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.524276896703216
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.435880067646221
WordScorePoS
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Label: 13, with a score of: 0.360191122251313
WordScorePoS
institutional0.0828215106044499JJ
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The earlier discussion of equitable transitions in Britain and Scandinavian countries illustrated the argument that successful economic system depends on the political system to assign and enforce property rights and contracts and to protect the market from political encroachment

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.344045994565777
WordScorePoS
equitable0JJ
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.516268927448249
WordScorePoS
equitable0JJ
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.390197067992017
WordScorePoS
equitable0JJ
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China recent history suggests that the starting point for reforms does not necessarily have to be in political institutions

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.679141108550897
WordScorePoS
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.501810316643632
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.44128003274453
WordScorePoS
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Changes in economic institutions and in economic relations among levels of government can also establish credible commitment to reform path and act as check on the discretionary use of power by the central government

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.420523219974337
WordScorePoS
economic0JJ
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.383054230425008
WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.5452590808817
WordScorePoS
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.371683155798347
WordScorePoS
economic0JJ
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.318292772137926
WordScorePoS
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China experience also demonstrates that what is important for equitable development are credible checks on the arbitrary use of power assurance of property rights and fair treatment for broad segment of society

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.405309148710503
WordScorePoS
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The particular form that institutions take to deliver these functions can vary especially during periods of transition

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.838935570271751
WordScorePoS
form0.158049144643351NN
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The key to China equitable development was the combination of initial conditions and the economic reforms launched in that unleashed entrepreneurial initiative and legitimized the profit motive

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.571242594172016
WordScorePoS
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.394386076478984
WordScorePoS
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China economic policies following the revolution proved seriously flawed they stifled incentives for investment and innovation

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.535572950901185
WordScorePoS
economic0.128463821595706JJ
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.433891852753705
WordScorePoS
economic0JJ
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.397006135600774
WordScorePoS
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.388700335792449
WordScorePoS
economic0.0320338181740375JJ
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.340500737961138
WordScorePoS
economic0.0959899298575892JJ
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But the social policies of the Mao Tse Tung period leveled the distribution of assets in important and durable ways

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.60360426580142
WordScorePoS
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.435187879316717
WordScorePoS
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.417107368867454
WordScorePoS
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policy0.0201317944152378NN
period0NN
level0.0610668815653026NN
asset0.0811931365363091NN

As result both land and human capital were equitably distributed on the eve of reforms

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.583504720494603
WordScorePoS
result0NN
land0.123873694868802NN
human0.0193783617722719JJ
distribute0VB
reform0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.539719303760385
WordScorePoS
result0NN
land0.024255976440725NN
human0.0170753354211044JJ
distribute0VB
reform0.0911713013253052NN

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.33046705767501
WordScorePoS
result0.0683326727248364NN
land0NN
human0.0127979231406811JJ
distribute0VB
reform0NN

With the adoption of the rural household responsibility system peasants became the immediate beneficiaries of reform

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.686516307363804
WordScorePoS
adoption0NN
rural0.148975141598503JJ
household0.0297950283197006NN
responsibility0NN
system0.0756001353333673NN
reform0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.61778482378638
WordScorePoS
adoption0NN
rural0JJ
household0.0465610847355851NN
responsibility0.0911713013253052NN
system0NN
reform0.0911713013253052NN

This helped to reinforce equity while unleashing entrepreneurial initiative and boosting productivity

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.470066569702346
WordScorePoS
help0NN
reinforce0VB
initiative0.0924643738905717NN
productivity0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.468909709333326
WordScorePoS
help0NN
reinforce0VB
initiative0NN
productivity0.0922368138456871NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.412766318194782
WordScorePoS
help0NN
reinforce0.0811931365363091VB
initiative0NN
productivity0NN

The economic reforms launched in aimed at decentralizing economic decisions to individual farm households enterprise managers local governments so as to generate incentives for investment and innovation

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.501840661217824
WordScorePoS
economic0.128463821595706JJ
reform0NN
aim0.0410992516792148NN
decision0NN
individual0JJ
farm0NN
household0NN
enterprise0.0607878664258118NN
local0.0214106369326177JJ
government0NN
generate0VB
incentive0NN
investment0.0252035516550537NN
innovation0.0821985033584295NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.411005391373614
WordScorePoS
economic0JJ
reform0NN
aim0NN
decision0NN
individual0JJ
farm0.291708356920574NN
household0.0297950283197006NN
enterprise0NN
local0.0155217067874935JJ
government0NN
generate0.0440683498519077VB
incentive0NN
investment0.0182713919265625NN
innovation0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.362775209602376
WordScorePoS
economic0.103276847978089JJ
reform0NN
aim0NN
decision0.02794560829783NN
individual0.064698038783335JJ
farm0NN
household0.0330412182586772NN
enterprise0NN
local0JJ
government0NN
generate0VB
incentive0NN
investment0.0202620733250388NN
innovation0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.332053148487981
WordScorePoS
economic0.0727679293221751JJ
reform0.0911713013253052NN
aim0NN
decision0.0393804437159645NN
individual0JJ
farm0NN
household0.0465610847355851NN
enterprise0NN
local0JJ
government0NN
generate0VB
incentive0NN
investment0NN
innovation0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.324909429222902
WordScorePoS
economic0.0320338181740375JJ
reform0NN
aim0NN
decision0NN
individual0JJ
farm0NN
household0NN
enterprise0.0909486002868787NN
local0JJ
government0NN
generate0VB
incentive0NN
investment0.0377086395700813NN
innovation0.122982418460916NN

Importantly the form these policies took and the transitional institutions that were created were designed to preserve the political support for reforms by compensating potential losers

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.611079923385133
WordScorePoS
form0.158049144643351NN
policy0.0201317944152378NN
institution0.274477239401321NN
create0VB
political0JJ
support0NN
reform0NN
potential0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.455617701094658
WordScorePoS
form0.100540298425703NN
policy0.0341506708422088NN
institution0NN
create0VB
political0.111637082206855JJ
support0NN
reform0.0911713013253052NN
potential0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.355268070935493
WordScorePoS
form0NN
policy0.0848203862485078NN
institution0.0991236547760315NN
create0VB
political0.0792212041430275JJ
support0NN
reform0NN
potential0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.323634317756422
WordScorePoS
form0.0591643007226199NN
policy0.0452169560888236NN
institution0.0410992516792148NN
create0.0695218668857431VB
political0JJ
support0.024730129581725NN
reform0NN
potential0NN

The aftermath of the cultural revolution and the recognition that China economy had fallen behind not least in relation to the East Asian Tigers led to growing consensus on the need for and urgency of change and paved the way for the economic reforms initiated under Deng Xiaoping leadership

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.640491278415655
WordScorePoS
cultural0JJ
economy0.0839946104936743NN
fall0NN
relation0NN
lead0NN
grow0.0171695137813101VB
consensus0NN
change0.402565546215053NN
economic0JJ
reform0NN
leadership0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.331949261002517
WordScorePoS
cultural0JJ
economy0.0821985033584295NN
fall0NN
relation0NN
lead0.0504071033101074NN
grow0VB
consensus0NN
change0NN
economic0.128463821595706JJ
reform0NN
leadership0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.355213962175822
WordScorePoS
cultural0JJ
economy0.0465610847355851NN
fall0NN
relation0NN
lead0NN
grow0VB
consensus0NN
change0NN
economic0.0727679293221751JJ
reform0.0911713013253052NN
leadership0.0688661930304451NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.347369536242051
WordScorePoS
cultural0JJ
economy0NN
fall0NN
relation0.064698038783335NN
lead0NN
grow0.0405241466500776VB
consensus0.064698038783335NN
change0NN
economic0.103276847978089JJ
reform0NN
leadership0NN

These reforms were inspired by the widespread recognition of the failure of central planning as an instrument for economic organization and reflected the need to deliver on economic growth for the legitimacy of the new leadership

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.607008658543529
WordScorePoS
reform0NN
central0JJ
plan0NN
economic0.128463821595706JJ
organization0.0347609334428716NN
reflect0VB
deliver0VB
growth0.208565600657229NN
leadership0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.510014008712471
WordScorePoS
reform0NN
central0JJ
plan0.0344256159926965NN
economic0.103276847978089JJ
organization0.02794560829783NN
reflect0VB
deliver0.0396106020715138VB
growth0.11178243319132NN
leadership0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.370782853019838
WordScorePoS
reform0.0911713013253052NN
central0JJ
plan0NN
economic0.0727679293221751JJ
organization0NN
reflect0VB
deliver0VB
growth0NN
leadership0.0688661930304451NN

The political need for growth implied new focus on liberating markets Equity institutions and the development process and incentives

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.478116767317143
WordScorePoS
political0JJ
growth0.208565600657229NN
focus0.0410992516792148NN
market0.0252035516550537NN
institution0.0410992516792148NN
development0.0055149369084567NN
process0NN
incentive0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.462985152606417
WordScorePoS
political0JJ
growth0NN
focus0NN
market0NN
institution0.274477239401321NN
development0.0368309542451156NN
process0NN
incentive0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.487994057023888
WordScorePoS
political0.0792212041430275JJ
growth0.11178243319132NN
focus0NN
market0.0202620733250388NN
institution0.0991236547760315NN
development0.0177346522508396NN
process0NN
incentive0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.354017355995913
WordScorePoS
political0.0368585655748969JJ
growth0.0260040237236563NN
focus0.030745604615229NN
market0.0377086395700813NN
institution0NN
development0.0330049940546426NN
process0.0737171311497939NN
incentive0NN

The sequencing of reforms and the transitional institutional arrangements that accompanied the economic decentralization on the other hand reflected the premium the leadership placed on social and political stability

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.304361751337174
WordScorePoS
reform0NN
institutional0JJ
economic0.128463821595706JJ
reflect0VB
leadership0NN
social0.0504071033101074JJ
political0JJ
stability0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.634678603944288
WordScorePoS
reform0.0911713013253052NN
institutional0JJ
economic0.0727679293221751JJ
reflect0VB
leadership0.0688661930304451NN
social0.0285529457667019JJ
political0.111637082206855JJ
stability0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.482920449029632
WordScorePoS
reform0NN
institutional0JJ
economic0.103276847978089JJ
reflect0VB
leadership0NN
social0.101310366625194JJ
political0.0792212041430275JJ
stability0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.355602280861313
WordScorePoS
reform0NN
institutional0JJ
economic0.0959899298575892JJ
reflect0VB
leadership0NN
social0.112994637345193JJ
political0JJ
stability0NN

The impetus for economic decentralization on the one hand and the need for an integrated national market on the other helped to shape dynamic relationship between the central government and local governments that held them mutually accountable and limited discretion on both sides

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.453008911500796
WordScorePoS
economic0.0727679293221751JJ
integrate0VB
national0.0124956749436837JJ
market0NN
help0NN
central0JJ
government0NN
local0JJ
hold0.18234260265061NN
mutually0RB
accountable0JJ
limited0JJ

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.355788429644092
WordScorePoS
economic0.128463821595706JJ
integrate0.0295821503613099VB
national0.0055149369084567JJ
market0.0252035516550537NN
help0NN
central0JJ
government0NN
local0.0214106369326177JJ
hold0NN
mutually0RB
accountable0JJ
limited0JJ

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.324769108319368
WordScorePoS
economic0JJ
integrate0VB
national0.0294647633960925JJ
market0NN
help0NN
central0JJ
government0NN
local0JJ
hold0NN
mutually0RB
accountable0.162386273072618JJ
limited0JJ

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.39398594577209
WordScorePoS
economic0.0959899298575892JJ
integrate0VB
national0.0164833460638534JJ
market0NN
help0NN
central0JJ
government0NN
local0JJ
hold0NN
mutually0RB
accountable0JJ
limited0.120266261535276JJ

Over time the result of these policies was to create stake in new economic institutions for all the main actors including the local governments which served as credible check on the powers of the central government in the economic domain

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.47046959726754
WordScorePoS
time0NN
result0NN
policy0.0452169560888236NN
create0.0695218668857431VB
economic0.128463821595706JJ
institution0.0410992516792148NN
actor0NN
include0VB
local0.0214106369326177JJ
government0NN
serve0VB
credible0JJ
power0NN
central0JJ

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.31923570218831
WordScorePoS
time0NN
result0NN
policy0.0201317944152378NN
create0VB
economic0JJ
institution0.274477239401321NN
actor0NN
include0VB
local0JJ
government0NN
serve0VB
credible0JJ
power0NN
central0JJ

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.559113454847022
WordScorePoS
time0.0607862199751165NN
result0NN
policy0.0848203862485078NN
create0VB
economic0.103276847978089JJ
institution0.0991236547760315NN
actor0NN
include0VB
local0JJ
government0NN
serve0VB
credible0.064698038783335JJ
power0NN
central0JJ

The reforms also fueled the emergence of strong economic centers such as Guangdong province and the Shanghai municipality

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.376610236263996
WordScorePoS
reform0NN
fuel0NN
strong0JJ
economic0.128463821595706JJ

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.644251629072856
WordScorePoS
reform0.0911713013253052NN
fuel0.0558185411034276NN
strong0JJ
economic0.0727679293221751JJ

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.446039357612991
WordScorePoS
reform0NN
fuel0NN
strong0.0488696285210061JJ
economic0.103276847978089JJ

These centers now wield considerable influence and bargaining power relative to the central government and can serve as important countervailing forces

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

How did economic decentralization reinforce private incentives

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.414177330435879
WordScorePoS
economic0.128463821595706JJ
reinforce0VB
private0JJ
incentive0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.528101165450277
WordScorePoS
economic0JJ
reinforce0.036961556179878VB
private0.0898760357768464JJ
incentive0.036961556179878NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.414572759781796
WordScorePoS
economic0.0727679293221751JJ
reinforce0VB
private0.0558185411034276JJ
incentive0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.332972572823
WordScorePoS
economic0.103276847978089JJ
reinforce0VB
private0JJ
incentive0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.309478983291218
WordScorePoS
economic0.0959899298575892JJ
reinforce0VB
private0JJ
incentive0NN

According to Walder and Oi For almost years reform in China has proceeded through the gradual reassignment of specific property rights from higher government agencies to lower government agencies or from government agencies to enterprises managers families or individuals

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.617433300713995
WordScorePoS
reform0.0911713013253052NN
specific0JJ
property0.0558185411034276NN
rights0.078760887431929NNS
government0NN
agency0NN
enterprise0NN
family0.0465610847355851NN
individual0JJ

All of these reforms enhanced the power of economic agents to make decisions over economic activities in their respective domains and boosted productivity through better incentives

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.486040381225083
WordScorePoS
reform0NN
enhance0.0123650647908625VB
power0NN
economic0.128463821595706JJ
decision0NN
activity0.0295821503613099NN
respective0JJ
productivity0.0410992516792148NN
incentive0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.414732538793393
WordScorePoS
reform0.0911713013253052NN
enhance0.0140083044329373VB
power0NN
economic0.0727679293221751JJ
decision0.0393804437159645NN
activity0NN
respective0JJ
productivity0NN
incentive0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.379931261138639
WordScorePoS
reform0NN
enhance0.0185001613201543VB
power0.0454743001434393NN
economic0.0320338181740375JJ
decision0NN
activity0NN
respective0.0454743001434393JJ
productivity0.0922368138456871NN
incentive0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.375146304820464
WordScorePoS
reform0NN
enhance0.0184786920895884VB
power0NN
economic0.0959899298575892JJ
decision0.0519476926891779NN
activity0NN
respective0JJ
productivity0NN
incentive0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.349461111231111
WordScorePoS
reform0NN
enhance0.00994073584907126VB
power0NN
economic0.103276847978089JJ
decision0.02794560829783NN
activity0NN
respective0JJ
productivity0NN
incentive0NN

Farmers retained their earnings and therefore worked harder and invested more

Label: 2, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
farmer0.175025014152344NN
invest0.0583416713841148VB

Township and village governments had rights to the profits made by township and village enterprises TVEs and therefore adopted policies that promoted business

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.51931792683033
WordScorePoS
government0NN
rights0NNS
enterprise0.0909486002868787NN
adopt0VB
policy0.011275328195446NN
promote0.00825124851366066VB
business0.0909486002868787NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.434021294513242
WordScorePoS
government0NN
rights0.0347609334428716NNS
enterprise0.0607878664258118NN
adopt0VB
policy0.0452169560888236NN
promote0.0275746845422835VB
business0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.380837198052812
WordScorePoS
government0NN
rights0.078760887431929NNS
enterprise0NN
adopt0.0285529457667019VB
policy0.0341506708422088NN
promote0.00624783747184187VB
business0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.357008224521312
WordScorePoS
government0.048933054487825NN
rights0NNS
enterprise0NN
adopt0.0153248097886055VB
policy0.0641521854453136NN
promote0.0100599344419752VB
business0NN

But because they had no revenue authority they did not have the ability to bail out poorly performing TVEs which made for hard budget constraints and higher efficiency

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.556538763361652
WordScorePoS
revenue0NN
ability0NN
poorly0RB
constraint0NN
efficiency0.134992154141495NN

Higher levels of local governments country and province acquired control over local enterprises and therefore also had stake in their performance

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

They were allowed to retain more local revenues through fiscal contracting and to have extrabudgetary funds which generated incentives that focused on collection to provide local public goods that attracted local investments

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.681247300097717
WordScorePoS
local0.0130185595639838JJ
revenue0.0978661089756501NN
fiscal0JJ
fund0NN
generate0VB
incentive0.036961556179878NN
focus0NN
collection0.048933054487825NN
provide0.00601568197638796VB
public0.0390556786919513NN
attract0.048933054487825VB
investment0.0766240489430275NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.409189495933696
WordScorePoS
local0.0194583992186006JJ
revenue0NN
fiscal0JJ
fund0.055245183797332NN
generate0VB
incentive0NN
focus0.0373517915079663NN
collection0NN
provide0.0269743071558856VB
public0.0583751976558017NN
attract0VB
investment0NN

These changes provided for significant autonomy from the central government and considerable independent authority over their economies

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.63446944361461
WordScorePoS
significant0JJ
autonomy0NN
central0.0924643738905717JJ
government0NN
economy0.0625160381065121NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.484442366173879
WordScorePoS
significant0.0343390275626203JJ
autonomy0NN
central0JJ
government0NN
economy0.0839946104936743NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.336509872568656
WordScorePoS
significant0JJ
autonomy0NN
central0JJ
government0NN
economy0.0821985033584295NN

The modern Chinese system includes division of authority between the central and local governments

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.941714916346982
WordScorePoS
modern0.462321869452858JJ
system0NN
include0VB
central0.0924643738905717JJ
local0JJ
government0NN

The latter have primary control over economic matters within their jurisdictions

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.37087118860178
WordScorePoS
primary0JJ
control0NN
economic0.128463821595706JJ

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.624604371368286
WordScorePoS
primary0.0970239057629001JJ
control0.0465610847355851NN
economic0.0727679293221751JJ

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.454437297553199
WordScorePoS
primary0JJ
control0.0614198493690006NN
economic0.0959899298575892JJ

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.313016651900947
WordScorePoS
primary0.108423939529757JJ
control0NN
economic0JJ

Critically there is an important degree of political durability built into the system

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.591774190758166
WordScorePoS
degree0.164469921319675NN
political0JJ
build0VB
system0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.407904283782832
WordScorePoS
degree0NN
political0JJ
build0.0614198493690006VB
system0.0519476926891779NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.401677969147672
WordScorePoS
degree0NN
political0.111637082206855JJ
build0VB
system0NN

China reforms are also replete with innovative mechanisms for protecting potential losers during transitional periods

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.662444627198303
WordScorePoS
reform0NN
mechanism0.147846224719512NN
protect0VB
potential0NN
period0NN

This often involved designing reforms that sustained sources of income for incumbents by keeping important elements of pre existing pricing and payment mechanisms while providing incentives at the margin

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.541760855171531
WordScorePoS
involve0VB
reform0NN
sustained0JJ
source0.0109843026967392NN
income0.017987180284335NN
exist0.0599173571845643VB
mechanism0.147846224719512NN
provide0.00601568197638796VB
incentive0.036961556179878NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.417090969820381
WordScorePoS
involve0.0488696285210061VB
reform0NN
sustained0JJ
source0NN
income0.166475342664294NN
exist0VB
mechanism0NN
provide0VB
incentive0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.48802942948954
WordScorePoS
involve0VB
reform0NN
sustained0.120405991343299JJ
source0.0135141354781442NN
income0.110649350233433NN
exist0VB
mechanism0NN
provide0.00740117451847634VB
incentive0NN

The transitional institutions [were] not created solely for increasing the size of [the] pie [but also] to reflect the distributional concerns of how the enlarged pie is divided and the political concerns of how the interests of those in power are served

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.578679623175559
WordScorePoS
institution0.274477239401321NN
create0VB
increase0NN
size0NN
reflect0VB
political0JJ
power0NN
serve0VB

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.465540785713788
WordScorePoS
institution0.0991236547760315NN
create0VB
increase0.00285817158600878NN
size0.0396106020715138NN
reflect0VB
political0.0792212041430275JJ
power0NN
serve0VB

Dual pricing at the start of reforms is prime example

Label: 5, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
reform0.0911713013253052NN

The system obliged farmers and enterprises to sell specified quantities to the state at plan prices while allowing them to obtain market prices for any above quota production

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.84517676338365
WordScorePoS
system0.0756001353333673NN
farmer0.175025014152344NN
enterprise0NN
plan0NN
price0.0583416713841148NN
obtain0VB
market0.0913569596328122NN
quota0NN
production0.0548141757796873NN

This maintained the planning system for those who benefited from it while creating incentives for efficient production

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.561548110442723
WordScorePoS
maintain0VB
plan0.0144336476662975NN
system0NN
benefit0NN
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.5159263568171
WordScorePoS
maintain0.0881366997038154VB
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incentive0NN
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production0.0548141757796873NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.374223721558796
WordScorePoS
maintain0.055245183797332VB
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system0.0315914058171786NN
benefit0NN
create0.0315914058171786VB
incentive0NN
efficient0JJ
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Equally important it allowed time for market institutions to emerge avoiding the institutional vacuum that plagued many transition economies when state institutions were dismantled

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.78168804816849
WordScorePoS
time0NN
market0NN
institution0.274477239401321NN
emerge0VB
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institutional0JJ
economy0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.39770517062141
WordScorePoS
time0.0607862199751165NN
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institution0.0991236547760315NN
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Fiscal contracting guaranteed the central government certain level of revenues but it generated incentives for local governments to collect more because the marginal retention rate was much higher

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.647082762410174
WordScorePoS
fiscal0JJ
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central0JJ
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local0.0130185595639838JJ
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Similarly labor contracting allowed state workers to retain the guarantee of lifetime employment while introducing greater flexibility in labor policies for new contractual workers

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.900005345450224
WordScorePoS
worker0.121575732851624NN
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.342057072714278
WordScorePoS
worker0.0454743001434393NN
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These arrangements made reforms win win game ensuring social stability and the support of those in power

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.495544925671055
WordScorePoS
reform0NN
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.42625807217515
WordScorePoS
reform0NN
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stability0.048933054487825NN
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.419472497973239
WordScorePoS
reform0.0911713013253052NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.349542726144949
WordScorePoS
reform0NN
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But there is danger in such strategy of incrementalism getting stuck in incomplete WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT reforms if local governments and incumbents acquire too much power and are able to block further progress

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.511074494047638
WordScorePoS
strategy0.017987180284335NN
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local0.0130185595639838JJ
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The prevalence of interprovincial barriers to trade in the with each province vying to boost profits for the enterprises it owned is an example

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.601034088900706
WordScorePoS
prevalence0NN
barrier0.0368585655748969NN
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enterprise0.0909486002868787NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.564094673468422
WordScorePoS
prevalence0NN
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trade0.0591643007226199NN
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But there are some checks and balances in the system that help maintain the direction and momentum of reforms

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.726473259426591
WordScorePoS
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.404511986718917
WordScorePoS
system0NN
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Label: 11, with a score of: 0.385279587701918
WordScorePoS
system0.0315914058171786NN
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.31088523419139
WordScorePoS
system0.0211360962287062NN
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These include competition among local governments hard budget constraints for local governments the central government insistence on enforcing unitary market and growing economy that reduces the economic influence of incumbents

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.464192325915596
WordScorePoS
include0VB
local0.0214106369326177JJ
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The struggle for the right balance between economic centralization and decentralization is constantly evident in many of China domains of intergovernmental relations

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.473990157013208
WordScorePoS
economic0.128463821595706JJ
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.619773271270831
WordScorePoS
economic0.103276847978089JJ
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The tax reforms recentralized fiscal revenues in part to ensure greater regional equity in spending and the central government continues to apply strict controls on deficit financing by local governments

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.667442038694638
WordScorePoS
tax0.036961556179878NN
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Constraints on labor mobility have eased considerably over time helping to create more unified labor market despite concerns by some provincial governments that this might aggravate problems of unemployment for established urban residents

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.630390280383764
WordScorePoS
constraint0NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.398561094801296
WordScorePoS
constraint0NN
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There are also some more recent and more permanent institutional changes that reconfirm the government commitment to market oriented reform

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.662041680154072
WordScorePoS
institutional0.036961556179878JJ
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Label: 13, with a score of: 0.431816483211573
WordScorePoS
institutional0.0828215106044499JJ
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.367331142100553
WordScorePoS
institutional0JJ
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.317545854433482
WordScorePoS
institutional0JJ
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.31690052838359
WordScorePoS
institutional0JJ
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These include mechanisms that strengthen accountability at the local level and empower local populations

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.624999838483929
WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.335753092601746
WordScorePoS
include0VB
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Local elections are the most important of these mechanisms but others include for example recent regulations to eliminate nuisance taxes on the rural population

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.509590235219416
WordScorePoS
local0.0130185595639838JJ
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.42440606825219
WordScorePoS
local0.0155217067874935JJ
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.591953281014627
WordScorePoS
local0JJ
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China has also successfully used the external commitment device of WTO accession to signal its resolve to move ahead with market reforms and impose discipline on incumbents

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.660459971531801
WordScorePoS
external0.048933054487825JJ
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For example it is no longer possible for every province to have its own inefficient automobile factory erected behind trade barriers designed to provide local employment and local taxes

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.641427490640758
WordScorePoS
inefficient0JJ
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.344857004865398
WordScorePoS
inefficient0JJ
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barrier0.0368585655748969NN
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More broadly China desire to carve for itself an important place in the global order and to be recognized as responsible global power places constraints on the shape of its future policies

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.478393600850221
WordScorePoS
global0.0133009891881297JJ
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.417795368469192
WordScorePoS
global0JJ
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Qian notes the following There is apparently larger room than we thought for institutional innovation to simultaneously address both the economic and political concerns that is to make reform efficiency improving and interest compatible for those in power

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.422406654560276
WordScorePoS
institutional0JJ
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Label: 7, with a score of: 0.261267133307067
WordScorePoS
institutional0JJ
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.465905305966776
WordScorePoS
institutional0JJ
innovation0.122982418460916NN
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.455924839724849
WordScorePoS
institutional0JJ
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.321979512014766
WordScorePoS
institutional0JJ
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But there are many challenges ahead some of which will not be amenable to win win solutions and therefore are likely to be politically and socially more costly

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.607147342046823
WordScorePoS
challenge0.0947742174515357NN
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Label: 13, with a score of: 0.581752580344808
WordScorePoS
challenge0.0236803262479443NN
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Continued reforms in the state enterprise and financial sectors managing rural urban migration and addressing increasing regional disparities see focus on regional inequality are some of these challenges

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.801836436207226
WordScorePoS
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Label: 11, with a score of: 0.427402921564426
WordScorePoS
continue0.0537696560159885VB
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.199430734786183
WordScorePoS
continue0VB
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Macroeconomic policy and structural reforms will need to be underpinned by further institutional improvement to ensure broader participation and accountability so that the interests and desire of the people are better reflected in decision making and to further strengthen the government capacity to lead market oriented reform while maintaining economic and social equity

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.39491202693766
WordScorePoS
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.410415943632665
WordScorePoS
macroeconomic0JJ
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.408640197816625
WordScorePoS
macroeconomic0JJ
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.348469215600821
WordScorePoS
macroeconomic0.048933054487825JJ
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.344296532004883
WordScorePoS
macroeconomic0JJ
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Conclusion few simple principles go long way toward unifying different development experiences in the historic and the contemporary worlds

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.819411024630401
WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.448726147634249
WordScorePoS
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There is little disagreement among scholars that basic institutions such as security of property rights and equality before the law are keys to prosperity

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.606696366336954
WordScorePoS
basic0JJ
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.507535377457886
WordScorePoS
basic0JJ
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.3467413741511
WordScorePoS
basic0.0639932865717261JJ
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These institutions lie behind the capital financial land and labor markets that we saw in action in chapter

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.633256910032651
WordScorePoS
institution0.274477239401321NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.356310453887407
WordScorePoS
institution0.0991236547760315NN
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Label: 15, with a score of: 0.337415700418937
WordScorePoS
institution0NN
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financial0.00794883334420673JJ
land0.123873694868802NN
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.319652638618714
WordScorePoS
institution0NN
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land0.0465651203624806NN
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Because talent and ideas are widely distributed in the population prosperous modern society requires the mass of people to have incentives and state that can and will provide key complementary inputs and public goods

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.672384228735703
WordScorePoS
idea0NN
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modern0.462321869452858JJ
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.348613034074409
WordScorePoS
idea0NN
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It therefore requires an underlying set of institutions that generate the equality of opportunity for individuals and assure the accountability of politicians to all

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.487952463733706
WordScorePoS
require0VB
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institution0.274477239401321NN
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.367479330769863
WordScorePoS
require0VB
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.488488690018078
WordScorePoS
require0VB
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institution0.0991236547760315NN
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.43074934111751
WordScorePoS
require0.104282800328615VB
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.342973370860721
WordScorePoS
require0.0211360962287062VB
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Why do some societies have such institutions and not others

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.913867044658452
WordScorePoS
society0.118536858482514NN
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A relatively egalitarian distribution of political power underpins the institutions that promote prosperity

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.738893478398035
WordScorePoS
political0JJ
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.466423278746965
WordScorePoS
political0.0792212041430275JJ
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Institutions clearly have distributional effects and bad institutions often Equity institutions and the development process arise because they benefit some group or elite

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.880817160390244
WordScorePoS
institution0.274477239401321NN
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arise0VB
benefit0NN

Good institutions arise when checks are placed on the power of elites and when the balance of political power becomes more equal in society

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.699946749094497
WordScorePoS
institution0.274477239401321NN
arise0VB
power0NN
political0JJ
equal0.033663879505068JJ
society0.118536858482514NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.425472621041483
WordScorePoS
institution0NN
arise0VB
power0NN
political0.111637082206855JJ
equal0.114211783066808JJ
society0.0335134328085675NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.364819729782277
WordScorePoS
institution0.0991236547760315NN
arise0VB
power0NN
political0.0792212041430275JJ
equal0.0202620733250388JJ
society0.0237821918091848NN

Often equality of political power is supported by economic equality and this connection gives rise to the possibility of both virtuous and vicious circles

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.747984335521626
WordScorePoS
equality0.18624433894234NN
political0.111637082206855JJ
power0NN
support0NN
economic0.0727679293221751JJ
rise0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.205760413442678
WordScorePoS
equality0NN
political0JJ
power0NN
support0.024730129581725NN
economic0.128463821595706JJ
rise0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.365820303638214
WordScorePoS
equality0.0330412182586772NN
political0.0792212041430275JJ
power0NN
support0NN
economic0.103276847978089JJ
rise0.0237821918091848NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.318737507599213
WordScorePoS
equality0.0614198493690006NN
political0JJ
power0NN
support0.0184786920895884NN
economic0.0959899298575892JJ
rise0NN

Growth certainly can occur in societies in which these conditions do not apply

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.871124727599914
WordScorePoS
growth0.208565600657229NN
occur0VB
society0.0591643007226199NN
condition0.121575732851624NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.303344433375278
WordScorePoS
growth0.11178243319132NN
occur0VB
society0.0237821918091848NN
condition0NN

But the preponderance of evidence suggests that such growth is unsustainable

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.71003923499196
WordScorePoS
evidence0.12939607756667NN
suggest0VB
growth0.11178243319132NN
unsustainable0JJ

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.614025516082973
WordScorePoS
evidence0NN
suggest0VB
growth0.208565600657229NN
unsustainable0JJ

This perspective is consistent with historical narratives basic patterns in cross country data and more careful causal empirical work on the sources of prosperity

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

The crucial question for the promotion of development is this how can poor societies improve their institutions and move onto dynamic path toward virtuous circle of equity and prosperity

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.743895491211737
WordScorePoS
crucial0JJ
promotion0.0548954478802642NN
development0.0368309542451156NN
poor0JJ
society0.118536858482514NN
improve0VB
institution0.274477239401321NN
move0NN
prosperity0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.256501822764026
WordScorePoS
crucial0JJ
promotion0NN
development0.0164833460638534NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
society0NN
improve0VB
institution0NN
move0NN
prosperity0NN

The organization of society is highly persistent but we have seen many cases of transitions to better institutions

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.853343998227279
WordScorePoS
organization0NN
society0.118536858482514NN
highly0RB
persistent0JJ
institution0.274477239401321NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.327540880445336
WordScorePoS
organization0.02794560829783NN
society0.0237821918091848NN
highly0RB
persistent0JJ
institution0.0991236547760315NN

Sometimes as in early modern Britain economic changes lead to changes in the distribution of power which promotes more equitable society and better institutions

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.607658932243847
WordScorePoS
modern0.462321869452858JJ
economic0JJ
lead0.0383371018038178NN
power0NN
promote0.00838876601975825VB
equitable0JJ
society0NN
institution0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.495527047079191
WordScorePoS
modern0JJ
economic0JJ
lead0NN
power0NN
promote0.0220985725470694VB
equitable0JJ
society0.118536858482514NN
institution0.274477239401321NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.438687446092226
WordScorePoS
modern0.0607878664258118JJ
economic0.128463821595706JJ
lead0.0504071033101074NN
power0NN
promote0.0275746845422835VB
equitable0JJ
society0.0591643007226199NN
institution0.0410992516792148NN

Contemporary China follows similar pattern albeit with different configuration of institutions

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.886291953497293
WordScorePoS
pattern0NN
institution0.274477239401321NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.320072067982251
WordScorePoS
pattern0NN
institution0.0991236547760315NN

In other times as in the Republic of Korea and Indonesia regimes are forced by external or internal threats to change the trajectory of their society in ways that become institutionalized

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.778606448274143
WordScorePoS
time0NN
regime0NN
force0NN
external0JJ
threat0NN
change0.402565546215053NN
society0NN

In still other times such as Mauritius and Botswana leaders make good decisions that lead to reinforcing paths of better institutions and development

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.819558439941306
WordScorePoS
time0NN
decision0.0464294830712827NN
lead0NN
reinforce0.0811931365363091VB
institution0.274477239401321NN
development0.0368309542451156NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.383871729816622
WordScorePoS
time0.0607862199751165NN
decision0.02794560829783NN
lead0NN
reinforce0VB
institution0.0991236547760315NN
development0.0177346522508396NN

focus on Indonesia Growth equity and poverty reduction in an East Asian giant ndonesia presents an illuminating example of the long term interactions of the three basic themes of this report on equity and development The importance of market driven processes in determining the distribution of opportunities and incomes

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.48768076432657
WordScorePoS
focus0NN
growth0.11178243319132NN
poverty0.05809266143877NN
reduction0.0475643836183697NN
term0.0396106020715138NN
basic0JJ
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development0.0177346522508396NN
market0.0202620733250388NN
drive0NN
process0NN
determine0VB
opportunity0.029046330719385NN
income0.166475342664294NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.443972845699032
WordScorePoS
focus0NN
growth0.0519476926891779NN
poverty0.269969049497485NN
reduction0NN
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determine0VB
opportunity0NN
income0.0442083771593746NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.407769736088301
WordScorePoS
focus0.0410992516792148NN
growth0.208565600657229NN
poverty0.0722601961736204NN
reduction0NN
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development0.0055149369084567NN
market0.0252035516550537NN
drive0NN
process0NN
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opportunity0.0361300980868102NN
income0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.254851796639069
WordScorePoS
focus0NN
growth0NN
poverty0.0109843026967392NN
reduction0NN
term0.149793392961411NN
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development0.0469463607292177NN
market0.030649619577211NN
drive0NN
process0NN
determine0VB
opportunity0NN
income0.017987180284335NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.37119663122036
WordScorePoS
focus0.030745604615229NN
growth0.0260040237236563NN
poverty0NN
reduction0NN
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basic0.0480507272610562JJ
report0NN
development0.0330049940546426NN
market0.0377086395700813NN
drive0NN
process0.0737171311497939NN
determine0VB
opportunity0.0135141354781442NN
income0.110649350233433NN

The role of political processes and the engagement of the poor in these processes in determining the policy framework for market and asset accumulation

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.401825741581037
WordScorePoS
political0JJ
process0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
determine0VB
policy0.0450489732120807NN
framework0.0319966432858631NN
market0NN
asset0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.454271381519864
WordScorePoS
political0.111637082206855JJ
process0.0558185411034276NN
poor0JJ
determine0VB
policy0.0341506708422088NN
framework0NN
market0NN
asset0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.411657919977161
WordScorePoS
political0.0368585655748969JJ
process0.0737171311497939NN
poor0JJ
determine0VB
policy0.011275328195446NN
framework0NN
market0.0377086395700813NN
asset0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.411475270025893
WordScorePoS
political0.0792212041430275JJ
process0NN
poor0JJ
determine0VB
policy0.0848203862485078NN
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market0.0202620733250388NN
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The overriding dominance of institutions in determining the long run conditions of governance for markets and politics to operate

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.801248307509345
WordScorePoS
institution0.274477239401321NN
determine0VB
condition0NN
governance0.107490825192354NN
market0NN
operate0VB

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.394109804170189
WordScorePoS
institution0.0410992516792148NN
determine0VB
condition0.121575732851624NN
governance0NN
market0.0252035516550537NN
operate0VB

These complex interactions require long periods of developmental evolution to observe and identify

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.637843016563769
WordScorePoS
require0.104282800328615VB
period0NN
identify0VB

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.537309462279327
WordScorePoS
require0.0468670845659596VB
period0.0409791940864438NN
identify0VB

Indonesia has substantial variance across all three of these themes

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.775497817170071
WordScorePoS
substantial0.0736315832425121JJ

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.525570933695138
WordScorePoS
substantial0.0499016491051341JJ

There is enough independence in the variance for each factor to sort out if only roughly what is driving what

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

In chapter the political dimension of the economic performance of the Suharto regime was discussed

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.584099217055902
WordScorePoS
political0JJ
dimension0.181686110904276NN
economic0.0959899298575892JJ
performance0NN
regime0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.270227195000996
WordScorePoS
political0JJ
dimension0NN
economic0.128463821595706JJ
performance0NN
regime0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.622782413776233
WordScorePoS
political0.0792212041430275JJ
dimension0.0488696285210061NN
economic0.103276847978089JJ
performance0.064698038783335NN
regime0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.38790103229563
WordScorePoS
political0.111637082206855JJ
dimension0NN
economic0.0727679293221751JJ
performance0NN
regime0NN

Here we discuss the connections with policy choices

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.549836278239952
WordScorePoS
policy0.0848203862485078NN
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.415857560267016
WordScorePoS
policy0.0641521854453136NN
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.397373414042442
WordScorePoS
policy0.0203215381458133NN
choice0.0409791940864438NN

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.334587317541076
WordScorePoS
policy0NN
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Because Indonesia has been so important to the development profession it has been studied for long time

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.512491870471921
WordScorePoS
development0.0106357666046841NN
study0.0517339898971162NN
time0.016202004209163NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.512159945431285
WordScorePoS
development0.0177346522508396NN
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.338257365122037
WordScorePoS
development0.0330049940546426NN
study0NN
time0.0188543197850406NN

The Dutch exploited the Netherlands East Indies from the seventeenth century to early in the twentieth century

Label: 13, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
century0.219293228426234NN

Then under political pressure at home the Dutch experimented with an Ethical Policy for the colony and the poor benefited significantly

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.506999241431574
WordScorePoS
political0JJ
pressure0NN
policy0.0450489732120807NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
benefit0NN
significantly0RB

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.479693729455985
WordScorePoS
political0.111637082206855JJ
pressure0NN
policy0.0341506708422088NN
poor0JJ
benefit0.0393804437159645NN
significantly0RB

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.424963485390858
WordScorePoS
political0.0792212041430275JJ
pressure0NN
policy0.0848203862485078NN
poor0JJ
benefit0NN
significantly0RB

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.321446296717956
WordScorePoS
political0JJ
pressure0.0440683498519077NN
policy0NN
poor0.0548141757796873JJ
benefit0.0252000451111224NN
significantly0RB

During the Great Depression World War II and the fight for Independence the Indonesian economy deteriorated rapidly and the poor suffered disproportionately

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.527220417534133
WordScorePoS
world0.00257343720272548NN
fight0NN
economy0NN
rapidly0RB
poor0.150659516460257JJ
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Java was the original home of the dual economy analyzed by Boeke and formalized by Lewis

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.595603436614057
WordScorePoS
economy0.0839946104936743NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.582867291092443
WordScorePoS
economy0.0821985033584295NN

After declaring independence in President Sukarno eventually put politics in command in and produced ruinous inflation that brought much of the population to near starvation in the mid s

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

It was with just cause that Gunnar Myrdal pronounced in Asian Drama that no economist holds out any hope for Indonesia

Label: 5, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
hold0.18234260265061NN

Indonesia rapid pro poor growth for the years after the fall of Sukarno astonished the development profession and along with other countries in East and Southeast Asia Indonesia became the object of intense analysis

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.514205775054364
WordScorePoS
rapid0JJ
poor0.150659516460257JJ
growth0.0519476926891779NN
fall0NN
development0.0164833460638534NN
country0NN
asia0IN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.50244725810226
WordScorePoS
rapid0JJ
poor0JJ
growth0.208565600657229NN
fall0NN
development0.0055149369084567NN
country0NN
asia0IN

In Indonesia the weak starting conditions significantly influenced how the economic planners approached the task of linking growth to the poor

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.706920417012954
WordScorePoS
condition0.121575732851624NN
significantly0RB
influence0NN
economic0.128463821595706JJ
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.460274839208021
WordScorePoS
condition0NN
significantly0RB
influence0NN
economic0.0959899298575892JJ
approach0NN
growth0.0519476926891779NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.349549003802153
WordScorePoS
condition0.0409791940864438NN
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influence0.0542519672965169NN
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approach0.0542519672965169NN
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poor0.0339811641917276JJ

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.331504770573552
WordScorePoS
condition0NN
significantly0RB
influence0NN
economic0.103276847978089JJ
approach0NN
growth0.11178243319132NN
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They designed three tiered strategy for propoor growth which connected sound macroeconomic policy to market activities that were facilitated by progressively lower transaction costs

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.52226084359533
WordScorePoS
strategy0.0295821503613099NN
growth0.208565600657229NN
sound0NN
macroeconomic0JJ
policy0.0452169560888236NN
market0.0252035516550537NN
activity0.0295821503613099NN
facilitate0VB
progressively0RB
transaction0NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.580086419740405
WordScorePoS
strategy0NN
growth0.11178243319132NN
sound0NN
macroeconomic0JJ
policy0.0848203862485078NN
market0.0202620733250388NN
activity0NN
facilitate0.02794560829783VB
progressively0RB
transaction0.064698038783335NN
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.315061573045681
WordScorePoS
strategy0.017987180284335NN
growth0NN
sound0.0211360962287062NN
macroeconomic0.048933054487825JJ
policy0.0641521854453136NN
market0.030649619577211NN
activity0NN
facilitate0.0211360962287062VB
progressively0RB
transaction0NN
cost0NN

Those policies were linked to household decisions about labor supply agricultural production and investment in the nontradable economy

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.539477662786698
WordScorePoS
policy0NN
household0.0297950283197006NN
decision0NN
supply0NN
agricultural0.250032943963815JJ
production0.0548141757796873NN
investment0.0182713919265625NN
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.405042268308997
WordScorePoS
policy0.0203215381458133NN
household0.0554128417527413NN
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supply0.0703006268489394NN
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production0.118934074671047NN
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.340079273416369
WordScorePoS
policy0.0341506708422088NN
household0.0465610847355851NN
decision0.0393804437159645NN
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agricultural0.0558185411034276JJ
production0NN
investment0NN
economy0.0465610847355851NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.310353787194026
WordScorePoS
policy0.0452169560888236NN
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decision0NN
supply0NN
agricultural0JJ
production0.0504071033101074NN
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economy0.0821985033584295NN

The extent to which the poor benefited from growth depended on the array of assets they controlled their labor human capital social capital and other forms of capital including access to credit

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.575250070338302
WordScorePoS
extent0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
benefit0NN
growth0.0519476926891779NN
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array0NN
asset0NN
control0.0614198493690006NN
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form0.0884167543187491NN
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.411529776565373
WordScorePoS
extent0NN
poor0JJ
benefit0NN
growth0.208565600657229NN
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array0NN
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human0.0150723186962745JJ
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form0.0591643007226199NN
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access0.00344404437204141NN
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.300888019550736
WordScorePoS
extent0NN
poor0JJ
benefit0NN
growth0NN
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array0NN
asset0.0811931365363091NN
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form0.158049144643351NN
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access0.00690021170452351NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.321918836618434
WordScorePoS
extent0NN
poor0JJ
benefit0NN
growth0.11178243319132NN
depend0VB
array0NN
asset0.0488696285210061NN
control0NN
human0JJ
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access0.00138439773401932NN
credit0NN

Appropriate government policies also influence those dimensions especially in health and education

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.489966448565192
WordScorePoS
government0NN
policy0.0450489732120807NN
influence0NN
dimension0.181686110904276NN
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Label: 4, with a score of: 0.480109325834893
WordScorePoS
government0NN
policy0NN
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education0.244244978014045NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.406206037795734
WordScorePoS
government0NN
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health0.191387734041787NN
education0.0152605842304358NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.366269243680169
WordScorePoS
government0NN
policy0.0848203862485078NN
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dimension0.0488696285210061NN
health0.0405241466500776NN
education0.0121171980355011NN

The road to pro poor growth started from desperately poor economic conditions weak institutions and decade of political instability

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.543483354781771
WordScorePoS
road0NN
poor0JJ
growth0.208565600657229NN
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decade0NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.488615891628604
WordScorePoS
road0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
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economic0.0959899298575892JJ
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.29852410516287
WordScorePoS
road0NN
poor0JJ
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institution0.274477239401321NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.427870154710953
WordScorePoS
road0NN
poor0JJ
growth0.11178243319132NN
economic0.103276847978089JJ
condition0NN
institution0.0991236547760315NN
decade0NN
political0.0792212041430275JJ

The key was to focus on restarting and then sustaining rapid economic growth empowering poor households to enter the market economy and reducing the costs and risks of doing so by investments to lower transaction costs

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.49179949019912
WordScorePoS
key0NN
focus0.0410992516792148NN
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rapid0JJ
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growth0.208565600657229NN
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reduce0.0055149369084567VB
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.351937765553868
WordScorePoS
key0NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.518083892568585
WordScorePoS
key0NN
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sustain0.0396106020715138VB
rapid0JJ
economic0.103276847978089JJ
growth0.11178243319132NN
empower0.0396106020715138VB
poor0JJ
household0.0330412182586772NN
enter0VB
market0.0202620733250388NN
economy0NN
reduce0.0310356414389692VB
cost0.0660824365173543NN
risk0NN
investment0.0202620733250388NN
transaction0.064698038783335NN

The strategy worked for three decades between and income per capita increased by percent year

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.508590002565066
WordScorePoS
strategy0NN
decade0NN
income0.166475342664294NN
capita0NN
increase0.00285817158600878NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.477301908130436
WordScorePoS
strategy0.0201523636533764NN
decade0.124232265906675NN
income0NN
capita0NN
increase0.0145316075945746NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.380261462010632
WordScorePoS
strategy0NN
decade0NN
income0.110649350233433NN
capita0NN
increase0.0159575617614215NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.310122797129273
WordScorePoS
strategy0NN
decade0.055245183797332NN
income0NN
capita0.04477822029736NN
increase0.00323105002784081NN

The incomes of the bottom quintile of the income distribution all individuals below the national poverty line until the and all still subsisting on less than day grew at the same rate or possibly slightly faster

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.663065631601048
WordScorePoS
income0.0442083771593746NN
bottom0NN
quintile0NN
individual0JJ
national0.0164833460638534JJ
poverty0.269969049497485NN
line0NN
day0.25973846344589NN
grow0VB
rate0.0639932865717261NN
slightly0RB
faster0RBR

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.618590029179674
WordScorePoS
income0.166475342664294NN
bottom0.064698038783335NN
quintile0.064698038783335NN
individual0.064698038783335JJ
national0.00886732612541978JJ
poverty0.05809266143877NN
line0NN
day0NN
grow0.0405241466500776VB
rate0.0172128079963482NN
slightly0RB
faster0RBR

The distribution of household expenditures had been remarkably stable with the overall Gini coefficient staying within narrow range between

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Rural inequality had actually declined significantly since the when access to land allowed substantial benefits to be reaped from the green revolution

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.866413166737182
WordScorePoS
rural0.0330412182586772JJ
inequality0.635305170773079NN
decline0.02794560829783NN
significantly0RB
access0.00138439773401932NN
land0NN
substantial0JJ
benefit0NN
green0JJ

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.283429415714858
WordScorePoS
rural0.148975141598503JJ
inequality0NN
decline0NN
significantly0RB
access0.00749031153171887NN
land0.0465651203624806NN
substantial0JJ
benefit0.0252000451111224NN
green0JJ

By the mid the labor market had become the primary determinant of income in rural areas

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.695776098594854
WordScorePoS
market0.0913569596328122NN
primary0.0155217067874935JJ
income0.0643370113878709NN
rural0.148975141598503JJ

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.477579966143137
WordScorePoS
market0.0202620733250388NN
primary0JJ
income0.166475342664294NN
rural0.0330412182586772JJ

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.357187398654668
WordScorePoS
market0.0377086395700813NN
primary0.0160169090870187JJ
income0.110649350233433NN
rural0JJ

But when the Asian financial crisis hit in and President Suharto was forced to resign in the face of widespread rioting in the country was entirely unprepared in political or institutional terms to cope with the rapid changes needed in corporate and public governance

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.516317088089854
WordScorePoS
financial0.0150369494376999JJ
force0NN
country0NN
political0JJ
institutional0.036961556179878JJ
term0.149793392961411NN
rapid0JJ
public0.0390556786919513NN
governance0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.525163967426708
WordScorePoS
financial0.0140083044329373JJ
force0.0465610847355851NN
country0NN
political0.111637082206855JJ
institutional0JJ
term0NN
rapid0JJ
public0.0727679293221751NN
governance0NN

The crisis sharply lowered inequality as urban real estate and financial markets collapsed

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.914537480720669
WordScorePoS
inequality0.635305170773079NN
urban0.0488696285210061JJ
financial0.0298222075472138JJ
market0.0202620733250388NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.358042791459293
WordScorePoS
inequality0NN
urban0.27622591898666JJ
financial0.0112376090361851JJ
market0NN

But the dramatic reduction in GDP over percent in alone caused poverty rates to triple

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.81351699354023
WordScorePoS
reduction0NN
gdp0NN
cause0NN
poverty0.269969049497485NN
rate0.0639932865717261NN
triple0RB

Only after did poverty rates return to the previous lows observed in

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.833644304291363
WordScorePoS
poverty0.269969049497485NN
rate0.0639932865717261NN
return0NN
previous0JJ

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.411093759813277
WordScorePoS
poverty0NN
rate0.0571955184484387NN
return0.107490825192354NN
previous0JJ

By they still had not returned to the trend rate of decline disrupted in

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.743237721452499
WordScorePoS
return0.107490825192354NN
rate0.0571955184484387NN
decline0NN
disrupt0VB

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.354505827966642
WordScorePoS
return0NN
rate0.0433561464459019NN
decline0.0351951258079907NN
disrupt0VB

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.354290831226461
WordScorePoS
return0NN
rate0NN
decline0.0236803262479443NN
disrupt0.0548233071065585VB

Explaining these trends in per capita incomes and their distribution requires an understanding of how markets politics and institutions jointly shaped the rapid pro poor growth strategy its subsequent collapse and current efforts to revive it

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.53046317152189
WordScorePoS
capita0.049270765107907NN
income0NN
require0.104282800328615VB
market0.0252035516550537NN
institution0.0410992516792148NN
jointly0RB
rapid0JJ
poor0JJ
growth0.208565600657229NN
strategy0.0295821503613099NN
current0JJ
effort0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.460553137253362
WordScorePoS
capita0NN
income0.166475342664294NN
require0VB
market0.0202620733250388NN
institution0.0991236547760315NN
jointly0RB
rapid0JJ
poor0JJ
growth0.11178243319132NN
strategy0NN
current0JJ
effort0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.337065733647142
WordScorePoS
capita0NN
income0.0442083771593746NN
require0VB
market0NN
institution0NN
jointly0RB
rapid0JJ
poor0.150659516460257JJ
growth0.0519476926891779NN
strategy0.0442083771593746NN
current0JJ
effort0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.317901216675453
WordScorePoS
capita0NN
income0NN
require0VB
market0NN
institution0.274477239401321NN
jointly0RB
rapid0JJ
poor0JJ
growth0NN
strategy0NN
current0JJ
effort0NN

Any such explanation is bound to be controversial and there is no formal model behind the story about to be told

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

But the story is plausible and anchored in the historical record

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.726499988894744
WordScorePoS
historical0.0517339898971162JJ
record0NN

The story begins with two concerns of the emerging Suharto government in the late s

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

The first was the misery and discontent of the rural masses who had supported Sukarno communist leanings and populist rhetoric

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.838744677623128
WordScorePoS
rural0.148975141598503JJ
support0.00896409157262106NN

After decade of active discrimination against their livelihoods Focus on Indonesia rural households were near starvation and thus an obvious source of opposition unless the new government could incorporate them in its development plans

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.472574917097796
WordScorePoS
decade0NN
active0JJ
discrimination0NN
livelihood0.0504000902222448NN
focus0NN
rural0.148975141598503JJ
household0.0297950283197006NN
source0.0130963126055467NN
government0NN
development0.0159922815774215NN
plan0NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.362947282315493
WordScorePoS
decade0.055245183797332NN
active0JJ
discrimination0NN
livelihood0NN
focus0.0373517915079663NN
rural0.0373517915079663JJ
household0NN
source0NN
government0NN
development0.0100241617629471NN
plan0.0583751976558017NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.354457090917471
WordScorePoS
decade0.124232265906675NN
active0JJ
discrimination0NN
livelihood0NN
focus0.0279982034978914NN
rural0JJ
household0NN
source0.0123065238088614NN
government0NN
development0NN
plan0.0291713033871158NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.312344095189945
WordScorePoS
decade0NN
active0JJ
discrimination0.111637082206855NN
livelihood0NN
focus0NN
rural0JJ
household0.0465610847355851NN
source0NN
government0NN
development0.0124956749436837NN
plan0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.309353544295964
WordScorePoS
decade0NN
active0JJ
discrimination0.0736315832425121NN
livelihood0.0519476926891779NN
focus0NN
rural0JJ
household0NN
source0.0269969049497485NN
government0NN
development0.0164833460638534NN
plan0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.308906704157258
WordScorePoS
decade0NN
active0.048933054487825JJ
discrimination0NN
livelihood0NN
focus0NN
rural0JJ
household0NN
source0.0109843026967392NN
government0.048933054487825NN
development0.0469463607292177NN
plan0.0130185595639838NN

Second the hyperinflation of the mid the total disintegration of the market economy and the political chaos meant the entire population was ready for more stable life

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.482982417993325
WordScorePoS
total0NN
market0.0252035516550537NN
economy0.0821985033584295NN
political0JJ
population0.0428212738652355NN
ready0JJ
stable0.0607878664258118JJ
life0.0123650647908625NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.424789581715562
WordScorePoS
total0NN
market0NN
economy0.0465610847355851NN
political0.111637082206855JJ
population0.024255976440725NN
ready0JJ
stable0JJ
life0.0140083044329373NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.40118897145029
WordScorePoS
total0NN
market0.0202620733250388NN
economy0NN
political0.0792212041430275JJ
population0.0860640399817412NN
ready0JJ
stable0JJ
life0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.319140480309122
WordScorePoS
total0.0252000451111224NN
market0.0913569596328122NN
economy0NN
political0JJ
population0.0310434135749871NN
ready0JJ
stable0JJ
life0NN

A strategy that promised stability and rural recovery would win wide support as it would throughout densely settled East and Southeast Asia

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.590329801455097
WordScorePoS
strategy0NN
stability0NN
rural0.148975141598503JJ
recovery0NN
wide0JJ
support0.00896409157262106NN
asia0IN

This is the message that Suharto delivered to his technocrats

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

This economic team had engaged Suharto and other senior military officials in economic training exercises at the Military College

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.554818290190746
WordScorePoS
economic0.128463821595706JJ
engage0VB
official0NN
training0.0410992516792148NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.475505850647423
WordScorePoS
economic0.103276847978089JJ
engage0VB
official0.0488696285210061NN
training0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.313798266931757
WordScorePoS
economic0.0433009429988926JJ
engage0.0819583881728876VB
official0NN
training0NN

The technocrats were handed the macroeconomic portfolio and told to deliver on what became known in Indonesia as the development trilogy growth equity and stability

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.616678889222691
WordScorePoS
macroeconomic0JJ
deliver0VB
development0.0055149369084567NN
growth0.208565600657229NN
stability0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.5034445392636
WordScorePoS
macroeconomic0.048933054487825JJ
deliver0.0299586785922821VB
development0.0469463607292177NN
growth0NN
stability0.048933054487825NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.487188025864953
WordScorePoS
macroeconomic0JJ
deliver0.0396106020715138VB
development0.0177346522508396NN
growth0.11178243319132NN
stability0NN

To many in the political and military arena stability meant repressive measures to stifle dissent but to the technocrats it meant restraining inflation which they did in spectacular fashion in just three years and stabilizing the rice economy which was still quarter of GDP and providing half the average Indonesian daily calories

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.633292561463181
WordScorePoS
political0JJ
stability0NN
measure0.0710409787438328NN
rice0NN
economy0.0839946104936743NN
quarter0NN
gdp0NN
provide0VB
average0.1656430212089NN
daily0RB

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.445980839714607
WordScorePoS
political0.0792212041430275JJ
stability0NN
measure0NN
rice0NN
economy0NN
quarter0NN
gdp0NN
provide0VB
average0.146608885563018NN
daily0RB

The institutions built to provide this stability in both macro terms and in the food economy became essential to the Suharto regime success

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.47428804829082
WordScorePoS
institution0.0249900578719309NN
build0.0499801157438617VB
provide0.00601568197638796VB
stability0.048933054487825NN
term0.149793392961411NN
food0NN
economy0NN
essential0JJ
regime0.048933054487825NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.47220811542523
WordScorePoS
institution0.274477239401321NN
build0VB
provide0.013214597504793VB
stability0NN
term0NN
food0NN
economy0NN
essential0.0395122861608378JJ
regime0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.45294941729659
WordScorePoS
institution0NN
build0VB
provide0.0215170467912497VB
stability0NN
term0NN
food0.292342270824999NN
economy0NN
essential0JJ
regime0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.298597330997302
WordScorePoS
institution0NN
build0VB
provide0.0200087191734851VB
stability0NN
term0NN
food0.186896403054502NN
economy0NN
essential0JJ
regime0NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.318644452963442
WordScorePoS
institution0NN
build0VB
provide0VB
stability0NN
term0.0749457204978913NN
food0.0383371018038178NN
economy0.0625160381065121NN
essential0.0449973847138318JJ
regime0NN

Thirty years of rapid economic growth with equally rapid rates of poverty reduction was politically popular the elasticity of reduction of the headcount poverty index with respect to growth in per capita incomes was about

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.594019051375166
WordScorePoS
rapid0JJ
economic0.0959899298575892JJ
growth0.0519476926891779NN
rate0.0639932865717261NN
poverty0.269969049497485NN
reduction0NN
respect0NN
capita0NN
income0.0442083771593746NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.51792038805742
WordScorePoS
rapid0JJ
economic0.128463821595706JJ
growth0.208565600657229NN
rate0NN
poverty0.0722601961736204NN
reduction0NN
respect0NN
capita0.049270765107907NN
income0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.50563252504401
WordScorePoS
rapid0JJ
economic0.103276847978089JJ
growth0.11178243319132NN
rate0.0172128079963482NN
poverty0.05809266143877NN
reduction0.0475643836183697NN
respect0NN
capita0NN
income0.166475342664294NN

during the Suharto era

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Every five years the polling results for parliament were gleaned for signs of disappointment with the development program

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.690913694788253
WordScorePoS
result0NN
parliament0.0911713013253052NN
development0.0124956749436837NN

Despite the heavy hand of Golkar the president party real information was flowing from villages up to the center through these elections

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Almost despite the intentions of the Suharto regime political institutions were taking root people expected to vote and these institutions provided feedback to the policy approach of the government

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.746696005415086
WordScorePoS
regime0NN
political0JJ
institution0.274477239401321NN
people0NNS
expect0VB
policy0.0201317944152378NN
approach0NN
government0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.482858325597027
WordScorePoS
regime0NN
political0.0792212041430275JJ
institution0.0991236547760315NN
people0.00571634317201755NNS
expect0VB
policy0.0848203862485078NN
approach0NN
government0NN

There were other feedback mechanisms as well and the ones that threatened stability were taken very seriously

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.947705771386283
WordScorePoS
mechanism0.147846224719512NN
threaten0VB
stability0.048933054487825NN

After the riots in Jakarta in reaction to the visibly widening income distribution especially in urban areas the government responded brutally by putting down the riots and imprisoning the student leaders

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.693988937104478
WordScorePoS
income0NN
urban0.27622591898666JJ
government0NN
put0VBN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.541031877862621
WordScorePoS
income0.166475342664294NN
urban0.0488696285210061JJ
government0NN
put0VBN

Then it mounted serious effort to make the economy more equitable

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.542750785176086
WordScorePoS
effort0.0171695137813101NN
economy0.0839946104936743NN
equitable0JJ

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.440999243138989
WordScorePoS
effort0NN
economy0.0821985033584295NN
equitable0JJ

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.335401793981603
WordScorePoS
effort0NN
economy0.0625160381065121NN
equitable0JJ

The result also stimulated by the world food crisis in was major shift in priorities toward rural development and specific push toward increasing domestic rice production

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.657557681298039
WordScorePoS
result0NN
stimulate0VB
world0.0124838525528648NN
food0.292342270824999NN
major0JJ
priority0NN
rural0.148975141598503JJ
development0.0159922815774215NN
specific0JJ
increase0.0128868286091919NN
domestic0JJ
rice0NN
production0.0548141757796873NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.53534762499441
WordScorePoS
result0NN
stimulate0VB
world0.00464349782489754NN
food0.186896403054502NN
major0JJ
priority0.0409791940864438NN
rural0JJ
development0.022306853314744NN
specific0.0542519672965169JJ
increase0.00958677785775002NN
domestic0JJ
rice0NN
production0.118934074671047NN

Behind this push were the objectives of stabilization and equity

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.844653221344164
WordScorePoS
objective0.0749457204978913NN

To lose control of the rice economy was to lose control of what mattered to Indonesian society

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.632747550952988
WordScorePoS
lose0.0781544824456958VB
control0.0264204925485796NN
rice0.0517339898971162NN
economy0NN
society0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.420071007782789
WordScorePoS
lose0VB
control0.0465610847355851NN
rice0NN
economy0.0465610847355851NN
society0.0335134328085675NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.342861151657443
WordScorePoS
lose0VB
control0NN
rice0NN
economy0.0821985033584295NN
society0.0591643007226199NN

The restructuring of Indonesia development approach after especially the preemptive devaluation of the rupiah in signaled the government determination to include the poor in the development process

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.464024760290535
WordScorePoS
restructuring0NN
development0.0164833460638534NN
approach0NN
government0NN
include0VB
poor0.150659516460257JJ
process0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.493049797073991
WordScorePoS
restructuring0.036961556179878NN
development0.0469463607292177NN
approach0NN
government0.048933054487825NN
include0VB
poor0.0153248097886055JJ
process0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.43925964352283
WordScorePoS
restructuring0.0409791940864438NN
development0.022306853314744NN
approach0.0542519672965169NN
government0NN
include0VB
poor0.0339811641917276JJ
process0NN

The stability of the Gini coefficient seen from the late to should not be taken as the result of market driven forces in the face of given technology but as conscious government effort led from the macroeconomic arena by the technocrats to stimulate propoor growth

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.645608577632301
WordScorePoS
stability0NN
result0NN
market0.0252035516550537NN
drive0NN
force0.0410992516792148NN
technology0NN
government0NN
effort0NN
lead0.0504071033101074NN
macroeconomic0JJ
stimulate0.0804764811724088VB
growth0.208565600657229NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.45712174454717
WordScorePoS
stability0.048933054487825NN
result0NN
market0.030649619577211NN
drive0NN
force0NN
technology0.109843026967392NN
government0.048933054487825NN
effort0NN
lead0NN
macroeconomic0.048933054487825JJ
stimulate0VB
growth0NN

This effort succeeded in spectacular fashion until the mid when cronyism and the growing influence of Suharto children on economic decision making caused the approach to unravel

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.35403860786639
WordScorePoS
effort0NN
grow0VB
influence0NN
child0.0452169560888236NN
economic0.128463821595706JJ
decision0NN
cause0NN
approach0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.399496369017826
WordScorePoS
effort0NN
grow0.0405241466500776VB
influence0NN
child0.0242343960710022NN
economic0.103276847978089JJ
decision0.02794560829783NN
cause0NN
approach0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.393392444519333
WordScorePoS
effort0NN
grow0VB
influence0NN
child0.0450489732120807NN
economic0.0959899298575892JJ
decision0.0519476926891779NN
cause0NN
approach0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.378714515624549
WordScorePoS
effort0NN
grow0.0339811641917276VB
influence0.0542519672965169NN
child0NN
economic0.0433009429988926JJ
decision0NN
cause0NN
approach0.0542519672965169NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.3198359864943
WordScorePoS
effort0.0229054731708393NN
grow0.0229054731708393VB
influence0NN
child0.0273960270556257NN
economic0.0389167984372011JJ
decision0NN
cause0.04477822029736NN
approach0NN

Part of the problem of post Suharto governments has been their need to distance themselves from this record of repression and cronyism despite three decades of pro poor growth

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.529633953891105
WordScorePoS
post0NN
government0NN
record0NN
decade0NN
poor0JJ
growth0.208565600657229NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.514503144001268
WordScorePoS
post0NN
government0NN
record0NN
decade0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
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Label: 13, with a score of: 0.315476885860672
WordScorePoS
post0NN
government0NN
record0NN
decade0.124232265906675NN
poor0JJ
growth0NN

This tension brought the failure of political and institutional development during the Suharto era to the fore

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.534703505898139
WordScorePoS
bring0VB
political0.111637082206855JJ
institutional0JJ
development0.0124956749436837NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.417638643668297
WordScorePoS
bring0VB
political0.0792212041430275JJ
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development0.0177346522508396NN

Questions about causality remain particularly whether rapid pro poor growth can be implemented by authoritarian regimes

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.618662680885005
WordScorePoS
remain0.049270765107907VB
rapid0JJ
poor0JJ
growth0.208565600657229NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.532033835695846
WordScorePoS
remain0VB
rapid0JJ
poor0.150659516460257JJ
growth0.0519476926891779NN
implement0.0450489732120807VB
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.351265111848684
WordScorePoS
remain0.0396106020715138VB
rapid0JJ
poor0JJ
growth0.11178243319132NN
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regime0NN

Indonesia record along with that of most of East and Southeast Asia indicates that they can

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

But is such growth sustainable

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.84256454005965
WordScorePoS
growth0.208565600657229NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.442556166541264
WordScorePoS
growth0.11178243319132NN
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And which is more important for managing long run pro poor growth good economics or good institutions

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.505737879583034
WordScorePoS
manage0VB
poor0JJ
growth0NN
economics0NNS
institution0.274477239401321NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.460019830068419
WordScorePoS
manage0VB
poor0JJ
growth0.208565600657229NN
economics0NNS
institution0.0410992516792148NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.373313796681163
WordScorePoS
manage0VB
poor0.150659516460257JJ
growth0.0519476926891779NN
economics0NNS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.510365046468965
WordScorePoS
manage0.0660824365173543VB
poor0JJ
growth0.11178243319132NN
economics0NNS
institution0.0991236547760315NN

In Indonesia there was no chicken or egg problem

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Something had to be done at once in view of widespread destitution and political chaos and the sequencing was clear

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.744382291209653
WordScorePoS
view0NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.528237215507889
WordScorePoS
view0NN
political0.0792212041430275JJ

Rapid pro poor economic growth was imposed by an authoritarian regime concerned about its survival

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.620478049217559
WordScorePoS
rapid0JJ
poor0JJ
economic0.128463821595706JJ
growth0.208565600657229NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.549723430893752
WordScorePoS
rapid0JJ
poor0.150659516460257JJ
economic0.0959899298575892JJ
growth0.0519476926891779NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.395928528595884
WordScorePoS
rapid0JJ
poor0JJ
economic0.103276847978089JJ
growth0.11178243319132NN
regime0NN

But this same regime also imposed on itself commitment mechanisms to make the growth process market friendly to rural households and to Chinese capitalists that is both ends of the economic system

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.477589030615332
WordScorePoS
regime0NN
commitment0NN
mechanism0NN
growth0.0252000451111224NN
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market0.0913569596328122NN
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system0.0756001353333673NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.466394601324237
WordScorePoS
regime0NN
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growth0.208565600657229NN
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market0.0252035516550537NN
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household0NN
economic0.128463821595706JJ
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.415220929909731
WordScorePoS
regime0.048933054487825NN
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mechanism0.147846224719512NN
growth0NN
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market0.030649619577211NN
rural0JJ
household0NN
economic0JJ
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.388073728987108
WordScorePoS
regime0NN
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growth0.11178243319132NN
process0NN
market0.0202620733250388NN
rural0.0330412182586772JJ
household0.0330412182586772NN
economic0.103276847978089JJ
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Inflation was brought under control by law requiring the national budget be balanced quarter by quarter law Suharto basically imposed on himself but then touted to all constituents as rule the government had to live under

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.792602810189171
WordScorePoS
bring0VB
control0NN
law0.164686343640793NN
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national0.0294647633960925JJ
quarter0NN
rule0.162386273072618NN
government0NN
live0.013214597504793VB

To build confidence among the Chinese business community the government opened the capital account in when it unified the exchange rate

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.530528276898677
WordScorePoS
build0.030745604615229VB
business0.0909486002868787NN
community0.0188543197850406NN
government0NN
account0.0160169090870187NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.424967461253708
WordScorePoS
build0.0614198493690006VB
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community0NN
government0NN
account0NN
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.39206890622995
WordScorePoS
build0VB
business0.0409791940864438NN
community0.0169905820958638NN
government0NN
account0.0577345906651901NN
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The flow of foreign exchange to and from Singapore and Hong Kong was sensitive barometer of the investment climate

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.687119536894981
WordScorePoS
flow0NN
foreign0JJ
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investment0NN
climate0.291881734282273NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.3911878455247
WordScorePoS
flow0NN
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sensitive0.0908430554521382JJ
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Label: 7, with a score of: 0.360997877474033
WordScorePoS
flow0NN
foreign0JJ
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investment0.0383371018038178NN
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Thus the two constraints on the presidency which Suharto felt personally and used as motivation for his bureaucracy and government not the same thing in Indonesia were the need for rural areas to participate in growth and the need to keep the investment climate highly favorable for Suharto business partners

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.507926186597847
WordScorePoS
constraint0NN
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.406799947143526
WordScorePoS
constraint0NN
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.398482261819741
WordScorePoS
constraint0NN
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.373902067241495
WordScorePoS
constraint0.0602029956716497NN
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The response to both constraints was an economic package low inflation food price stability an open economy and massive investments in rural infrastructure that generated rapid propoor growth

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.595446542030343
WordScorePoS
response0NN
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.439067780649057
WordScorePoS
response0NN
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.392951969402081
WordScorePoS
response0NN
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.255938075848312
WordScorePoS
response0NN
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economic0.0433009429988926JJ
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But another part of the investment climate part only for those favored business partners involved special licenses trade protection and lucrative access to domestic markets

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.442024896788578
WordScorePoS
investment0NN
climate0.291881734282273NN
business0NN
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trade0NN
protection0NN
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domestic0JJ
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.350213545883747
WordScorePoS
investment0.0377086395700813NN
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access0.0128821355880844NN
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.34495649658377
WordScorePoS
investment0.0766240489430275NN
climate0NN
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trade0.0539615408530051NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.323602492265696
WordScorePoS
investment0.0202620733250388NN
climate0NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.307901693854975
WordScorePoS
investment0.0376648791150643NN
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business0NN
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protection0.122839698738001NN
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This part unraveled the open economy part of the growth package

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.860489227642347
WordScorePoS
economy0.0821985033584295NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.330809677922283
WordScorePoS
economy0NN
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The Suharto legacy despite the deep commitment to pro poor growth did not build the groundwork for political and institutional framework that would ultimately support it

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.53554279733074
WordScorePoS
commitment0NN
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.470179164418167
WordScorePoS
commitment0NN
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growth0.208565600657229NN
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.39900444705026
WordScorePoS
commitment0.0739231123597559NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.325245925704768
WordScorePoS
commitment0NN
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A deep tension developed between the institutional framework to keep the open economy functioning efficiently and the political controls to keep the cronies businesses profitable

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.532478881545694
WordScorePoS
develop0VB
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framework0NN
economy0.0465610847355851NN
function0NN
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Label: 13, with a score of: 0.509667640078222
WordScorePoS
develop0VB
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framework0.0291713033871158NN
economy0.0839946104936743NN
function0NN
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control0NN
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Without political feedback about these very same political controls the regime was blindsided by the ferocity of the opposition to its management of the Asian financial crisis

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.715529628212503
WordScorePoS
political0.111637082206855JJ
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regime0NN
management0NN
financial0.0140083044329373JJ

The depth of the crisis both economic and political reflected the vacuum of institutions in place to cope with an alternative political system

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.435481066729371
WordScorePoS
economic0JJ
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.269025978943585
WordScorePoS
economic0.128463821595706JJ
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.572507418699836
WordScorePoS
economic0.103276847978089JJ
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.469695509391222
WordScorePoS
economic0.0727679293221751JJ
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The climb out of the chaos of mirrors that from the era but this time without order imposed from above

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.829051546962935
WordScorePoS
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The eagerness and skill with which the Indonesian population has participated in the democratic process suggests that social and political order will now be far more sustainable

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.662553879809115
WordScorePoS
skill0.407534682675042NN
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sustainable0.00872035848132902JJ

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.426544249984573
WordScorePoS
skill0NN
population0.0860640399817412NN
democratic0JJ
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social0.101310366625194JJ
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.356805864314887
WordScorePoS
skill0NN
population0.024255976440725NN
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process0.0558185411034276NN
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social0.0285529457667019JJ
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sustainable0.00390173629172995JJ

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.316192360901879
WordScorePoS
skill0NN
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democratic0JJ
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suggest0.0602029956716497VB
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The challenge now is to translate the same democratic process into rapid and sustainable pro poor economic growth

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.66843663190243
WordScorePoS
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.442189801220599
WordScorePoS
challenge0NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.315098185062144
WordScorePoS
challenge0NN
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Leveling the economic and political playing fields III PART WHAT CAN BE DONE TO INCREASE EQUITY IN THE WORLD

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.377423436783827
WordScorePoS
level0.00761994916892276NN
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.550967357435503
WordScorePoS
level0.0172651853471334NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.489957490650949
WordScorePoS
level0NN
economic0.103276847978089JJ
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field0NN
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Can this be done in ways that also spur long term prosperity

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.800986399208968
WordScorePoS
term0.149793392961411NN
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Label: 7, with a score of: 0.400755344484336
WordScorePoS
term0.0749457204978913NN
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Label: 11, with a score of: 0.391092047150885
WordScorePoS
term0NN
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We read in part that there are large inequalities of opportunity between people within countries and even more between people in different countries

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.96332543654651
WordScorePoS
inequality0.635305170773079NN
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people0.00571634317201755NNS
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These inequalities are perpetuated through interlocking economic political and sociocultural mechanisms creating inequality traps

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.966974922790323
WordScorePoS
inequality0.635305170773079NN
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.131750113527164
WordScorePoS
inequality0NN
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.0983846713404408
WordScorePoS
inequality0NN
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Individuals from different groups and countries face highly uneven playing field both in their capacities to acquire endowments and aspire to better life and in their opportunities to reap returns from those endowments through market and nonmarket processes

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.498569980485465
WordScorePoS
individual0JJ
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Because differences between countries often exceed within country differences it is of particular importance that national policies support or are at least consistent with the narrowing of international differences notably through the growth process

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.587805007848518
WordScorePoS
country0NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.431654668284145
WordScorePoS
country0NN
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.33954713453928
WordScorePoS
country0NN
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We argued in part II that many inequalities not only violate people concern for fairness but actually have costs for the development process

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.955666268767954
WordScorePoS
inequality0.635305170773079NN
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The effects on development depend on specific forms of inequality and their interactions with market imperfections and institutions

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.785799306369063
WordScorePoS
effect0NN
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.477483778637541
WordScorePoS
effect0NN
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Unequal opportunities are associated with inefficiencies and wasted economic potential

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.499748814012429
WordScorePoS
opportunity0NN
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.452368902902216
WordScorePoS
opportunity0.0361300980868102NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.363676199530163
WordScorePoS
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Label: 7, with a score of: 0.322863437217656
WordScorePoS
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Pronounced inequalities in the distribution of power are often associated with weak economic institutions undermining the investment and innovation that is central to longrun growth

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.810887784631895
WordScorePoS
inequality0.635305170773079NN
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central0JJ
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.405992125876944
WordScorePoS
inequality0NN
power0NN
economic0.128463821595706JJ
institution0.0410992516792148NN
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central0JJ
growth0.208565600657229NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.229512966504444
WordScorePoS
inequality0NN
power0NN
economic0JJ
institution0.274477239401321NN
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central0JJ
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Greater equity is thus not only intrinsically desirable but also is complementary to long run growth and prosperity

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.815843080212351
WordScorePoS
growth0.208565600657229NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.437257746824305
WordScorePoS
growth0.11178243319132NN
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For poorer and excluded groups focus on equity can bring double benefit bigger pie and greater share

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.513411242649558
WordScorePoS
focus0.0373517915079663NN
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double0RB
benefit0NN
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But the scope for such complementary relationship between equity and aggregate development is often not exploited

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

When examining this we suggest there are two kinds of pathology in policy WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT design

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.452848484131179
WordScorePoS
suggest0VB
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.420532506356187
WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.413713818028111
WordScorePoS
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First there is the pathology associated with oligarchic dominance institutions and policies that further the interest of elites but not those of the whole society

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.811670184308719
WordScorePoS
institution0.274477239401321NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.408100849682061
WordScorePoS
institution0.0991236547760315NN
policy0.0848203862485078NN
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This may take the form of extreme predation and high level corruption as in Mobutu Zaire or Haiti under the Duvaliers

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.774564556981079
WordScorePoS
form0.158049144643351NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.563960397086883
WordScorePoS
form0.0884167543187491NN
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Or it may take the form of enmeshed alliances between economic and political elites that favor rent seeking as in the Philippines under Marcos in much of Latin America in past decades and in more subtle forms in many countries of the world

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.425240067488851
WordScorePoS
form0.158049144643351NN
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.334321010400721
WordScorePoS
form0.0591643007226199NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.532276905261085
WordScorePoS
form0.0884167543187491NN
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.526458679688609
WordScorePoS
form0.100540298425703NN
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decade0NN
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world0.00585260443759492NN

Second there is more complex pathology of policies pursued with the intent or in the name of equity that have high efficiency costs or perverse effects

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.44843302468174
WordScorePoS
policy0NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.501286979797198
WordScorePoS
policy0.0848203862485078NN
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.335544957374278
WordScorePoS
policy0.011275328195446NN
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Communist economic policy was disastrous for efficiency even while many communist societies did much in social provisioning

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.472290501691574
WordScorePoS
economic0.128463821595706JJ
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efficiency0.0295821503613099NN
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Label: 7, with a score of: 0.203799601470535
WordScorePoS
economic0JJ
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.472827145657989
WordScorePoS
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.383518098706923
WordScorePoS
economic0.0959899298575892JJ
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.339389115201255
WordScorePoS
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.308704332503681
WordScorePoS
economic0JJ
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Directed credit in India for example was intended for the poor and reached some of the poor but proved high cost strategy

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.742072134154227
WordScorePoS
direct0JJ
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Populist macropolicy is always bad for growth and almost always bad for equity sooner or later witness Argentina during much of the second half of the twentieth century

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.61590553950193
WordScorePoS
bad0JJ
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.585775993705821
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.313951417084898
WordScorePoS
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Perverse or growth sapping effects of policies under this pathology can be caused by adverse consequences for incentives unaffordable fiscal burdens or the capture of the benefits often by middle groups which hoard opportunities at cost for other groups and the overall growth process

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.58067280346207
WordScorePoS
growth0.208565600657229NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.545415984985038
WordScorePoS
growth0.11178243319132NN
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.328727519134123
WordScorePoS
growth0.0260040237236563NN
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At fundamental level the analysis underscores the centrality of shifting to state that is more accountable has checks on predatory behavior of political and economic elites is responsive to all citizens especially from middle and poorer groups and has effective conflict management mechanisms

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.661040551442312
WordScorePoS
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.329523152387238
WordScorePoS
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.237739835654931
WordScorePoS
fundamental0JJ
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.199479633362537
WordScorePoS
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.359693091279774
WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.318200397957829
WordScorePoS
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In part II we sketched cases of transitions in this direction from history and contemporary experiences and at the local level

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.527437966776245
WordScorePoS
direction0.048933054487825NN
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The emphasis in the development community on issues of governance and empowerment is entirely consistent with this perspective

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.756593609822315
WordScorePoS
development0.0124956749436837NN
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.381780695923022
WordScorePoS
development0.0368309542451156NN
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Label: 13, with a score of: 0.324655745964269
WordScorePoS
development0NN
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.301216269937528
WordScorePoS
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While such overall shifts are central to development the World Bank has neither the mandate nor the comparative advantage to discuss specifics of the design of political institutions even though action to support empowerment of the poor is now emphasized in the design of specific policies see Narayan

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.561846132758527
WordScorePoS
central0JJ
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.389104627417264
WordScorePoS
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.305518134199276
WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.350071916730019
WordScorePoS
central0JJ
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.332003467707368
WordScorePoS
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In part III we focus on set of areas that do lie squarely in the arena of development analysis and practice in policies affecting the sectors markets and in the global arena

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.326933601959733
WordScorePoS
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.314022772861824
WordScorePoS
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This recognizes the influence of the political and sociocultural context but focuses rather on what an equity prism based on the analysis of parts and II has to say about the policy design to break inequality traps and support aggregate growth The lesson from part II is that this implies paying attention to specific inequalities and their interactions with markets social structure and power

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.902357283227494
WordScorePoS
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.241630839364256
WordScorePoS
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This involves both issues of technical design and mechanisms that provide the political underpinnings for change notably through broader accountability coalitions for change or compensation of losers

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.231916101573545
WordScorePoS
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And while an overarching message is of the potential complementarity between greater equity and long run prosperity there will often be tradeoffs in specific areas and context

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

One cross cutting area concerns the need to raise taxes to finance desirable public spending

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.423109433337213
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.4227364600883
WordScorePoS
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.410808207378388
WordScorePoS
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The design of tax instruments is of great importance to minimize adverse efficiency effects while also promoting equity where feasible

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.419325504036551
WordScorePoS
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.548694651416425
WordScorePoS
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Label: 14, with a score of: 0.346087183870882
WordScorePoS
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We organize the discussion of domestic action into three areas

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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.418676921692093
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.387818246737616
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.362426526948054
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.341575654675036
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First is building and protecting people human capacities from the start of people lives and through adulthood and old age

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.411389103627042
WordScorePoS
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Label: 11, with a score of: 0.379145390874129
WordScorePoS
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.30063629773266
WordScorePoS
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Here we focus on equalizing from the bottom up equalizing up the opportunities of the least advantaged in terms of skills health and risk management

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 3, with a score of: 0.434166575834497
WordScorePoS
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.236890636687589
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Label: 11, with a score of: 0.329849748639355
WordScorePoS
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There are certainly issues of equity among more advantaged groups but we give priority to the disadvantaged in part for reasons of space

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

As seen in part II there are major market imperfections in human capital formation and insurance that affect poor or lower status groups most yet political action has also often been biased against these groups

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.360646815107507
WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.346258892299074
WordScorePoS
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.310745802099148
WordScorePoS
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WordScorePoS
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Second is ensuring equitable access to justice and complementary assets

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A fair and accessible justice system is crucial for constraining the power of the political and eco Leveling the economic and political playing fields nomic elite avoiding discrimination and protecting property rights and personal safety for all with important implications for the willingness to invest and innovate

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Inequitable access to land and infrastructure by wealth location or social group is typical of developing societies and often enmeshed with political structures

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WordScorePoS
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Policy design can help shifts to more equitable and often more efficient patterns chapter

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Third is the domain of markets financial labor and product that have powerful influence on the returns to people endowments

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.39250775969214
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.340044070963985
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As chapters and argued markets are typically far from ideal working in noncompetitive and discriminatory ways whether because of intrinsic market imperfections or because power structures have shaped them to serve the purposes of those in power

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In these areas and notably in the case of finance primary concern is equalizing down by reducing protecting privileges of incumbents

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Closely related is the conduct of macroeconomic policy chapter

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In the global arena concern remains with individuals and the enormous unjustified differences in opportunity that people face through the morally irrelevant fact of country of birth

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The global playing field between nation states is uneven and has uneven effects on different groups within countries

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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.44268205405848
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Label: 13, with a score of: 0.405129835741806
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There is substantial scope for making the playing field more even

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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.523527392454838
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Label: 4, with a score of: 0.447791083378534
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But as in the domestic arena policy design involves both technical questions such as the details of migration arrangements and the application and design of patent legislation and the political underpinnings of rules and institutions for global governance

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We examine the potential for change both in the key global markets for labor products ideas and capital and in the potential scope for designing aid in ways that support rather than undercut domestic development and through more effective and equitable management of the global commons chapter

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The epilogue links the report perspective on equity to the thinking and agreements that have evolved in the development community in the past decade captured for example in the Millennium Declaration and the Monterrey Consensus as well as the World Bank own strategic pillars of an enabling investment climate and promoting empowerment

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We argue that an approach to development that is deeply informed by equity is fundamental to the full integration of these frameworks into an effective development strategy

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Human capacities chapter Expanding people capabilities to lead fuller lives the aim of all development means investing in their education and health and in their ability to manage risks

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But as chapters and discussed failures in markets and governments conspire to generate large inequalities in people opportunities to build their capabilities

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Children from poorer families start out life with greater disadvantages than their wealthier peers attend lower quality schools have less access to health services and are not as protected from economic downturns and family crises

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By the time they are adults they are far less equipped to be productive members of society

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Economic political and sociocultural inequalities fuel such differences in life chances perpetuating them across generations

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Public action can level the playing field and broaden opportunities by addressing inequalities in access to quality education health care and risk management

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Welldesigned policies will result in more equitably distributed opportunities to acquire endowments and boost overall productivity

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As potentially talented and productive individuals gain access to the services from which they may have been excluded for reasons that have nothing to do with their potential societies make gains through greater efficiency and greater social cohesion in the long run

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Still there are challenges

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Programs require resources administrative capacity and political support

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This means paying attention to the design of tax systems tailoring program intervention to context and above all building constituencies for change

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We focus on leveling the playing field mainly through augmenting the capacities of those with the fewest opportunities but we recognize that it may be necessary to attack the undue influ ence of the powerful and the wealthy to be able to shape public policies to benefit the rest of society

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As we have seen successful transitions are far more likely where the power of the excluded to influence public action has been enhanced

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There are strong complementarities among the different investments in people

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Better nourished children have higher cognitive abilities

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Well educated parents especially mothers invest more in their children education and health

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More educated individuals are likely to be more resilient to shocks

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Instruments to smooth consumption will spur people to take on not only higher risk but also potentially higher return activities and prevent them from disinvesting in themselves lowering food intake forgoing treatment or in their children pulling them out of school in times of shocks

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And people with more human capital and better risk management capabilities can reduce the variability and increase the level of their incomes

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The policies we consider in this chapter are particularly important in arresting the intergenerational transmission of inequalities

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We begin with review of the rationale and potential for early childhood development programs

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We next consider broader education and health policies for expanding access to quality education and care and finally discuss transfer policies that help manage risks and provide for efficient and equity enhancing redistribution

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Early childhood development better start in life By the time poorer children in many countries reach school age they are at significant disadvantage in cognitive and social ability

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The Ecuadorian study cited in chapter docu Human capacities mented substantial differences at six years of age related to socioeconomic status and parental education

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Differences in childhood cognitive abilities are indeed apparent as early as months of age

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One study in the United States shows that by age three the gaps in learning measured by vocabulary are already large among children from different social groups figure

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Cognitive learning is affected by child socioeconomic status through health malnutrition iron and micronutrient deficiency parasite infections and the quality of the home environment including care giving and cognitive stimulation

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Scientific evidence on brain development supports this

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Recent research findings revamp earlier thinking that assumed that the structure of the brain was genetically determined at birth and point to the determining influence of early experiences from conception to age six and particularly the first three years on the architecture of the brain and capacities in adulthood

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As child ages environmental effects appear to accumulate

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Poor cognitive and social abilities are associated with weaker future academic performance and lower adult economic and social outcomes including poor health antisocial behavior and violence

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These underachieving adults influence the cognitive abilities of the next generation of children creating an intergenerational cycle of poverty and unequal opportunities

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Studies using internationally comparable student achievement tests confirm that socioeconomic background is the overwhelming determinant of learning outcomes with schools accounting for no more than percent of the variation in test performance

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Benefits of early interventions Early interventions can substantially enhance child life chances and loosen the intergenerational grip of poverty and inequality

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In recent years interest has expanded in early childhood development ECD in low and middle income developing countries paralleling greater attention in developed countries

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income0NN
develop0VB
country0NN
parallel0NN
attention0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.335700831617334
WordScorePoS
expand0VB
childhood0NN
development0.0159922815774215NN
middle0JJ
income0.0643370113878709NN
develop0VB
country0NN
parallel0.0583416713841148NN
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Label: 11, with a score of: 0.306153132660305
WordScorePoS
expand0.0268848280079943VB
childhood0NN
development0.0100241617629471NN
middle0JJ
income0NN
develop0VB
country0NN
parallel0NN
attention0.08955644059472NN

Early childhood development programs comprise range of interventions that include providing nutritional supplements to children regularly monitoring their growth stimulating the development of their cognitive and social skills through more frequent and structured interactions with caring adult and improving the parenting skills of caretakers

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.840842395244233
WordScorePoS
childhood0.0815069365350084NN
development0.0279277626235394NN
range0NN
intervention0NN
include0VB
provide0.0100202166857628VB
nutritional0JJ
child0.076326555629389NN
monitor0NN
growth0NN
stimulate0VB
social0JJ
skill0.407534682675042NN
structure0NN
care0.0416255041156371NN
adult0.163013873070017JJ
improve0.0305306222517556VB

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.271118811179879
WordScorePoS
childhood0NN
development0.0055149369084567NN
range0NN
intervention0NN
include0VB
provide0VB
nutritional0JJ
child0.0452169560888236NN
monitor0NN
growth0.208565600657229NN
stimulate0.0804764811724088VB
social0.0504071033101074JJ
skill0NN
structure0NN
care0NN
adult0JJ
improve0.0150723186962745VB

The evidence suggests that these programs can be highly effective in addressing problems experienced later in schooling and adulthood

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.85756441934921
WordScorePoS
evidence0.12939607756667NN
suggest0VB
highly0RB
effective0.0145231653596925JJ
address0.064698038783335NN
experienced0JJ
schooling0NN

recent study in the United States shows that investments in the early years of life before children reach the formal school system give greater returns than later investments figure

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.534394906810137
WordScorePoS
study0NN
unite0VB
investment0NN
life0.0125233923809486NN
child0.076326555629389NN
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school0.208127520578185NN
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.444598391658986
WordScorePoS
study0NN
unite0VB
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life0NN
child0.0603953832457135NN
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return0.107490825192354NN
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.325594960239624
WordScorePoS
study0NN
unite0.036961556179878VB
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child0NN
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system0.0211360962287062NN
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.302834151771102
WordScorePoS
study0NN
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child0.0546336178945768NN
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Well designed longitudinal studies mainly from developed countries indicate that programs typically register improvements for children in health cognitive ability academic performance and tenure within the school system and later in life higher incomes higher incidence of home ownership lower propensity to be on welfare and lower rates of incarceration and arrest

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.474031334297335
WordScorePoS
study0NN
develop0VB
country0NN
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child0.10682408961305NN
health0.191387734041787NN
ability0NN
performance0NN
school0NN
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life0.0250390290383647NN
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incidence0.0407408489778079NN
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rate0.0433561464459019NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.370827771239191
WordScorePoS
study0NN
develop0VB
country0NN
typically0RB
improvement0NN
child0.076326555629389NN
health0NN
ability0NN
performance0NN
school0.208127520578185NN
system0NN
life0.0125233923809486NN
income0NN
incidence0NN
ownership0NN
welfare0NN
rate0.0216847879059514NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.364407019461607
WordScorePoS
study0NN
develop0VB
country0NN
typically0RB
improvement0NN
child0.0242343960710022NN
health0.0405241466500776NN
ability0NN
performance0.064698038783335NN
school0NN
system0NN
life0NN
income0.166475342664294NN
incidence0NN
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welfare0NN
rate0.0172128079963482NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.345978493223642
WordScorePoS
study0NN
develop0VB
country0NN
typically0RB
improvement0NN
child0.0450489732120807NN
health0NN
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performance0NN
school0NN
system0.0519476926891779NN
life0.0184786920895884NN
income0.0442083771593746NN
incidence0NN
ownership0.0736315832425121NN
welfare0NN
rate0.0639932865717261NN

This suggests strong productivity case for investing in early childhood development the arguments for public subsidies to disadvantaged families are compelling on both productivity and equity grounds

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.292008389394551
WordScorePoS
suggest0VB
strong0JJ
productivity0NN
invest0VB
childhood0NN
development0.0036456034155327NN
public0NN
subsidy0.162850158165781NN
disadvantaged0JJ
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.594857850405675
WordScorePoS
suggest0.0602029956716497VB
strong0.0454743001434393JJ
productivity0.0922368138456871NN
invest0VB
childhood0NN
development0.0330049940546426NN
public0.0160169090870187NN
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disadvantaged0JJ
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.45429609525465
WordScorePoS
suggest0VB
strong0JJ
productivity0.0595900566394012NN
invest0.0583416713841148VB
childhood0NN
development0.0159922815774215NN
public0NN
subsidy0.0357189919948307NN
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family0.0297950283197006NN

As Heckman argues early interventions in children from disadvantaged environments raise no efficiency equity trade offs they raise the productivity of individuals the workforce and society at large and reduce lifetime inequality by helping to eliminate the factor of accident of birth

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.777305292296823
WordScorePoS
intervention0NN
child0.0242343960710022NN
disadvantaged0.064698038783335JJ
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trade0.0237821918091848NN
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individual0.064698038783335JJ
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eliminate0.0558912165956601VB
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Label: 7, with a score of: 0.115728358894453
WordScorePoS
intervention0NN
child0NN
disadvantaged0JJ
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raise0NN
efficiency0.134992154141495NN
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individual0JJ
workforce0NN
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reduce0.00838876601975825VB
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Studies of ECD programs in developing countries also document strong benefits Figure

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.605900865360787
WordScorePoS
study0NN
develop0VB
country0NN
document0NN
strong0.0454743001434393JJ
benefit0.0260040237236563NN
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.600703391885375
WordScorePoS
study0NN
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document0.0911713013253052NN
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benefit0.0393804437159645NN
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Label: 15, with a score of: 0.443681044264738
WordScorePoS
study0.0517339898971162NN
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benefit0.0446918591208085NN
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Early childhood interventions are good investments Return per invested Preschool programs Schooling Opportunity cost of funds Job training Preschool School Post school Age Source Carneiro and Heckman

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.689742401789005
WordScorePoS
childhood0.0815069365350084NN
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.273729572449448
WordScorePoS
childhood0NN
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opportunity0.0361300980868102NN
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age0.0252035516550537NN
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.367385342035686
WordScorePoS
childhood0NN
intervention0NN
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return0.107490825192354NN
invest0VB
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opportunity0NN
cost0.0548954478802642NN
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school0.0548954478802642NN
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Figure

Label: 9, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
figure0.0602029956716497NN

Children from better off households have big edge in cognitive abilities by age three Early vocabulary growth Cumulative vocabulary High SES Middle SES Low SES Age months Source Hart and Risley

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.529751544552069
WordScorePoS
child0.0452169560888236NN
household0NN
ability0.0607878664258118NN
age0.0252035516550537NN
growth0.208565600657229NN
middle0JJ
source0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.507987313025529
WordScorePoS
child0.0450489732120807NN
household0NN
ability0NN
age0.112994637345193NN
growth0.0519476926891779NN
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source0.0269969049497485NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.414324079424778
WordScorePoS
child0.10682408961305NN
household0NN
ability0NN
age0.0893142758861673NN
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Note SES refers to socioeconomic status

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT Figure

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.635258118363613
WordScorePoS
world0.00257642711761688NN
development0.0330049940546426NN
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figure0.0602029956716497NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.45051999587721
WordScorePoS
world0.00464349782489754NN
development0.022306853314744NN
report0.0409791940864438NN
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.339133175358608
WordScorePoS
world0.00418824502414673NN
development0.0469463607292177NN
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Catching up through early intervention Development quotient Children of normal height Stimulation and nutritional supplement Stimulation Nutritional supplement Control group Baseline Months Source Grantham McGregor and others

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.611684812970977
WordScorePoS
intervention0NN
development0.0164833460638534NN
child0.0450489732120807NN
height0.120266261535276NN
nutritional0JJ
control0.0614198493690006NN
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Note The Development Quotient is an index composed of ratings in four behavioral and cognitive development indicators locomotor large muscle activities running and jumping hand eye coordination hearing and speech and performance shape recognition block construction and block patterns

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Months refers to time after entry into the program generally at around months old

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.829051546962935
WordScorePoS
time0.0607862199751165NN

BOX

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

ECD programs are an essential ingredient for the attainment of education for all There is sufficient evidence from studies throughout the world to make case for placing early childhood education among the key interventions to achieve the education Millennium Development Goals MDGs

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.86178841962784
WordScorePoS
essential0JJ
education0.244244978014045NN
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world0.0017440716962658NN
childhood0.0815069365350084NN
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development0.0279277626235394NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.201589133726675
WordScorePoS
essential0JJ
education0.0121171980355011NN
sufficient0JJ
evidence0.12939607756667NN
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world0.00276879546803864NN
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Higher school enrollment

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.880363915968639
WordScorePoS
school0.208127520578185NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.393899843477631
WordScorePoS
school0.0931221694711702NN

Colombia ECD program PROMESA reports significantly higher enrollment rates in primary school for children participating in the program compared with children not participating

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.664659106041992
WordScorePoS
report0NN
significantly0RB
rate0.0216847879059514NN
primary0.108423939529757JJ
school0.208127520578185NN
child0.076326555629389NN
compare0VB

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.445991349245518
WordScorePoS
report0.0307735781890304NN
significantly0RB
rate0.0433561464459019NN
primary0.0108390366114755JJ
school0NN
child0.10682408961305NN
compare0.0307735781890304VB

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.354040522874676
WordScorePoS
report0NN
significantly0RB
rate0.0571955184484387NN
primary0.0285977592242194JJ
school0.0548954478802642NN
child0.0603953832457135NN
compare0VB

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.303695470107711
WordScorePoS
report0NN
significantly0RB
rate0NN
primary0.0970239057629001JJ
school0.0931221694711702NN
child0.0170753354211044NN
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ECD programs in India Haryana and Guatemala resulted in significant decline in enrollment age for girls

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.756365682761975
WordScorePoS
result0NN
significant0JJ
decline0NN
age0NN
girl0.393804437159645NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.319503046230657
WordScorePoS
result0NN
significant0JJ
decline0NN
age0.0255262687343935NN
girl0.140824109342254NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.365043688463089
WordScorePoS
result0NN
significant0.0127591822694525JJ
decline0.0351951258079907NN
age0.0893142758861673NN
girl0.0527926887119861NN

Less grade repetition

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

In Colombia PROMESA program the Alagoas and Fortaleza PROAPE study of Northeast Brazil and the Argentina ECD study children who participated in the programs repeated fewer grades and progressed better through school than did nonparticipants in similar circumstances

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.69240008572672
WordScorePoS
study0NN
child0.076326555629389NN
progress0.0299609328954485NN
school0.208127520578185NN
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Fewer dropouts

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

In India Integrated Child Development Services program in Dalmau attendance of children ages six to eight in primary school increased by percent for children who had participated in the program dropout rates did not change significantly for children from the higher caste but fell dramatic percent for the lower caste and an astonishing percent for the middle caste students

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.483981501678778
WordScorePoS
integrate0VB
child0.076326555629389NN
development0.0279277626235394NN
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age0.0255262687343935NN
primary0.108423939529757JJ
school0.208127520578185NN
increase0.0144029596227568NN
rate0.0216847879059514NN
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significantly0RB
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Label: 13, with a score of: 0.307393912296271
WordScorePoS
integrate0.0201523636533764VB
child0NN
development0NN
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primary0.0145856516935579JJ
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increase0.0145316075945746NN
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change0.402565546215053NN
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Label: 3, with a score of: 0.494385014246449
WordScorePoS
integrate0VB
child0.10682408961305NN
development0.00837573444202498NN
service0.0100171139310145NN
age0.0893142758861673NN
primary0.0108390366114755JJ
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increase0.0143984997539974NN
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significantly0RB
fall0.123094312756122NN
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In Colombia the third grade enrollment rates for children who participated in the PROMESA program increased by percent reflecting their lower dropout and repetition rates

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.530919414473279
WordScorePoS
rate0.0433561464459019NN
child0.10682408961305NN
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In addition percent of the children who participated in the ECD program attained the fourth grade compared with only percent of the comparison group

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.619083283527119
WordScorePoS
addition0NN
child0.10682408961305NN
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Higher intelligence

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

ECD programs encourage young children to explore and facilitate the social interaction that promotes cognitive development

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.445377027176836
WordScorePoS
encourage0.02794560829783VB
child0.0242343960710022NN
facilitate0.02794560829783VB
social0.101310366625194JJ
promote0.00886732612541978VB
development0.0177346522508396NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.424391586616225
WordScorePoS
encourage0.0695218668857431VB
child0.0452169560888236NN
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social0.0504071033101074JJ
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development0.0055149369084567NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.39127931195095
WordScorePoS
encourage0VB
child0.0450489732120807NN
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social0.112994637345193JJ
promote0.0082416730319267VB
development0.0164833460638534NN

Children who participated in Jamaica First HomeVisiting Program Colombia Cali Project Peru Programa No Formal de Educación Inicial PRONOEI and the Turkish Early Enrichment Project in low income areas of Istanbul averaged higher scores on intellectual aptitude tests than did nonparticipants

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.65085200517751
WordScorePoS
child0.0242343960710022NN
project0NN
income0.166475342664294NN
average0.146608885563018NN
intellectual0JJ

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.449132264401798
WordScorePoS
child0NN
project0.0335649154577099NN
income0NN
average0.1656430212089NN
intellectual0JJ

Evidence from other studies however suggests that these effects dissipate over time

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.770606792794736
WordScorePoS
evidence0.12939607756667NN
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effect0NN
time0.0607862199751165NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.504594329438457
WordScorePoS
evidence0NN
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suggest0.0602029956716497VB
effect0.0454743001434393NN
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Sources Chaturvedi and others Myers Young

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.73415387760794
WordScorePoS
source0.0613562156822703NN

for all children with cost benefit analyses showing returns of for every invested

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.679356351759132
WordScorePoS
child0.0603953832457135NN
cost0.0548954478802642NN
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.421355566815749
WordScorePoS
child0.0546336178945768NN
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benefit0.0252000451111224NN
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invest0.0583416713841148VB

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.325752241000557
WordScorePoS
child0.10682408961305NN
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For example preliminary results for experimental nutritional interventions at to months of age in rural Guatemala show that consuming nutritional supplement increased the probability of attend ing school by

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.812539402060872
WordScorePoS
result0NN
nutritional0.0583416713841148JJ
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age0.0365427838531249NN
rural0.148975141598503JJ
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increase0.0128868286091919NN
attend0.0583416713841148VB
school0.0297950283197006NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.410198772188685
WordScorePoS
result0NN
nutritional0JJ
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age0.0255262687343935NN
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percentage points and led to higher completed schooling attainment and higher adult cognitive achievement test scores

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.877515121268588
WordScorePoS
percentage0NN
lead0.0255262687343935NN
complete0.0815069365350084JJ
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adult0.163013873070017JJ
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Evidence is also mounting that interventions in early childhood particularly benefit poor and disadvantaged children and families

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.462646944315556
WordScorePoS
evidence0.12939607756667NN
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childhood0NN
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poor0JJ
disadvantaged0.064698038783335JJ
child0.0242343960710022NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.414714201638135
WordScorePoS
evidence0NN
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childhood0NN
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poor0.150659516460257JJ
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child0.0450489732120807NN
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Label: 3, with a score of: 0.444964290158729
WordScorePoS
evidence0NN
intervention0.0407408489778079NN
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poor0JJ
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child0.10682408961305NN
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.348461083424381
WordScorePoS
evidence0NN
intervention0NN
childhood0NN
benefit0.0252000451111224NN
poor0.0548141757796873JJ
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child0.0546336178945768NN
family0.0297950283197006NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.334455550723964
WordScorePoS
evidence0NN
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childhood0.0815069365350084NN
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poor0JJ
disadvantaged0JJ
child0.076326555629389NN
family0NN

In Jamaica nutritional supplementation and stimulation administered to undernourished children between the ages of to months who are most likely to come from disadvantaged families improved their mental development

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.594850060338012
WordScorePoS
nutritional0.0583416713841148JJ
undernourished0.132205049555723JJ
child0.0546336178945768NN
age0.0365427838531249NN
disadvantaged0JJ
family0.0297950283197006NN
improve0.0218534471578307VB
mental0JJ
development0.0159922815774215NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.523865892876355
WordScorePoS
nutritional0JJ
undernourished0JJ
child0.10682408961305NN
age0.0893142758861673NN
disadvantaged0JJ
family0.0624189222007589NN
improve0VB
mental0.0407408489778079JJ
development0.00837573444202498NN

Malnourished children who received milk supplement developed more than those who did not figure

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.782570837452639
WordScorePoS
child0.10682408961305NN
receive0.0814816979556159VB
develop0VB
figure0NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.317201809514141
WordScorePoS
child0.076326555629389NN
receive0VB
develop0VB
figure0NN

Children who benefited from stimulation did even better while the benefits of supplements and stimulation were additive and allowed disadvantaged children exposed to them to almost catch up with the development trajectory of normal children over period of months

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

The results suggest that ECD programs may be one of the most costeffective avenues for reaching the Millennium Development Goals for universal education and an important contributor to the attainment of gender parity in primary completion box

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.654669504637796
WordScorePoS
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They also help mothers participate in the labor force poor women who had access to free child care in the favelas of Rio de Janeiro increased their income by as much as percent and improve the academic performance of older children as documented for community nursery program in rural Colombia

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.467070010185388
WordScorePoS
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.435567231888058
WordScorePoS
mother0NN
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.41596348882617
WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.311495475695591
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.279492030669741
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Designing ECD programs Interventions to improve young children capacity to develop and learn can focus on improving parents teaching and child care skills delivering services directly to children or improving child care services in community

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 3, with a score of: 0.441022253407251
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Programs may be established in homes day care centers or communities

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.865212690707884
WordScorePoS
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Label: 3, with a score of: 0.300172813239529
WordScorePoS
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The evidence suggests that three design features are important for the full realization of benefits from ECD programs starting early having strong parental involvement and focusing on child health especially nutrition and cognitive and social stimulation

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.496076909295883
WordScorePoS
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Label: 3, with a score of: 0.45960388926833
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.367170476637865
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.359789587039001
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The focus on health leads to virtuous cycle because improved health also helps increase cognitive and Human capacities social abilities

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.576784159453649
WordScorePoS
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.448787996627399
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.339280366490963
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Overly formal programs can be too expensive for poor families culturally irrelevant and insensitive to families needs

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.511357414789368
WordScorePoS
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They thus run the risk of being abandoned even when they demonstrate high returns

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.760393865263105
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.474615221608614
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Label: 3, with a score of: 0.31080126894571
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What then are the impediments to the widespread implementation of ECD programs given that they are such good investments

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.665339467610745
WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.476979520519739
WordScorePoS
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Political economy constraints arise from the difficulty of making case for spending resources on program with the promise of uncertain benefits to come only years in the future

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.566385912104667
WordScorePoS
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.487739461252083
WordScorePoS
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Such case is often made by the immediate beneficiaries parents of school age children or intermediate beneficiaries teachers who organize themselves into powerful political forces

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.391118307365069
WordScorePoS
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.3246475017111
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Label: 3, with a score of: 0.316141585578783
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But the institutional setup for ECD program delivery with funds in many instances channeled to myriad small NGOs community centers or home based caregivers and the absence of strong central responsibility inhibit organized political pressure

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

The same institutional setup generates problems of integration with other government programs and of coordination across several government departments

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.895125440320362
WordScorePoS
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Thinking about the politics and the design of ECD from the start is thus important

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Getting information to parents community leaders and policymakers about the objectives and efficacy of ECD services can build public awareness and strengthen demand

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.486364080560229
WordScorePoS
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.4159019823299
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.345144071289705
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Monitoring systems build support by providing timely feedback on range of intermediate outputs to policymakers and program managers while proper evaluations provide more convincing evidence of impact and broader lessons from interventions

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.313949678106
WordScorePoS
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.486879355959174
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Integrating ECD programs into the broader development frameworks and involving parents families and community members enhance the sustainability of programs

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.550270616690497
WordScorePoS
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.409550083106482
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There are two possible approaches to scaling up ECD interventions

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.595553700154343
WordScorePoS
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Label: 3, with a score of: 0.447234719131016
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The first is to expand publicly funded preschool programs to all children by making it statutory right as in several European countries

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.45389595774605
WordScorePoS
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Label: 3, with a score of: 0.442698585373125
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Label: 4, with a score of: 0.440474812219317
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This would have significant funding implications but the benefit is potentially widespread support from middle class and poor families with children

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.508549864892432
WordScorePoS
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.467956204513686
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The second approach would target disadvantaged families

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.525321784580446
WordScorePoS
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.382926792099739
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.378157413138511
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Label: 3, with a score of: 0.364836069133102
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.31710054889346
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This may be more costeffective in view of the evidence presented earlier on larger gains from interventions for disadvantaged children

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 3, with a score of: 0.460175131361978
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To bolster participation the program could be supplemented by cash transfer scheme with transfers conditioned on various desirable behaviors including changes in the homecare environment as well as regular health center visits for growth monitoring immunizations and nutrition interventions

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.584439557263644
WordScorePoS
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Label: 3, with a score of: 0.348479740232954
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.332780036423505
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.385239957461428
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This would concentrate even more resources on the poor but the political economy implications are less clear

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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.485911377694934
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While targeted programs have smaller constituency and thus would not benefit from broad coalition of support national program with transparent criteria for eligibility and good monitoring of conditionality could mobilize support not only from the direct beneficiaries but also from other stakeholders in society

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.350953203624255
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It is possible to combine universal preschool approach with conditional cash transfer CCT program

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

This would yield the highest benefits in the participation of the poor and the productivity gains for all but it would also be more costly

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.554457022765502
WordScorePoS
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Label: 6, with a score of: 0.368456667347305
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.364979269822256
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.309127021913006
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The approach adopted in any country setting will have to emerge from considerations of costs benefits and fiscal capacity and reflect the political economy

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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.490012840734405
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.343029959219963
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Label: 13, with a score of: 0.334646219920927
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.321278490862219
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Basic education expanding opportunities to learn Prominent in the Millennium Development Goals education is great equalizer of opportunities between rich and poor and between men and women

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WordScorePoS
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But the equalizing promise of education can be realized only if children from different backgrounds have equal opportunities to benefit from quality education

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.814848901847958
WordScorePoS
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.34560708414722
WordScorePoS
education0.0512260062633133NN
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In the previous section we argued that children ability to benefit from school is strongly influenced by the cognitive and social skills they acquire in their early years

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WordScorePoS
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Evidence suggests that the gains from early interventions can dissipate if disadvantaged children go on to lowquality primary schools

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WordScorePoS
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WordScorePoS
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Chapter documented the large inequalities in educational attainment within countries by income region gender and ethnicity

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WordScorePoS
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WordScorePoS
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WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT Chapter presented the economic reasons why credit constrained households underinvest in education making the efficiency case for subsidizing education for the poor

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.314156606138799
WordScorePoS
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There are other reasons for parents to choose level of education for their children that may be lower than what is optimal for the child and for society

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.488721544271726
WordScorePoS
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Label: 3, with a score of: 0.349027970686553
WordScorePoS
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Educational attainment has various societal benefits that are not fully captured by the individual

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WordScorePoS
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For example it is generally associated with enhanced democracy and lower crime while girls schooling in particular has been shown to reduce fertility empower women and thereby contribute to the welfare of children in the family

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 4, with a score of: 0.277700328036257
WordScorePoS
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Label: 3, with a score of: 0.31709532379489
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In addition education has intrinsic value enabling people to lead fuller lives as informed and active participants in society

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.315880108484481
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The case for moving to equalizing access to education is therefore strong on both equity and efficiency grounds especially for basic education

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 7, with a score of: 0.229658298416343
WordScorePoS
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Beyond basic education there is an important efficiency rationale for ensuring that the most talented and productive people in society have access to higher education

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 7, with a score of: 0.233678004092476
WordScorePoS
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.316618121791552
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In today globalized world with competition largely on the basis of skills and ideas countries need to cultivate latent talent wherever it may reside

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WordScorePoS
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Motivated and talented children from poorer households deserve the opportunity to excel as much as their wealthier peers

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.399531960480889
WordScorePoS
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While we acknowledge the important equity dimension of policies for tertiary education the discussion here is devoted primarily to policies that expand access to and quality of basic education

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.398184907731441
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.305217545717876
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We argue that there is case for public action to enhance equity in learning so that outcomes reflect not merely circumstances of luck parental endowments sociocultural environment birth place one dedicated teacher but genuine differences in preferences effort and talent consistent with the notion of equal opportunities

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.369955074065508
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This requires expanding affordable access and upgrading quality with particular focus on excluded groups through various interventions that increase both the demand for schooling and the capacity and incentives of the school system to respond

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.362086867491661
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.34096052213994
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There are clear complementarities in this approach quality improvements help only if children are in school but they also influence the probability of their attendance

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WordScorePoS
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Even uneducated parents will pull their children out of school if they perceive low quality

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.819235956603028
WordScorePoS
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There may be tradeoffs however if resources devoted to upgrading quality benefit primarily the privileged who are already in school at the expense of reaching excluded groups or areas or if the rapid expansion of access reduces the quality of instruction

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 11, with a score of: 0.358356375053
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While the long run objective for school systems around the world is clear priorities will vary by country region or group

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Expanding access particularly for excluded groups Expanding access for all

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WordScorePoS
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More than million children of primary school age are out of school either because they never entered the system or because they dropped out before finishing

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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.41851433167795
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As result some countries risk not reaching the goal of universal primary completion

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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.318701680417119
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In most countries improving opportunities in education means ensuring affordable access especially for poor rural children and disadvantaged groups

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WordScorePoS
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Higher public spending on the supply of schools is one way to expand access

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WordScorePoS
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Analysis of the determinants of school enrollment in various countries suggests that proximity to schools is major factor

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WordScorePoS
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careful evaluation of Indonesia school construction program in the the largest such program on record finds evidence of significant increases in both education and earnings

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The program yields large positive returns but it takes more than years to do so because upfront construction costs are high more than percent of Indonesia GDP in while the benefits are spread over generation lifetime

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But for every success story there are many others in which higher spending has not translated into better access to infrastructure inputs and instruction for children

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In many cases the resources are not used effectively too much is spent on teacher salaries or reducing class size and not enough is spent on instructional materials

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Incidence studies suggest that the poor stand to benefit more from expansion when mean levels of access to services are already reasonably high now the case for primary Human capacities schooling even in many low income countries

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.271834078467515
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.389371736644517
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schooling0NN
income0.110649350233433NN
country0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.317208502326397
WordScorePoS
incidence0NN
study0NN
suggest0VB
poor0.0548141757796873JJ
stand0VB
benefit0.0252000451111224NN
expansion0NN
level0.00552410547653725NN
access0.00749031153171887NN
service0.0143446978608332NN
primary0.0155217067874935JJ
human0JJ
capacity0.0179281831452421NN
schooling0NN
income0.0643370113878709NN
country0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.310722023889506
WordScorePoS
incidence0NN
study0NN
suggest0VB
poor0JJ
stand0VB
benefit0.0393804437159645NN
expansion0NN
level0.0172651853471334NN
access0.00780347258345989NN
service0.022416649027415NN
primary0.0970239057629001JJ
human0.0170753354211044JJ
capacity0NN
schooling0NN
income0NN
country0NN

But spending alone is clearly not enough to get the children in school and even less effective in ensuring that they learn

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.886389335495774
WordScorePoS
spending0NN
child0.076326555629389NN
school0.208127520578185NN
effective0.0365927233505197JJ
ensure0.0390988676729552VB
learn0.244520809605025VB

In many countries the main problem is not facilities but children dropping out or not attending available schools

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.824051237587178
WordScorePoS
country0NN
facility0.0815069365350084NN
child0.076326555629389NN
attend0VB
school0.208127520578185NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.321482488055154
WordScorePoS
country0NN
facility0NN
child0.0546336178945768NN
attend0.0583416713841148VB
school0.0297950283197006NN

Recent efforts to boost access thus focus on demand side interventions reducing the cost of schooling or providing incentives even paying for attendance

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.387580533126556
WordScorePoS
effort0.032404008418326NN
access0.00110699520004297NN
focus0NN
demand0.0264204925485796NN
intervention0NN
reduce0.00709051106978941VB
cost0NN
schooling0NN
provide0.0445201436316848VB
incentive0.0390772412228479NN
pay0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.380629528198848
WordScorePoS
effort0.0127591822694525NN
access0.00610236075888593NN
focus0NN
demand0.020806307400253NN
intervention0.0407408489778079NN
reduce0.01675146888405VB
cost0NN
schooling0.0407408489778079NN
provide0.0100171139310145VB
incentive0NN
pay0NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.37345840429557
WordScorePoS
effort0.0229054731708393NN
access0.00626002771693937NN
focus0.0373517915079663NN
demand0NN
intervention0NN
reduce0.0200483235258943VB
cost0NN
schooling0NN
provide0.0269743071558856VB
incentive0NN
pay0.0315914058171786NN

In many countries parents have to pay lot either for school fees or for other inputs such as uniforms and textbooks

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.689459353117952
WordScorePoS
country0NN
pay0NN
school0.208127520578185NN
input0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.569393134051336
WordScorePoS
country0NN
pay0.078760887431929NN
school0.0931221694711702NN
input0NN

Eliminating these costs can boost participation

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.539911868941869
WordScorePoS
eliminate0.078760887431929VB
cost0NN
participation0.0465610847355851NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.525486647512126
WordScorePoS
eliminate0.0558912165956601VB
cost0.0660824365173543NN
participation0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.47300091673976
WordScorePoS
eliminate0VB
cost0.0548954478802642NN
participation0.0548954478802642NN

Free uniforms and textbooks provided by an NGO program in Kenya along with better classrooms reduced dropout rates considerably after five years students in the program completed about percent more schooling

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

In addition many students from nearby schools transferred to program schools to take advantage of the benefits

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.79728152659125
WordScorePoS
addition0NN
school0.208127520578185NN
transfer0NN
benefit0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.432154456688143
WordScorePoS
addition0NN
school0.0931221694711702NN
transfer0NN
benefit0.0393804437159645NN

The result was percent increase in class size an increase that does not appear to have deterred parents nor has it led to measurable negative impact on test scores

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

This is at least suggestive that reallocation of the education budget larger class size with the savings used to pay for the inputs under the program could raise school participation at no cost to quality

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.736869060206674
WordScorePoS
education0.244244978014045NN
class0NN
size0NN
pay0NN
input0NN
raise0NN
school0.208127520578185NN
participation0NN
cost0NN
quality0.076326555629389NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.375850092531174
WordScorePoS
education0.0512260062633133NN
class0NN
size0NN
pay0.078760887431929NN
input0NN
raise0NN
school0.0931221694711702NN
participation0.0465610847355851NN
cost0NN
quality0NN

Eliminating user fees for basic schools has also been shown to boost student enrollment but quality may be compromised if reliable alternative sources of financing are not available to schools box

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.763978366487017
WordScorePoS
eliminate0.0352060273355634VB
user0NN
basic0.0433695758119029JJ
school0.208127520578185NN
quality0.076326555629389NN
reliable0JJ
alternative0NN
source0NN
financing0NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.237249875386416
WordScorePoS
eliminate0VB
user0NN
basic0JJ
school0NN
quality0NN
reliable0.149891440995783JJ
alternative0NN
source0.0274787313211514NN
financing0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.354470292906412
WordScorePoS
eliminate0.078760887431929VB
user0NN
basic0JJ
school0.0931221694711702NN
quality0NN
reliable0JJ
alternative0NN
source0NN
financing0NN

In both Tanzania and Uganda eliminating school fees became an important political issue when the population could voice its discontent helped by the democratic process an active civil society and in Tanzania the Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper process

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.349926016515076
WordScorePoS
eliminate0VB
school0NN
political0JJ
issue0NN
population0NN
voice0NN
help0NN
democratic0JJ
process0NN
active0JJ
civil0JJ
society0NN
poverty0.269969049497485NN
reduction0NN
strategy0.0442083771593746NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.27102118701525
WordScorePoS
eliminate0.0352060273355634VB
school0.208127520578185NN
political0JJ
issue0NN
population0NN
voice0NN
help0NN
democratic0JJ
process0NN
active0JJ
civil0JJ
society0NN
poverty0NN
reduction0NN
strategy0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.504462759448003
WordScorePoS
eliminate0.078760887431929VB
school0.0931221694711702NN
political0.111637082206855JJ
issue0NN
population0.024255976440725NN
voice0NN
help0NN
democratic0JJ
process0.0558185411034276NN
active0JJ
civil0JJ
society0.0335134328085675NN
poverty0NN
reduction0NN
strategy0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.462570092697029
WordScorePoS
eliminate0.0558912165956601VB
school0NN
political0.0792212041430275JJ
issue0NN
population0.0860640399817412NN
voice0.064698038783335NN
help0NN
democratic0JJ
process0NN
active0JJ
civil0JJ
society0.0237821918091848NN
poverty0.05809266143877NN
reduction0.0475643836183697NN
strategy0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.316653898504026
WordScorePoS
eliminate0VB
school0NN
political0JJ
issue0NN
population0.0428212738652355NN
voice0NN
help0NN
democratic0.0804764811724088JJ
process0NN
active0JJ
civil0JJ
society0.0591643007226199NN
poverty0.0722601961736204NN
reduction0NN
strategy0.0295821503613099NN

In some cases there may be need to go beyond removing the direct financial costs of schooling to induce poor parents to enroll their children

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.507420751971579
WordScorePoS
remove0VB
direct0JJ
financial0.0184786920895884JJ
cost0NN
schooling0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
child0.0450489732120807NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.378455344101822
WordScorePoS
remove0VB
direct0.0396106020715138JJ
financial0.0298222075472138JJ
cost0.0660824365173543NN
schooling0NN
poor0JJ
child0.0242343960710022NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.364418833088682
WordScorePoS
remove0VB
direct0JJ
financial0.00625975725959118JJ
cost0NN
schooling0.0407408489778079NN
poor0JJ
child0.10682408961305NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.312256802129748
WordScorePoS
remove0VB
direct0JJ
financial0.016515769558553JJ
cost0.0548954478802642NN
schooling0NN
poor0JJ
child0.0603953832457135NN

This could be accomplished by providing CCTs and free meals

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.675296841137598
WordScorePoS
provide0.00601568197638796VB
free0.0898760357768464JJ

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.421986878864718
WordScorePoS
provide0.0100202166857628VB
free0.0499016491051341JJ

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.374817460325823
WordScorePoS
provide0.0200087191734851VB
free0.0332151194779746JJ

CCT programs make payments to poor families typically mothers on the condition that children attend school regularly

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.544859797036612
WordScorePoS
poor0JJ
family0.0624189222007589NN
typically0RB
mother0.162963395911232NN
condition0NN
child0.10682408961305NN
attend0VB
school0NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.466540038435909
WordScorePoS
poor0JJ
family0NN
typically0RB
mother0NN
condition0NN
child0.076326555629389NN
attend0VB
school0.208127520578185NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.320986246747745
WordScorePoS
poor0.150659516460257JJ
family0NN
typically0RB
mother0NN
condition0NN
child0.0450489732120807NN
attend0VB
school0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.372930675512662
WordScorePoS
poor0.0548141757796873JJ
family0.0297950283197006NN
typically0RB
mother0NN
condition0NN
child0.0546336178945768NN
attend0.0583416713841148VB
school0.0297950283197006NN

The programs can be seen as compensating for the oppor BOX

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

School fees an instrument of exclusion or accountability

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.801178309640881
WordScorePoS
school0.208127520578185NN
exclusion0NN
accountability0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.358469952074294
WordScorePoS
school0.0931221694711702NN
exclusion0NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.349696596622914
WordScorePoS
school0NN
exclusion0.0908430554521382NN
accountability0NN

There are two schools of thought about school fees

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.880363915968638
WordScorePoS
school0.208127520578185NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.393899843477631
WordScorePoS
school0.0931221694711702NN

Some claim that school fees deter poor families from sending their kids to school

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.761364052536305
WordScorePoS
school0.208127520578185NN
poor0JJ
family0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.275568410382928
WordScorePoS
school0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
family0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.425819901979928
WordScorePoS
school0.0931221694711702NN
poor0JJ
family0.0465610847355851NN

Even nominally small amounts can be large share of poor households income and these come on top of the forgone benefits of children contributing to family business or household chores

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.394761706609354
WordScorePoS
amount0.0614198493690006NN
share0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
household0NN
income0.0442083771593746NN
benefit0NN
child0.0450489732120807NN
contribute0VB
family0NN
business0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.336406789802353
WordScorePoS
amount0NN
share0NN
poor0JJ
household0.0330412182586772NN
income0.166475342664294NN
benefit0NN
child0.0242343960710022NN
contribute0VB
family0NN
business0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.464679636252779
WordScorePoS
amount0NN
share0.0365427838531249NN
poor0.0548141757796873JJ
household0.0297950283197006NN
income0.0643370113878709NN
benefit0.0252000451111224NN
child0.0546336178945768NN
contribute0.0297950283197006VB
family0.0297950283197006NN
business0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.347566244204534
WordScorePoS
amount0NN
share0.0377086395700813NN
poor0JJ
household0NN
income0.110649350233433NN
benefit0.0260040237236563NN
child0NN
contribute0VB
family0NN
business0.0909486002868787NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.315979028701159
WordScorePoS
amount0NN
share0NN
poor0.0339811641917276JJ
household0.0554128417527413NN
income0NN
benefit0NN
child0NN
contribute0.0554128417527413VB
family0NN
business0.0409791940864438NN

Schooling costs often figure in parents responses about constraint to enrollment and eliminating school fees appears to have spurred large increase in enrollments in number of countries including Kenya Tanzania Uganda and Vietnam

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.640392938599442
WordScorePoS
schooling0NN
cost0NN
figure0NN
response0NN
constraint0NN
eliminate0.0352060273355634VB
school0.208127520578185NN
increase0.0144029596227568NN
country0NN
include0VB

Others see user fees as an important accountability tool mechanism for empowering parents to demand quality services from the schools and point to studies that show even poor households willingness to pay for good quality services

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.469700643902623
WordScorePoS
user0NN
accountability0NN
tool0NN
mechanism0NN
empower0VB
demand0NN
quality0.076326555629389NN
service0NN
school0.208127520578185NN
study0NN
poor0JJ
household0NN
pay0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.363707299911551
WordScorePoS
user0.048933054487825NN
accountability0.048933054487825NN
tool0NN
mechanism0.147846224719512NN
empower0VB
demand0NN
quality0.00916459792075908NN
service0NN
school0NN
study0NN
poor0.0153248097886055JJ
household0NN
pay0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.311636734952453
WordScorePoS
user0NN
accountability0NN
tool0NN
mechanism0NN
empower0VB
demand0NN
quality0NN
service0.0443555132287109NN
school0NN
study0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
household0NN
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.415431357509217
WordScorePoS
user0NN
accountability0NN
tool0NN
mechanism0NN
empower0.0558185411034276VB
demand0NN
quality0NN
service0.022416649027415NN
school0.0931221694711702NN
study0NN
poor0JJ
household0.0465610847355851NN
pay0.078760887431929NN

Sympathetic to the arguments in favor of greater accountability we argue for eliminating user fees when the fiscal impact of forgone revenues can be managed without large efficiency costs or harmful spending cuts

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.271982037359514
WordScorePoS
accountability0NN
eliminate0VB
user0NN
fiscal0JJ
impact0NN
revenue0NN
manage0VB
efficiency0.134992154141495NN
cost0NN
harmful0JJ
spending0NN
cut0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.50924872807742
WordScorePoS
accountability0NN
eliminate0.0558912165956601VB
user0NN
fiscal0.064698038783335JJ
impact0NN
revenue0NN
manage0.0660824365173543VB
efficiency0NN
cost0.0660824365173543NN
harmful0JJ
spending0NN
cut0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.394361048268708
WordScorePoS
accountability0.048933054487825NN
eliminate0VB
user0.048933054487825NN
fiscal0JJ
impact0NN
revenue0.0978661089756501NN
manage0VB
efficiency0NN
cost0NN
harmful0JJ
spending0NN
cut0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.377589663021653
WordScorePoS
accountability0NN
eliminate0VB
user0NN
fiscal0JJ
impact0.0866018859977851NN
revenue0NN
manage0VB
efficiency0.039884692535803NN
cost0.0277064208763707NN
harmful0.0332151194779746JJ
spending0NN
cut0NN

The desirable voice and accountability aspects of school fees can be harnessed equally or better through contributing labor for school improvements or working on parent teacher advisory committees

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.890733260732066
WordScorePoS
voice0NN
accountability0NN
aspect0NN
school0.208127520578185NN
contribute0VB
improvement0NN
teacher0.163013873070017NN

Such in kind fees are cheaper to the parent and engage the parent more fully in school decision making

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.703318581563946
WordScorePoS
kind0NN
engage0VB
fully0RB
school0.208127520578185NN
decision0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.447761784224414
WordScorePoS
kind0NN
engage0VB
fully0RB
school0.0931221694711702NN
decision0.0393804437159645NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.34240405361066
WordScorePoS
kind0NN
engage0VB
fully0RB
school0.0548954478802642NN
decision0.0464294830712827NN

tunity cost of schooling for poor families and represent one approach to addressing failures in credit markets and the imperfect agency of parents

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.36609182849927
WordScorePoS
cost0NN
schooling0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
family0NN
represent0VB
approach0NN
address0NN
credit0NN
market0NN
agency0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.454839093504138
WordScorePoS
cost0.0277064208763707NN
schooling0NN
poor0.0339811641917276JJ
family0NN
represent0VB
approach0.0542519672965169NN
address0NN
credit0NN
market0.0169905820958638NN
agency0.0542519672965169NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.427585167855737
WordScorePoS
cost0NN
schooling0NN
poor0.0548141757796873JJ
family0.0297950283197006NN
represent0VB
approach0NN
address0NN
credit0NN
market0.0913569596328122NN
agency0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.367022569212674
WordScorePoS
cost0.0660824365173543NN
schooling0NN
poor0JJ
family0NN
represent0VB
approach0NN
address0.064698038783335NN
credit0NN
market0.0202620733250388NN
agency0NN

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.366223158363829
WordScorePoS
cost0NN
schooling0NN
poor0.0642010940957526JJ
family0.0348974218717993NN
represent0.0516150472983178VB
approach0NN
address0NN
credit0NN
market0NN
agency0NN

Many of the cash forschool attendance programs are large representing significant commitments of public resources

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.479307970894675
WordScorePoS
represent0VB
significant0JJ
commitment0.0739231123597559NN
public0.0390556786919513NN
resource0.0375923735942499NN

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.363085416367051
WordScorePoS
represent0.0401833161726777VB
significant0.0166605993001162JJ
commitment0NN
public0NN
resource0.0572167664438909NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.355187625395465
WordScorePoS
represent0VB
significant0.0376648791150643JJ
commitment0NN
public0NN
resource0.0739147683583536NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.328912909684888
WordScorePoS
represent0VB
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commitment0NN
public0.0583751976558017NN
resource0.0449504361447405NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.320823928074518
WordScorePoS
represent0VB
significant0JJ
commitment0NN
public0.0727679293221751NN
resource0.0280166088658745NN

The biggest are Oportunidades previously PROGRESA in Mexico the Bolsa Escola in Brazil and the Food for Education Program in Bangladesh

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.666513559788753
WordScorePoS
food0.292342270824999NN
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Label: 4, with a score of: 0.556856144331303
WordScorePoS
food0NN
education0.244244978014045NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.44927227563053
WordScorePoS
food0.186896403054502NN
education0.0101607690729067NN

The budgets allocated to these programs are between just under percent of total government current expenditure in Brazil and more than percent in Bangladesh

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

These significant but not prohibitive sums could be generated from savings on other expenditures such as regressive subsidies for public services including tertiary education

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.641510360038176
WordScorePoS
significant0JJ
generate0VB
expenditure0NN
subsidy0NN
public0NN
service0NN
include0VB
tertiary0.0815069365350084JJ
education0.244244978014045NN

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.432648337533909
WordScorePoS
significant0.0166605993001162JJ
generate0.0401833161726777VB
expenditure0NN
subsidy0.162850158165781NN
public0NN
service0NN
include0VB
tertiary0JJ
education0NN

A question remains about how costeffective the programs are in expanding education the answer depends on how successful they are in reaching households that would not have participated in the school system without the transfers

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.790691357296114
WordScorePoS
remains0NNS
expand0.0299609328954485VB
education0.244244978014045NN
depend0VB
successful0JJ
reach0.0499016491051341NN
household0NN
school0.208127520578185NN
system0NN
transfer0NN

careful evaluation of PROGRESA found an average increase in enrollment of

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.738203228016117
WordScorePoS
careful0JJ
average0.1656430212089NN
increase0.0145316075945746NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.612389573394551
WordScorePoS
careful0JJ
average0.146608885563018NN
increase0.00285817158600878NN

percent for all students in grades one through eight with the largest increase

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.75412031362413
WordScorePoS
largest0.0714379839896614JJS
increase0.0128868286091919NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.472336828078738
WordScorePoS
largest0.0368585655748969JJS
increase0.0159575617614215NN

percent for girls who had completed grade six

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.86180458334861
WordScorePoS
girl0.393804437159645NN
complete0JJ

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.486550928018211
WordScorePoS
girl0.140824109342254NN
complete0.0815069365350084JJ

Morley and Coady estimate an internal rate of return taking into account the cost of grants for the program of percent year and report that the transfers are times more cost effective WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT than building schools

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.377464014760678
WordScorePoS
estimate0.0299609328954485NN
rate0.0216847879059514NN
return0NN
account0NN
cost0NN
report0NN
transfer0NN
time0NN
effective0.0365927233505197JJ
world0.0017440716962658NN
development0.0279277626235394NN
building0NN
school0.208127520578185NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.301015939518302
WordScorePoS
estimate0NN
rate0NN
return0NN
account0NN
cost0NN
report0NN
transfer0.036961556179878NN
time0NN
effective0.0219686053934784JJ
world0.00418824502414673NN
development0.0469463607292177NN
building0.149940347231585NN
school0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.640052125965944
WordScorePoS
estimate0NN
rate0.0571955184484387NN
return0.107490825192354NN
account0.0285977592242194NN
cost0.0548954478802642NN
report0NN
transfer0NN
time0NN
effective0.0482582488828229JJ
world0NN
development0.0368309542451156NN
building0.109790895760528NN
school0.0548954478802642NN

But De Janvry and Sadoulet find that most program benefits are received by those who would have gone to school anyway

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.751246277931665
WordScorePoS
benefit0NN
receive0VB
school0.208127520578185NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.478274543878304
WordScorePoS
benefit0.0393804437159645NN
receive0VB
school0.0931221694711702NN

They suggest calibrating transfers to increase program efficiency for example through larger transfers to the eldest child to children with an indigenous father or to children especially girls living in villages without secondary school

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.601923932527716
WordScorePoS
suggest0VB
transfer0NN
increase0.0144029596227568NN
efficiency0NN
child0.076326555629389NN
indigenous0.0499016491051341JJ
girl0.140824109342254NN
live0.0200404333715257VB
secondary0.0615662203253227JJ
school0.208127520578185NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.508126389055781
WordScorePoS
suggest0VB
transfer0NN
increase0.00402768349408688NN
efficiency0NN
child0.0170753354211044NN
indigenous0JJ
girl0.393804437159645NN
live0VB
secondary0.0688661930304451JJ
school0.0931221694711702NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.125746032628602
WordScorePoS
suggest0VB
transfer0NN
increase0.0162235147372888NN
efficiency0.134992154141495NN
child0NN
indigenous0JJ
girl0NN
live0VB
secondary0JJ
school0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.34735804263085
WordScorePoS
suggest0VB
transfer0NN
increase0.0143984997539974NN
efficiency0NN
child0.10682408961305NN
indigenous0JJ
girl0.0527926887119861NN
live0.0300513417930436VB
secondary0JJ
school0NN

Reaching excluded groups

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.739280600637778
WordScorePoS
reach0.0658099748168827NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.560573396751934
WordScorePoS
reach0.0499016491051341NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.373124188943365
WordScorePoS
reach0.0332151194779746NN

Schools with adequate supplies and well trained and motivated teachers who are accountable for the learning they produce are good for everyone

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.89640806597945
WordScorePoS
school0.208127520578185NN
adequate0JJ
supplies0NNS
teacher0.163013873070017NN
accountable0JJ
learn0.244520809605025VB
produce0VB

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.316363561418676
WordScorePoS
school0.0548954478802642NN
adequate0JJ
supplies0NNS
teacher0NN
accountable0.162386273072618JJ
learn0VB
produce0VB

But additional support may be necessary to improve access for excluded groups such as disabled children girls and indigenous groups

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.660632147616843
WordScorePoS
additional0JJ
support0NN
improve0VB
access0.00780347258345989NN
child0.0170753354211044NN
girl0.393804437159645NN
indigenous0JJ

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.48055807335481
WordScorePoS
additional0JJ
support0NN
improve0.0305306222517556VB
access0.00697628678506322NN
child0.076326555629389NN
girl0.140824109342254NN
indigenous0.0499016491051341JJ

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.312308090041727
WordScorePoS
additional0.0440683498519077JJ
support0.00896409157262106NN
improve0.0218534471578307VB
access0.00749031153171887NN
child0.0546336178945768NN
girl0.0252000451111224NN
indigenous0.0357189919948307JJ

Including disabled children is possible at relatively modest costs

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.520863560399799
WordScorePoS
include0VB
child0.0603953832457135NN
cost0.0548954478802642NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.48261232145618
WordScorePoS
include0VB
child0.10682408961305NN
cost0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.408035457170056
WordScorePoS
include0VB
child0.0242343960710022NN
cost0.0660824365173543NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.344829863137477
WordScorePoS
include0VB
child0.076326555629389NN
cost0NN

In Uruguay grants of up to are awarded for schools that BOX

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.880363915968639
WordScorePoS
school0.208127520578185NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.393899843477631
WordScorePoS
school0.0931221694711702NN

Desegregating Roma schools in Bulgaria the Vidin model In Vidin the Open Society Institute and the Roma NGO known by the initials DROM have been collaborating to integrate Roma students into the mainstream school system

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.739929736857212
WordScorePoS
school0.208127520578185NN
society0NN
integrate0VB
system0NN

Vidin is town of in northwest Bulgaria and percent of its population was identified as Roma in the census

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

In the school year Roma students or half the school age students were enrolled in the mainstream school system

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.830286938358992
WordScorePoS
school0.208127520578185NN
age0.0255262687343935NN
enrol0.0615662203253227VB
system0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.406385386522833
WordScorePoS
school0.0931221694711702NN
age0NN
enrol0.0688661930304451VB
system0NN

Students are bused from the settlement to school and back

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.748645313338811
WordScorePoS
settlement0NN
school0.208127520578185NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.526166381643998
WordScorePoS
settlement0.146277152173395NN
school0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.334965196091618
WordScorePoS
settlement0NN
school0.0931221694711702NN

And Roma monitors interact with parents and the school to encourage attendance

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.740736663688816
WordScorePoS
monitor0NN
school0.208127520578185NN
encourage0VB

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.331426641406735
WordScorePoS
monitor0NN
school0.0931221694711702NN
encourage0VB

Lowincome students also receive shoes and school lunches with lunches given on the bus to reduce the stigma of receiving it at school

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.809174586287084
WordScorePoS
receive0VB
school0.208127520578185NN
reduce0VB

While preparing the program DROM went door to door in the Roma settlement and sought the support of the schools the mayor and the media

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.620618363565981
WordScorePoS
settlement0NN
seek0VB
support0NN
school0.208127520578185NN
media0NNS

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.503205052262487
WordScorePoS
settlement0.146277152173395NN
seek0VB
support0.0224752180723703NN
school0NN
media0NNS

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.413725517089192
WordScorePoS
settlement0NN
seek0.120266261535276VB
support0.0184786920895884NN
school0NN
media0NNS

The project eventually gained the support of all the stakeholders except the mayor who nevertheless agreed not to block it

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.674185887829875
WordScorePoS
project0.0664302389559493NN
gain0.0664302389559493NN
support0.00833571598658786NN
stakeholder0.0409791940864438NN
agree0.0234335422829798VB

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.528918330146697
WordScorePoS
project0NN
gain0NN
support0.0451108483130998NN
stakeholder0.0739231123597559NN
agree0.0422721924574123VB

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.343210334678393
WordScorePoS
project0.041835863322702NN
gain0.041835863322702NN
support0.0209983814716066NN
stakeholder0NN
agree0VB

DROM invited the six mainstream schools in Vidin to present the program philosophy and teachers on television

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.957265840202927
WordScorePoS
school0.208127520578185NN
teacher0.163013873070017NN

Roma parents then selected school for their children

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.786048267493455
WordScorePoS
school0.208127520578185NN
child0.076326555629389NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.318589767714646
WordScorePoS
school0.0548954478802642NN
child0.0603953832457135NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.304515087136472
WordScorePoS
school0.0931221694711702NN
child0.0170753354211044NN

This marked the first time that their views had been solicited by the authorities

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.689582758608532
WordScorePoS
time0.0607862199751165NN
view0NN

At the end of the first semester attendance was percent and first term finalgrade averages were identical to those of non Roma pupils

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.620145418428097
WordScorePoS
term0.0396106020715138NN
average0.146608885563018NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.551621970407777
WordScorePoS
term0NN
average0.1656430212089NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.498839769864088
WordScorePoS
term0.149793392961411NN
average0NN

Parents and teachers were satisfied especially with the absence of reported incidents of anti Roma prejudice

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.953969308113922
WordScorePoS
teacher0.163013873070017NN
report0NN

Education authorities were encouraged to scale up in other cities

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.909287760211665
WordScorePoS
education0NN
encouraged0JJ
scale0NN
city0.607697021770652NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.365460025382773
WordScorePoS
education0.244244978014045NN
encouraged0JJ
scale0NN
city0NN

In addition Roma parents of the bused children returned to school in adult education programs and three teenagers who had dropped out in the third grade asked to join the program prompting teachers to work extra hours with them

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.921337161489377
WordScorePoS
addition0NN
child0.076326555629389NN
return0NN
school0.208127520578185NN
adult0.163013873070017JJ
education0.244244978014045NN
teacher0.163013873070017NN

On the negative side pupils received failing grades in one or more subjects and three left the program

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

The success is attributable to three major factors

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

First parents feel that their children are protected from prejudice because they are bused and monitored throughout the day by adult Roma

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.649398801625656
WordScorePoS
child0.0450489732120807NN
protect0VB
monitor0NN
day0.25973846344589NN
adult0JJ

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.509953393362418
WordScorePoS
child0.076326555629389NN
protect0VB
monitor0NN
day0NN
adult0.163013873070017JJ

Second Roma monitors in the schools assure that the children are not mistreated encourage parental engagement and student participation in extracurricular activities and help the teachers ease cultural differences

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.79457051166438
WordScorePoS
monitor0NN
school0.208127520578185NN
child0.076326555629389NN
encourage0VB
participation0NN
activity0NN
teacher0.163013873070017NN
cultural0.0615662203253227JJ

Third the children are happy to be in schools where real learning takes place

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.921027417615692
WordScorePoS
child0.076326555629389NN
school0.208127520578185NN
learn0.244520809605025VB

Source Ringold Orenstein and Wilkens

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.73415387760794
WordScorePoS
source0.0613562156822703NN

put forward proposals for reaching disabled children

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.544616743735795
WordScorePoS
reach0.0499016491051341NN
child0.076326555629389NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.544518170836844
WordScorePoS
reach0.0658099748168827NN
child0.0603953832457135NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.460896896695613
WordScorePoS
reach0NN
child0.10682408961305NN

In the two years since the fund was set up percent of all schools in Uruguay have been awarded grants to cover expenses to adapt school materials equipment and infrastructure and to train teachers in appropriate pedagogical approaches

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.832157478095526
WordScorePoS
fund0NN
set0NN
school0.208127520578185NN
cover0NN
material0NN
infrastructure0NN
teacher0.163013873070017NN
approach0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.276111982094654
WordScorePoS
fund0NN
set0NN
school0NN
cover0NN
material0NN
infrastructure0.192202909044225NN
teacher0NN
approach0NN

Improving gender equity in access to schooling often requires making special provisions for girls especially older girls

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.886330716059215
WordScorePoS
improve0VB
gender0.196902218579822NN
access0.00780347258345989NN
schooling0NN
require0VB
special0JJ
provision0.0558185411034276NN
girl0.393804437159645NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.359200125227714
WordScorePoS
improve0.0305306222517556VB
gender0.10561808200669NN
access0.00697628678506322NN
schooling0NN
require0VB
special0JJ
provision0NN
girl0.140824109342254NN

Specific grants for girls have been effective in Bangladesh and Mexico

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.893385868194681
WordScorePoS
specific0JJ
girl0.393804437159645NN
effective0.02046578088155JJ

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.382604600101431
WordScorePoS
specific0JJ
girl0.140824109342254NN
effective0.0365927233505197JJ

Private latrines for girls are essential

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.874721901496984
WordScorePoS
private0.0558185411034276JJ
latrine0NN
girl0.393804437159645NN
essential0JJ

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.273967165059794
WordScorePoS
private0JJ
latrine0NN
girl0.140824109342254NN
essential0JJ

Other structural improvements including boundary walls flexible or double sessions when sharing facility with boys and perhaps even genderspecific schools may allay parents concerns about girls privacy and safety

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.738132048024107
WordScorePoS
improvement0NN
include0VB
double0RB
share0.0285529457667019NN
facility0NN
boy0.206598579091335NN
school0.0931221694711702NN
girl0.393804437159645NN
privacy0NN
safety0NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.628833978401397
WordScorePoS
improvement0NN
include0VB
double0RB
share0NN
facility0.0815069365350084NN
boy0.184698660975968NN
school0.208127520578185NN
girl0.140824109342254NN
privacy0NN
safety0NN

It is important for schools to undermine not underscore stereotypes and unequal treatment of women and to be wary of giving boys more resources leadership and attention

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.733129137371488
WordScorePoS
school0.0931221694711702NN
treatment0NN
woman0.221979360474357NN
give0VB
boy0.206598579091335NN
resource0.0280166088658745NN
leadership0.0688661930304451NN
attention0NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.537936129899593
WordScorePoS
school0.208127520578185NN
treatment0NN
woman0.0610612445035112NN
give0VB
boy0.184698660975968NN
resource0NN
leadership0NN
attention0NN

Female teachers are good role models for boys and girls and even young women can be effective teachers with training support and programmed curriculum

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.716243186928081
WordScorePoS
female0.0911713013253052NN
teacher0NN
boy0.206598579091335NN
girl0.393804437159645NN
woman0.221979360474357NN
effective0.02046578088155JJ
training0NN
support0NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.670279995446975
WordScorePoS
female0NN
teacher0.163013873070017NN
boy0.184698660975968NN
girl0.140824109342254NN
woman0.0610612445035112NN
effective0.0365927233505197JJ
training0.124876512346911NN
support0NN

Governments might consider setting national goals for hiring women and being flexible with age and education requirements for female teachers while still providing adequate inservice training

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.721839474995421
WordScorePoS
government0NN
set0NN
national0JJ
goal0NN
woman0.0610612445035112NN
age0.0255262687343935NN
education0.244244978014045NN
female0NN
teacher0.163013873070017NN
provide0.0100202166857628VB
adequate0JJ
training0.124876512346911NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.4455427793316
WordScorePoS
government0NN
set0NN
national0.0124956749436837JJ
goal0NN
woman0.221979360474357NN
age0NN
education0.0512260062633133NN
female0.0911713013253052NN
teacher0NN
provide0.0112083245137075VB
adequate0JJ
training0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.31981654816449
WordScorePoS
government0NN
set0NN
national0.0164833460638534JJ
goal0NN
woman0.0450489732120807NN
age0.112994637345193NN
education0.0225244866060403NN
female0NN
teacher0NN
provide0.0295703421524739VB
adequate0.0519476926891779JJ
training0NN

To expand access for ethnic groups teachers or teacher aides from the target ethnic group are particularly helpful in their ability to connect with the students as powerful role models

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.927288657087221
WordScorePoS
expand0.0299609328954485VB
access0.00697628678506322NN
teacher0.163013873070017NN
target0.0499016491051341NN
ability0NN

Bilingual schools have also been effective

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.835869281529325
WordScorePoS
school0.208127520578185NN
effective0.0365927233505197JJ

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.387972310453308
WordScorePoS
school0.0931221694711702NN
effective0.02046578088155JJ

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.3523329538098
WordScorePoS
school0.0548954478802642NN
effective0.0482582488828229JJ

In Mali bilingual programs were associated with large declines in dropout and repetition and rural students outscored urban children

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.769012775676726
WordScorePoS
decline0.0315914058171786NN
rural0.0373517915079663JJ
urban0.27622591898666JJ
child0.0273960270556257NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.420269421542338
WordScorePoS
decline0NN
rural0.148975141598503JJ
urban0JJ
child0.0546336178945768NN

In Mexico geographic targeting under PROGRESA now Oportunidades led to the relatively high participation of indigenous people but not those in the most remote areas without schools

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.732291406523493
WordScorePoS
geographic0JJ
target0.0499016491051341NN
lead0.0255262687343935NN
participation0NN
indigenous0.0499016491051341JJ
people0.00720147981137839NNS
school0.208127520578185NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.307682625494906
WordScorePoS
geographic0.048933054487825JJ
target0.0898760357768464NN
lead0NN
participation0NN
indigenous0JJ
people0.00432344066632653NNS
school0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.300267941274133
WordScorePoS
geographic0JJ
target0NN
lead0NN
participation0.0465610847355851NN
indigenous0JJ
people0NNS
school0.0931221694711702NN

An innovative approach to encourage the attendance of Roma children in Vidin Bulgaria appears to have paid off box

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.603176282325789
WordScorePoS
approach0NN
encourage0.0695218668857431VB
child0.0452169560888236NN
pay0.0695218668857431NN

Upgrading quality Better quality for all

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.727743153326719
WordScorePoS
upgrade0.0352060273355634NN
quality0.076326555629389NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.376189694892978
WordScorePoS
upgrade0.0520080474473126NN
quality0.022550656390892NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.368212793786692
WordScorePoS
upgrade0.0347609334428716NN
quality0.030144637392549NN

Expanding access to basic education is necessary but not enough the quality of education matters for opportunities

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.875483722132389
WordScorePoS
expand0.0299609328954485VB
access0.00697628678506322NN
basic0.0433695758119029JJ
education0.244244978014045NN
quality0.076326555629389NN
opportunity0NN

But even children in middle Human capacities income countries do lot worse than the average OECD kid on international tests of learning achievement suggesting that much of the learning in schools does not prepare children to be productive adults let alone for the rigors of competition they will face in the global labor market

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.753285855901478
WordScorePoS
child0.076326555629389NN
middle0JJ
human0.0152653111258778JJ
capacity0NN
income0NN
country0NN
average0NN
oecd0NN
international0.00360073990568919JJ
learn0.244520809605025VB
achievement0NN
suggest0VB
school0.208127520578185NN
productive0JJ
adult0.163013873070017JJ
global0.00558555252470789JJ
market0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.291087409094103
WordScorePoS
child0.0242343960710022NN
middle0JJ
human0JJ
capacity0NN
income0.166475342664294NN
country0NN
average0.146608885563018NN
oecd0NN
international0.00571634317201755JJ
learn0VB
achievement0NN
suggest0VB
school0NN
productive0JJ
adult0JJ
global0.0133009891881297JJ
market0.0202620733250388NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.1861156571787
WordScorePoS
child0NN
middle0JJ
human0.0205355488872215JJ
capacity0.025270503924109NN
income0NN
country0NN
average0.1656430212089NN
oecd0NN
international0.00726580379728728JJ
learn0VB
achievement0NN
suggest0VB
school0NN
productive0JJ
adult0JJ
global0.0375696197697663JJ
market0NN

The quality deficit is undoubtedly greater for children from poorer families because the better off children can go to better public schools or leave the public system and opt for private schooling

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.485261184354032
WordScorePoS
quality0.076326555629389NN
child0.076326555629389NN
family0NN
public0NN
school0.208127520578185NN
leave0NN
system0NN
private0JJ
schooling0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.416783412858264
WordScorePoS
quality0.0152605842304358NN
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.377869765949488
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quality0NN
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Based on the results of standardized international achievement test the Third International Mathematics and Science Study TIMSS Pritchett estimates that the overwhelming majority of children ages to lacks education not completing grade nine or performing poorly in the TIMSS in five middle income countries with data figure

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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.289981502348095
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.575327137992202
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.388145793793599
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But the enrollment problem remains large only in Morocco

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remains0.0454743001434393NNS

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.630733305229591
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Indonesia and Turkey have difficulty retaining kids in secondary school in Colombia Morocco and the Philippines three of four children who have completed grade nine have failed to learn enough

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How can countries improve basic learning outcomes for all

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We know broadly from large number of studies that have tried to account for the production of schooling outcomes that higher public spending does not always translate into better student learning

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recent study analyzing the determinants of student performance on the TIMSS using data for more than students from schools in countries finds that education spending spending per student class size student teacher ratio at either the school or country level has no positive impact on student performance

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Among factors at the school level the only ones that have significant impact on student performance are instructional material and teachers with an adequate formal education

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These results are confirmed by several careful microlevel studies

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Since group of researchers working with Dutch NGO International Chirstelijk Steunfonds Africa has been involved in the design and evaluation of series of randomized experiments to improve learning outcomes in the Busia district in rural Kenya

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The results Figure

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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.661062474585836
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Boosting enrollments is not enough to overcome the learning gap As fraction of cohort Completed grade but did poorly on tests Dropped out before completing grade Dropped out before completing grade Never enrolled Colombia Indonesia Morocco Philippines Turkey Source Reproduced from Pritchett

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Based on TIMSS scores for eighth graders on mathematics in

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To calculate the fraction of students with scores below one standard deviation points below the OECD median of Pritchett uses the country mean and standard deviation and assumes normal distribution

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This assumes that scores are roughly constant over time so the test represents the cohort ages in the survey year and that eighth and ninth grade competencies would be roughly similar

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indicate that increased availability of textbooks helps improve test scores but only among the better performing students and that performance based prizes for teachers increased test scores initially but the gains dissipated later

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What did work in raising test scores were merit scholarships for to year old girls with positive effects also on learning for boys who were ineligible and girls with low pretest scores who were unlikely to win the scholarships

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The scholarships were the most cost effective of all the interventions tested achieving the same learning results at less than percent of the cost of textbook provision

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The results underscore the importance of combining additional spending of the right kind with interventions that strengthen incentives to teach and to learn

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As the teacher incentive program shows project design in this case the behavior rewarded matters

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Better quality for the most disadvantaged

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Label: 4, with a score of: 0.626647809391912
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Many of the programs just discussed focus on improving performance at the school BOX

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WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT Remedying education the Balsakhi program in India The Balsakhi program is large remedial education program now implemented in Indian cities by an NGO Pratham in collaboration with the government

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Pratham hires young women from the community to teach basic literacy and numeracy skills to children who reach the third or fourth grade without having mastered them

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Students are pulled out of regular classes for two hours of the school day for the remedial education

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The program is inexpensive per child per year

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Label: 4, with a score of: 0.439005712007529
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.347374750571648
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Easily replicable it has been scaled up rapidly since its inception in Mumbai in now reaching tens of thousands of students in the cities

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recent two year randomized evaluation in Mumbai and Vadodara finds that the program has highly significant positive results on student learning

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On average the program increased learning by

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standard deviations in the first year and

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The gains were largest for children at the bottom of the distribution with those in the bottom third gaining

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deviations in the first year and

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for math alone

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The results were similar in the two grade levels and in the two cities

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At the margin extending this program would be to times more effective than hiring new teachers

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Source Banerjee and others

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Label: 7, with a score of: 0.32879500351909
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level

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What about improving learning outcomes for disadvantaged or poorly performing students

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The merit scholarship program for to year old girls in rural Kenya mentioned earlier is one such example

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The Balsakhi program in India large remedial education program represents another highly successful and costeffective approach to giving poorly performing students leg up box

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Because children with the lowest ability registered the largest gains in test scores the program had an equalizing effect on student achievement

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Many countries group students together by similar abilities on efficiency grounds

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However recent findings in to countries show that such tracking increases education inequality possibly by reinforcing the effects of family background but it does not contribute to higher mean levels of performance

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Another option to improve learning outcomes for disadvantaged children is to provide school vouchers

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There is significant controversy around the equity and efficiency impacts of generalized voucher schemes box

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Targeted means tested voucher programs may be more promising

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Results from one such scheme in Colombia are encouraging

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The PACES program provided more than students from poor neighborhoods with vouchers that covered about half the cost of private secondary schools vouchers could be renewed as long as students maintained satisfactory academic performance

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An evaluation of this randomized natural experiment vouchers were awarded by lottery found lower repetition rates and higher test results among voucher winners

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But targeted voucher schemes may be politically difficult to implement and the Colombia program was discontinued

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Strengthening accountability Dismal learning outcomes in many countries are due to the combination of inadequate resources and the low responsiveness and accountability of school systems

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Efforts to improve school performance will therefore need to focus on strengthening accountability processes achieving societal consensus on expanding education dealing with capture by vested interests and tackling the weak incentives for service providers to raise the quality of learning

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Achieving societal consensus on expanding education helps tackle the pathology of elite capture whereby the wealthy oppose increased spending in public education

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.814092740877942
WordScorePoS
achieve0.0308700730580309VB
consensus0NN
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help0NN
tackle0VB
capture0NN
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spending0NN
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Historically expansion of voice in country has led to wider access and quality improvements in basic education notably in Europe and North America

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.751828428664535
WordScorePoS
expansion0NN
voice0NN
country0NN
lead0.0255262687343935NN
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quality0.076326555629389NN
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basic0.0433695758119029JJ
education0.244244978014045NN
notably0RB
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.323081446884688
WordScorePoS
expansion0NN
voice0NN
country0NN
lead0.0188543197850406NN
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quality0.022550656390892NN
improvement0.0454743001434393NN
basic0.0480507272610562JJ
education0.022550656390892NN
notably0RB
north0RB

Democratic transitions have spurred recent expansions in basic education also in Brazil Guatemala and Uganda

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.795235516640534
WordScorePoS
democratic0JJ
expansion0NN
basic0.0433695758119029JJ
education0.244244978014045NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.363627022402882
WordScorePoS
democratic0JJ
expansion0.0731385760866977NN
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.323385228297434
WordScorePoS
democratic0.0804764811724088JJ
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But these are long term processes and it is essential to make progress now toward meeting the urgent needs of millions of children around the world

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.46723120354971
WordScorePoS
term0.149793392961411NN
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essential0JJ
progress0.017987180284335NN
urgent0.0299586785922821JJ
million0CD
child0NN
world0.00418824502414673NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.491756119776249
WordScorePoS
term0NN
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essential0.059903311017139JJ
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urgent0JJ
million0CD
child0.10682408961305NN
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Some progress can be made by countering the stranglehold of interest groups on equity enhancing reforms such as when teachers unions block reforms that would strengthen the link between performance and accountability

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.517239934681798
WordScorePoS
progress0.0299609328954485NN
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.646159007995841
WordScorePoS
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.372835005001963
WordScorePoS
progress0.017987180284335NN
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Significant payoffs can come from systemic reforms that strengthen accountability from clients directly to frontline providers

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.665253363653301
WordScorePoS
significant0JJ
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.463767130100947
WordScorePoS
significant0JJ
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The most crucial steps in any such reform are to increase the schools accountability for performance and to ensure the availability of relevant information to monitor their performance

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.634527984836361
WordScorePoS
crucial0JJ
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.386616216849548
WordScorePoS
crucial0JJ
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.371129861212495
WordScorePoS
crucial0JJ
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Accountability for performance also requires autonomy to manage results

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.592312309482634
WordScorePoS
accountability0NN
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autonomy0NN
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.472302812479781
WordScorePoS
accountability0NN
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.317347221662656
WordScorePoS
accountability0.048933054487825NN
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Label: 6, with a score of: 0.309482612765481
WordScorePoS
accountability0NN
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This means delegating responsibility and Human capacities BOX

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.629741222009772
WordScorePoS
means0.120266261535276NNS
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.566803760530441
WordScorePoS
means0NNS
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School vouchers efficient and equitable

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.809671604999597
WordScorePoS
school0.208127520578185NN
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.36899124501408
WordScorePoS
school0NN
efficient0.108503934593034JJ
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.316682204939924
WordScorePoS
school0.0931221694711702NN
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School voucher programs increase the power of parents to choose schools for their children

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.829456853268393
WordScorePoS
school0.208127520578185NN
increase0.0144029596227568NN
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.339232595565379
WordScorePoS
school0.0931221694711702NN
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power0NN
child0.0170753354211044NN

Parents are given voucher by the government which at least in theory can be applied to the school of their choice public or private

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.543803535298243
WordScorePoS
government0NN
school0.208127520578185NN
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.579288802591285
WordScorePoS
government0NN
school0.0931221694711702NN
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.464731861960953
WordScorePoS
government0.048933054487825NN
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public0.0390556786919513NN
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The expectation is that competition among schools and the availability of public resources to access private schools would improve the overall efficiency of the school system and student achievement

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.661332354379826
WordScorePoS
school0.208127520578185NN
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public0NN
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Label: 7, with a score of: 0.173488695505627
WordScorePoS
school0NN
availability0NN
public0NN
resource0NN
access0.0157161992303584NN
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.443399533805655
WordScorePoS
school0.0931221694711702NN
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public0.0727679293221751NN
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But research into the impacts of vouchers has not produced definitive or generalizable results in large part because of methodological challenges and the differences in the specific design and institutional context of various reforms

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.492692733367882
WordScorePoS
research0NN
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.447449890850061
WordScorePoS
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Design can vary according to the size of the voucher the pool of eligible students whether schools can charge more than the value of the voucher and regulations governing school choice such as whether or not religious schools are eligible

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.856548086154503
WordScorePoS
size0NN
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Institutional management bureaucratic control governance of public schools and oversight of eligible private schools also vary and influence the results of programs

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.584188865727906
WordScorePoS
institutional0JJ
management0NN
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school0.208127520578185NN
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.507191745025112
WordScorePoS
institutional0JJ
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.370170394524897
WordScorePoS
institutional0.036961556179878JJ
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.345077033136683
WordScorePoS
institutional0JJ
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governance0.107490825192354NN
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Chile has more than years of experience with large voucher programs

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Yet detailed analysis on the effects of competition on school quality in Chile has not led to consensus on impact

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.756051272143922
WordScorePoS
effect0NN
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.302229943228608
WordScorePoS
effect0NN
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In the United States one study found that competition improved achievement in the city of Milwaukee while another found no impact

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.936033807614359
WordScorePoS
unite0VB
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Similar variance is found in the related literature on the impact of school choice

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.640531543834492
WordScorePoS
related0JJ
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.41829641259563
WordScorePoS
related0.00833571598658786JJ
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Label: 6, with a score of: 0.376361151337662
WordScorePoS
related0.0524959536790166JJ
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.307786803212399
WordScorePoS
related0.016515769558553JJ
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Competition between schools and school choice imply that weak public schools will lose students and could be forced to close

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.783266712514842
WordScorePoS
school0.208127520578185NN
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.500149988675086
WordScorePoS
school0.0931221694711702NN
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public0.0727679293221751NN
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Successful schools would have to be enlarged or new and presumably more effective schools would have to be built

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.853036706076781
WordScorePoS
successful0JJ
school0.208127520578185NN
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.356604352381921
WordScorePoS
successful0JJ
school0.0931221694711702NN
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Such institutional change presents significant political technical and administrative hurdles

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.877589785471771
WordScorePoS
institutional0.0828215106044499JJ
change0.402565546215053NN
significant0.0343390275626203JJ
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The hurdles are particularly acute under universal voucher program that enables large student migration

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.751204924840678
WordScorePoS
universal0.0145231653596925JJ
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Solid evidence on productivity differences between public and private schools is also lacking

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.492721946981563
WordScorePoS
evidence0NN
productivity0NN
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school0.208127520578185NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.309164322786862
WordScorePoS
evidence0.12939607756667NN
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.46753238213668
WordScorePoS
evidence0NN
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.425286579247278
WordScorePoS
evidence0NN
productivity0.0922368138456871NN
public0.0160169090870187NN
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school0NN
lack0.0565629593551219NN

Again consider Chile whose voucher program generated large number of new secular private schools that operated alongside more established Catholic schools

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.78686408845305
WordScorePoS
generate0VB
private0JJ
school0.208127520578185NN
operate0VB
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.45758145517325
WordScorePoS
generate0VB
private0.0558185411034276JJ
school0.0931221694711702NN
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An analysis of Chilean fourth grade achievement data showed that Catholic schools had higher achievement than public schools in math and Spanish while secular private schools had lower achievement

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.704821939460791
WordScorePoS
achievement0NN
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.460509673677322
WordScorePoS
achievement0NN
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.33044346041375
WordScorePoS
achievement0.0299586785922821NN
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Another study found that unrestricted nationwide school choice in Chile resulted in middleclass flight into private schools but without achievement gains

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.741569349893905
WordScorePoS
study0NN
school0.208127520578185NN
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.431241414134737
WordScorePoS
study0NN
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private0.0558185411034276JJ
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Evidence on peer effects that could influence student achievement is equally inconclusive

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.694369713654056
WordScorePoS
evidence0.12939607756667NN
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.441817475987269
WordScorePoS
evidence0NN
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It is not clear whether peer effects are linear meaning that gains for students who move to higher quality peer group are offset by losses for either their new or old classmates or nonlinear meaning for instance that positive peer effects can disproportionately benefit students with low socioeconomic status

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

While impacts on efficiency are ambiguous there are reasons to be cautious about the power for decision making to the lowest feasible level consistent with incentives

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.360231342743944
WordScorePoS
impact0NN
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.389394033285723
WordScorePoS
impact0NN
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Label: 14, with a score of: 0.389381505554928
WordScorePoS
impact0.042459973210532NN
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feasible0.0531983120572613JJ
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.363171987955324
WordScorePoS
impact0.0285977592242194NN
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.351241832933536
WordScorePoS
impact0.0866018859977851NN
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Once the responsibilities of the school system are well defined the resources and decision making powers of providers are consistent with their responsibilities and information is available to track performance various mechanisms become available to pressure schools to deliver better performance

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.491445281747103
WordScorePoS
responsibility0NN
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.455191019239576
WordScorePoS
responsibility0NN
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.516210710273276
WordScorePoS
responsibility0.0911713013253052NN
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School autonomy community control nongovernment providers voucher programs and public sector reforms can strengthen the ability of citizens communities and public organizations to hold schools accountable for delivering results

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.689466922714164
WordScorePoS
school0.0931221694711702NN
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Label: 4, with a score of: 0.398509130429196
WordScorePoS
school0.208127520578185NN
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.353284457694506
WordScorePoS
school0.0548954478802642NN
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El Salvador experience with rebuilding much of its education system following the destructive civil war of the is good example of what can be accomplished through partnership with equity effects of universal voucher programs

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.848034293009259
WordScorePoS
experience0.0299586785922821NN
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Label: 4, with a score of: 0.403772531973042
WordScorePoS
experience0NN
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destructive0JJ
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universal0.0182963616752599JJ

They could lead to increased racial and socioeconomic stratification of schools as parents seek to improve the quality of their children peers such as middle class flight in Chile

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.710998453585725
WordScorePoS
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.310681966093198
WordScorePoS
lead0NN
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Such stratification could occur if all parents were given vouchers but low income families were in less favorable position to exercise choice because of lack of information prohibitive transportation costs or extra fees

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.49753450949988
WordScorePoS
occur0VB
income0.166475342664294NN
family0NN
choice0NN
lack0NN
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transportation0NN
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.502295122858092
WordScorePoS
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lack0.0565629593551219NN
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.383840208318066
WordScorePoS
occur0.0409791940864438VB
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Disadvantaged students would simply be more concentrated in lowquality schools

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WordScorePoS
disadvantaged0JJ
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.379929456352916
WordScorePoS
disadvantaged0JJ
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Echoing similar concerns recent study concludes that in the United States large scale universal voucher program would not generate substantial gains in overall student achievement and

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

it could well be detrimental to many disadvantaged students Ladd

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.766255124003228
WordScorePoS
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.642536446389462
WordScorePoS
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There are ways to make voucher programs more beneficial for disadvantaged students but these may reduce political support for such programs

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.464750432662162
WordScorePoS
disadvantaged0JJ
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For instance vouchers and school choice can be limited to low income families

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.514535041672289
WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.411562090093717
WordScorePoS
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.406615928732958
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.345326407697219
WordScorePoS
school0.0931221694711702NN
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.306373798787379
WordScorePoS
school0.0297950283197006NN
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Program design can also be enhanced by providing transportation to school requiring that schools do not charge extra tuition or fees on top of the voucher and requiring oversubscribed schools to select students randomly

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WordScorePoS
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Irrespective of design specifics voucher program needs to be embedded in larger strategy of education reform that improves the overall institutional incentive environment for schools and gives underperforming schools the instruments and resources to improve

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.37809495514449
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irrespective0RB
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local communities

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 15, with a score of: 0.442310356611195
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Label: 6, with a score of: 0.400341152080423
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.34180679614665
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.317846415543802
WordScorePoS
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As result of greater parental involvement Educo schools had rapid enrollment increases without giving up quality reduced absenteeism among teachers and students and increased math and language scores

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WordScorePoS
result0NN
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Toward better health for all The large inequalities in health care use and health outcomes in many developing countries do not just reflect different preferences or needs they arise from constraints on the ability of individuals to achieve good health chapter

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.647965300196012
WordScorePoS
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Label: 3, with a score of: 0.641364999656151
WordScorePoS
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Income is one important constraint especially given incomplete financial markets

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.575594891327862
WordScorePoS
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.603506941783979
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.437645476552349
WordScorePoS
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Low income people around the world have worse health and use fewer health services chapter

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.662226720579422
WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.438032876895967
WordScorePoS
income0.166475342664294NN
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.368501895978607
WordScorePoS
income0.110649350233433NN
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Ethnicity race and location also influence WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT outcomes

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WordScorePoS
ethnicity0.036961556179878NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.514448708536389
WordScorePoS
ethnicity0.0488696285210061NN
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.415484474950755
WordScorePoS
ethnicity0NN
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Infant mortality rates among blacks in South Africa are

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.918903411602077
WordScorePoS
infant0NN
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times higher than those among whites life expectancy among the rural Chinese is almost years lower than among urban dwellers while the life expectancy gap between China richest and poorest provinces Beijing and Guizhou is years

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.650232086727966
WordScorePoS
time0NN
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.381257638422624
WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.465222586258265
WordScorePoS
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These stark differences in outcomes and use reflect large group based inequalities in access to information facilities with reasonable standards of care and financial protection from health risk

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.747621081565336
WordScorePoS
outcome0.0330412182586772NN
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Label: 3, with a score of: 0.42091517602444
WordScorePoS
outcome0NN
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A lack of knowledge about hygiene nutrition available services and treatment options particularly among the uneducated lowers demand for health services

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.510131825597423
WordScorePoS
lack0NN
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.507452250324429
WordScorePoS
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Label: 6, with a score of: 0.363171540222224
WordScorePoS
lack0.0214003646985842NN
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Within the household some family members have less voice women and children and this can affect the level of resources used in their interest

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.582441320286408
WordScorePoS
household0.0465610847355851NN
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Label: 3, with a score of: 0.329681273547702
WordScorePoS
household0NN
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.324409462717063
WordScorePoS
household0.0297950283197006NN
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woman0.0546336178945768NN
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Health clinics especially in poor and remote areas are often inaccessible have high rates of absenteeism and low quality and responsiveness to clients

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.619281174461209
WordScorePoS
health0.191387734041787NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.531712264070618
WordScorePoS
health0NN
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Finally illness is certainly burden on poor people but catastrophic health shocks can also have disastrous consequences for the not so poor mainly through loss of income but also through high out of pocket payments for health care

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.559012382930003
WordScorePoS
illness0.0407408489778079NN
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care0.104031537001265NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.527584473533052
WordScorePoS
illness0NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.333487554709269
WordScorePoS
illness0NN
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These large group disparities in health outcomes are inequitable because they imply vastly different opportunities to lead productive lives

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.533956729112892
WordScorePoS
disparity0NN
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.43574526484075
WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.334309159933654
WordScorePoS
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Label: 4, with a score of: 0.311710299724488
WordScorePoS
disparity0.0615662203253227NN
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.304868091889963
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And because they often arise from failures in markets and agency reducing these disparities would have large payoffs in efficiency and productivity

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.363426918312118
WordScorePoS
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efficiency0.134992154141495NN
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.51457227542028
WordScorePoS
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.441557053475392
WordScorePoS
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.338214749754462
WordScorePoS
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We focus here on ways to level the playing field for attaining good health by boosting people knowledge about basic health practices and services expanding their access to BOX

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.565248169177268
WordScorePoS
focus0NN
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Label: 11, with a score of: 0.314207838461564
WordScorePoS
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Working with mothers to treat malaria Malaria kills nearly million children in Africa each year

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.980094848680406
WordScorePoS
mother0.162963395911232NN
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Empowering mothers to take actions to treat their children in the home can be highly effective in reducing mortality

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.868015736814311
WordScorePoS
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The Tigray region of Ethiopia trained mother coordinators who were selected from among the community to educate other mothers on the symptoms of fever and malaria

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.959754076911709
WordScorePoS
region0.124837844401518NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.254374823670117
WordScorePoS
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Mothers were provided chloroquine and information on how to administer the drug at cost of

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.822655450778247
WordScorePoS
mother0.162963395911232NN
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.305426917901852
WordScorePoS
mother0NN
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per child treatment dose

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.729011580377071
WordScorePoS
child0.10682408961305NN
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Label: 4, with a score of: 0.328775423858175
WordScorePoS
child0.076326555629389NN
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By educating mothers Tigray provided rapid and effective treatment without forcing the child to relocate which reduced under five mortality by percent and alleviated the burden of severe malaria cases on hospitals

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.937408357224212
WordScorePoS
educate0.0407408489778079VB
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Source World Bank

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Label: 6, with a score of: 0.426402661922482
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.33813808928791
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affordable care and enhancing the accountability of providers

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.544461314194195
WordScorePoS
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Label: 3, with a score of: 0.446384189262518
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.369134589609597
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affordable0JJ
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.364580300673232
WordScorePoS
affordable0.0565629593551219JJ
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Label: 7, with a score of: 0.329000363876118
WordScorePoS
affordable0.0766742036076356JJ
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Expanding knowledge Underinvestments in health by patients may reflect lack of knowledge and agency and incentive issues within the household as well as lack of these resources

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.347150197783084
WordScorePoS
expand0VB
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.363153923468938
WordScorePoS
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.360378622225278
WordScorePoS
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resource0.0739147683583536NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.328121451521666
WordScorePoS
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Lack of knowledge can keep people from seeking care when they need it even when price is not an issue

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.612739550569332
WordScorePoS
lack0.0753297582301286NN
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seek0.120266261535276VB
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price0NN
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.378259643244606
WordScorePoS
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Label: 3, with a score of: 0.353697871590668
WordScorePoS
lack0NN
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people0.00539943740774902NNS
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care0.104031537001265NN
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issue0.0249430985430622NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.305277934355707
WordScorePoS
lack0.0255262687343935NN
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As chapter showed when deworming medicine was offered free to children in Kenya the take up rate was only percent

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.692148232486309
WordScorePoS
medicine0.123094312756122NN
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child0.10682408961305NN
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Label: 4, with a score of: 0.37463319164473
WordScorePoS
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free0.0499016491051341JJ
child0.076326555629389NN
rate0.0216847879059514NN

Similarly in Bolivia many poor babies are not delivered by trained attendant even though mothers are eligible for free care

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.689810550650206
WordScorePoS
poor0JJ
deliver0VB
mother0.162963395911232NN
free0JJ
care0.104031537001265NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.389245304682258
WordScorePoS
poor0.150659516460257JJ
deliver0VB
mother0NN
free0JJ
care0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.349199382804102
WordScorePoS
poor0.0153248097886055JJ
deliver0.0299586785922821VB
mother0NN
free0.0898760357768464JJ
care0NN

In India percent of children have not been fully immunized although immunization is free mothers cited ignorance of the benefits of vaccination and not knowing the clinic locations as the major reasons for why their children had not been immunized

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.7041077219358
WordScorePoS
child0.10682408961305NN
fully0RB
free0JJ
mother0.162963395911232NN
benefit0NN
location0NN
major0.0108390366114755JJ

Lack of knowledge can also lead people to pay for inappropriate care

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.439245618840154
WordScorePoS
lack0NN
knowledge0NN
lead0NN
people0NNS
pay0.078760887431929NN
care0.0931221694711702NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.39814084401136
WordScorePoS
lack0.0252035516550537NN
knowledge0NN
lead0.0504071033101074NN
people0.0106656521351091NNS
pay0.0695218668857431NN
care0NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.361614830569396
WordScorePoS
lack0.0255262687343935NN
knowledge0.0416255041156371NN
lead0.0255262687343935NN
people0.00720147981137839NNS
pay0NN
care0.0416255041156371NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.344861832028422
WordScorePoS
lack0NN
knowledge0NN
lead0.025518364538905NN
people0.00539943740774902NNS
pay0NN
care0.104031537001265NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.31887427708177
WordScorePoS
lack0.0565629593551219NN
knowledge0NN
lead0.0188543197850406NN
people0.0186171553883251NNS
pay0NN
care0.030745604615229NN

Unqualified or unethical providers can overprescribe treatments for patients who do not know what is in their best interest

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.645927619787807
WordScorePoS
provider0NN
treatment0.0624189222007589NN

For instance instead of effective and inexpensive oral rehydration therapy poor child in Indonesia gets more than four often useless drugs per diarrhea attack

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.533767456396094
WordScorePoS
effective0JJ
therapy0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
child0.0450489732120807NN
drug0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.538520278958137
WordScorePoS
effective0.00914534810831654JJ
therapy0.0407408489778079NN
poor0JJ
child0.10682408961305NN
drug0.0407408489778079NN

Education is natural way to address the lack of patient knowledge

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.81134721453506
WordScorePoS
education0.244244978014045NN
natural0JJ
lack0.0255262687343935NN
knowledge0.0416255041156371NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.353096374412908
WordScorePoS
education0.0225244866060403NN
natural0.0376648791150643JJ
lack0.0753297582301286NN
knowledge0NN

Elo and Preston estimate that one year of extra education nationally reduces mortality rates by about percent half directly and half through the effects of additional earnings

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.725991538593997
WordScorePoS
estimate0.059903311017139NN
education0.0152605842304358NN
nationally0RB
reduce0.01675146888405VB
mortality0.276962203701274NN
rate0.0433561464459019NN
effect0NN
additional0JJ

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.521097950623697
WordScorePoS
estimate0.0299609328954485NN
education0.244244978014045NN
nationally0RB
reduce0VB
mortality0NN
rate0.0216847879059514NN
effect0NN
additional0JJ

Female education is particularly powerful

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.852061154620269
WordScorePoS
female0NN
education0.244244978014045NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.496760323611644
WordScorePoS
female0.0911713013253052NN
education0.0512260062633133NN

Better educated mothers are associated with better child health practices including hand washing proper disposal of feces antenatal care delivery assistance by trained personnel immunization and well baby clinics

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.883653875087699
WordScorePoS
educate0.0407408489778079VB
mother0.162963395911232NN
child0.10682408961305NN
health0.191387734041787NN
practice0NN
include0VB
proper0JJ
antenatal0.0814816979556159JJ
care0.104031537001265NN
assistance0NN

Community health agents also provide cost effective instruction in disease prevention and healthy behavior

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.874217836048591
WordScorePoS
community0NN
health0.191387734041787NN
provide0.0100171139310145VB
cost0NN
effective0.00914534810831654JJ
disease0.215415047323213NN
prevention0.0923207345670913NN
healthy0.0615471563780609JJ

By employing these nonspecialized personnel many countries have increased knowledge among the general public at low cost as with Brazil Family Health Program and Ethiopia mother coordinators supporting homebased malaria treatment box

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.868468393994222
WordScorePoS
employ0VB
country0NN
increase0.0143984997539974NN
knowledge0NN
public0.021678073222951NN
cost0NN
family0.0624189222007589NN
health0.191387734041787NN
mother0.162963395911232NN
support0.00625975725959118NN
malaria0.20370424488904NN
treatment0.0624189222007589NN

Com Human capacities munity health workers have also helped increase coverage of poor populations costeffectively

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.456367463656084
WordScorePoS
human0JJ
capacity0.00625975725959118NN
health0.191387734041787NN
worker0NN
help0NN
increase0.0143984997539974NN
coverage0.0307735781890304NN
poor0JJ
population0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.453892231804212
WordScorePoS
human0JJ
capacity0NN
health0NN
worker0NN
help0NN
increase0NN
coverage0.0908430554521382NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
population0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.373907034994569
WordScorePoS
human0.0150723186962745JJ
capacity0.0123650647908625NN
health0NN
worker0.121575732851624NN
help0NN
increase0.00711043475673939NN
coverage0NN
poor0JJ
population0.0428212738652355NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.30960421773839
WordScorePoS
human0.0101607690729067JJ
capacity0.00833571598658786NN
health0.0339811641917276NN
worker0NN
help0.0542519672965169NN
increase0.00958677785775002NN
coverage0NN
poor0.0339811641917276JJ
population0.0144336476662975NN

Public information campaigns can improve health knowledge by working through existing health clinics or by directly targeting the community

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.606455510721453
WordScorePoS
public0.021678073222951NN
information0.00914534810831654NN
improve0VB
health0.191387734041787NN
knowledge0NN
exist0VB
target0NN
community0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.409280838946614
WordScorePoS
public0.0390556786919513NN
information0.0219686053934784NN
improve0.0183291958415182VB
health0NN
knowledge0.0499801157438617NN
exist0.0599173571845643VB
target0.0898760357768464NN
community0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.304175049275967
WordScorePoS
public0.0727679293221751NN
information0.02046578088155NN
improve0VB
health0.0571058915334038NN
knowledge0NN
exist0VB
target0NN
community0NN

It is also possible to collaborate with the private sector in marketing socially valuable products such as insecticidetreated mosquito nets water purification methods foods rich in vitamin and soap as with the Central American HandWashing Initiative in Costa Rica El Salvador and Guatemala

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.666080036274068
WordScorePoS
private0JJ
sector0.0214003646985842NN
socially0RB
product0NN
water0.556409482163189NN
food0.0214003646985842NN
central0JJ
initiative0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.45656133163004
WordScorePoS
private0JJ
sector0.0169905820958638NN
socially0RB
product0.0199423462679015NN
water0.186896403054502NN
food0.186896403054502NN
central0JJ
initiative0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.3942633207226
WordScorePoS
private0JJ
sector0.0182713919265625NN
socially0RB
product0NN
water0NN
food0.292342270824999NN
central0.0440683498519077JJ
initiative0NN

Media campaigns can also be effective

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.590967714069338
WordScorePoS
media0.0542519672965169NNS
effective0JJ

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.525678025119322
WordScorePoS
media0NNS
effective0.0482582488828229JJ

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.398605233093855
WordScorePoS
media0NNS
effective0.0365927233505197JJ

For instance frequent broadcasts of AIDS messages in Thailand Uganda and Brazil were key element in the campaign to reduce the spread of the disease

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.914438313226163
WordScorePoS
aid0.123094312756122NN
key0NN
reduce0.01675146888405VB
spread0.0407408489778079NN
disease0.215415047323213NN

The Thai media campaign is credited with reducing the incidence of AIDS to point at which the country is now able to consider fiscally viable treatment program for AIDS patients

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.893050620250468
WordScorePoS
media0NNS
credit0NN
reduce0.01675146888405VB
incidence0.0407408489778079NN
aid0.123094312756122NN
country0NN
treatment0.0624189222007589NN

But neither information nor free services may be enough to boost use among the less empowered or those without voice

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.461447809429884
WordScorePoS
information0.0675706773907211NN
free0JJ
service0.0148023490369527NN
empower0.0368585655748969VB
voice0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.434475863556716
WordScorePoS
information0NN
free0JJ
service0.00795378154685591NN
empower0.0396106020715138VB
voice0.064698038783335NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.432858974686885
WordScorePoS
information0.0219686053934784NN
free0.0898760357768464JJ
service0NN
empower0VB
voice0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.381990595758287
WordScorePoS
information0.02046578088155NN
free0JJ
service0.022416649027415NN
empower0.0558185411034276VB
voice0NN

Maternal and child health is often viewed as meriting additional intervention

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.912467503259877
WordScorePoS
maternal0.184641469134183JJ
child0.10682408961305NN
health0.191387734041787NN
view0NN
additional0JJ
intervention0.0407408489778079NN

Through conditional transfers Mexico PROGRESA now Oportunidades program was designed to encourage women to attend pre and postnatal clinical visits and bring their children for immunization and growth monitoring

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.587704328948743
WordScorePoS
transfer0NN
encourage0.0695218668857431VB
woman0.0452169560888236NN
attend0VB
bring0VB
child0.0452169560888236NN
growth0.208565600657229NN
monitor0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.381235628011048
WordScorePoS
transfer0NN
encourage0VB
woman0.221979360474357NN
attend0VB
bring0VB
child0.0170753354211044NN
growth0NN
monitor0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.363298911533082
WordScorePoS
transfer0NN
encourage0.02794560829783VB
woman0.0242343960710022NN
attend0VB
bring0VB
child0.0242343960710022NN
growth0.11178243319132NN
monitor0.0396106020715138NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.307484618676705
WordScorePoS
transfer0NN
encourage0VB
woman0.0546336178945768NN
attend0.0583416713841148VB
bring0VB
child0.0546336178945768NN
growth0.0252000451111224NN
monitor0NN

The program saw an percent increase in clinic visits by pregnant women in their first trimester which led to percent drop in the incidence of illness in newborns and percent increase in the annual growth rate of children between one and three

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.492538518182596
WordScorePoS
increase0.00711043475673939NN
pregnant0JJ
woman0.0452169560888236NN
lead0.0504071033101074NN
incidence0NN
illness0NN
newborn0JJ
growth0.208565600657229NN
rate0NN
child0.0452169560888236NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.334714038407513
WordScorePoS
increase0.00402768349408688NN
pregnant0JJ
woman0.221979360474357NN
lead0NN
incidence0NN
illness0NN
newborn0JJ
growth0NN
rate0NN
child0.0170753354211044NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.494220989756346
WordScorePoS
increase0.0143984997539974NN
pregnant0JJ
woman0.0381514605760894NN
lead0.025518364538905NN
incidence0.0407408489778079NN
illness0.0407408489778079NN
newborn0.0407408489778079JJ
growth0NN
rate0.0433561464459019NN
child0.10682408961305NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.317097572635252
WordScorePoS
increase0.0128868286091919NN
pregnant0.0583416713841148JJ
woman0.0546336178945768NN
lead0NN
incidence0NN
illness0NN
newborn0JJ
growth0.0252000451111224NN
rate0.0155217067874935NN
child0.0546336178945768NN

An important design feature of the program is transferring funds to women

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.735956544672171
WordScorePoS
feature0NN
transfer0NN
fund0NN
woman0.221979360474357NN

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.442824930938728
WordScorePoS
feature0.0531983120572613NN
transfer0.0803666323453555NN
fund0NN
woman0NN

Although the program puts more demands on mothers time participants felt that the benefits were worth it

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.713644769694098
WordScorePoS
demand0.020806307400253NN
mother0.162963395911232NN
time0.0127591822694525NN
benefit0NN
worth0JJ

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.398187383571145
WordScorePoS
demand0NN
mother0NN
time0.0607862199751165NN
benefit0NN
worth0.0488696285210061JJ

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.317059923317355
WordScorePoS
demand0.0264204925485796NN
mother0NN
time0.016202004209163NN
benefit0.0446918591208085NN
worth0JJ

Women also reported feeling more selfconfident and having more control over household resources and their time and travel

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.667222009145318
WordScorePoS
woman0.221979360474357NN
report0NN
control0.0465610847355851NN
household0.0465610847355851NN
resource0.0280166088658745NN
time0NN
travel0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.407027011411925
WordScorePoS
woman0NN
report0.0409791940864438NN
control0NN
household0.0554128417527413NN
resource0.0416785799329393NN
time0.0169905820958638NN
travel0.0542519672965169NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.35077102708817
WordScorePoS
woman0.0450489732120807NN
report0NN
control0.0614198493690006NN
household0NN
resource0.0739147683583536NN
time0NN
travel0NN

Similar schemes are delivering maternal and child care services in Brazil Colombia and Nicaragua

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.824323113935465
WordScorePoS
deliver0VB
maternal0.184641469134183JJ
child0.10682408961305NN
care0.104031537001265NN
service0.0100171139310145NN

Expanding access Access to quality health facilities remains problem in many areas often imposing greater burden on rural dwellers through additional travel time and hospice costs

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.492329770669223
WordScorePoS
expand0VB
access0.00749031153171887NN
quality0.0109267235789154NN
health0NN
facility0NN
remains0NNS
burden0.0440683498519077NN
rural0.148975141598503JJ
additional0.0440683498519077JJ
travel0NN
time0.0182713919265625NN
cost0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.405380060089165
WordScorePoS
expand0VB
access0.00610236075888593NN
quality0.0152605842304358NN
health0.191387734041787NN
facility0NN
remains0NNS
burden0NN
rural0JJ
additional0JJ
travel0NN
time0.0127591822694525NN
cost0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.376864570463342
WordScorePoS
expand0VB
access0.00138439773401932NN
quality0.0121171980355011NN
health0.0405241466500776NN
facility0NN
remains0NNS
burden0NN
rural0.0330412182586772JJ
additional0JJ
travel0NN
time0.0607862199751165NN
cost0.0660824365173543NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.353108353696618
WordScorePoS
expand0.0299609328954485VB
access0.00697628678506322NN
quality0.076326555629389NN
health0NN
facility0.0815069365350084NN
remains0NNS
burden0NN
rural0JJ
additional0JJ
travel0NN
time0NN
cost0NN

City dwellers are within easier reach of health centers

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.935721119400156
WordScorePoS
city0.607697021770652NN
reach0NN
health0.0229054731708393NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.283991176967443
WordScorePoS
city0NN
reach0NN
health0.191387734041787NN

In Burundi percent of the urban population was within one hour of health center but only percent of the rural population was

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.642666260751945
WordScorePoS
urban0.27622591898666JJ
population0.0194583992186006NN
health0.0229054731708393NN
rural0.0373517915079663JJ

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.36132768436156
WordScorePoS
urban0JJ
population0.0310434135749871NN
health0NN
rural0.148975141598503JJ

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.327646364556258
WordScorePoS
urban0JJ
population0NN
health0.191387734041787NN
rural0JJ

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.504277458600048
WordScorePoS
urban0.0488696285210061JJ
population0.0860640399817412NN
health0.0405241466500776NN
rural0.0330412182586772JJ

Even within rural areas there is large variation

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.935148787618495
WordScorePoS
rural0.148975141598503JJ

Only half of the poorest rural Nigerians were within an hour of clinic but percent of the richest were

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.775378694056066
WordScorePoS
poorest0.0297950283197006JJS
rural0.148975141598503JJ
richest0JJS

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.567233304041036
WordScorePoS
poorest0.0330412182586772JJS
rural0.0330412182586772JJ
richest0.064698038783335JJS

Even when health facilities are accessible they vary hugely in quality

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.625303654825785
WordScorePoS
health0.191387734041787NN
facility0NN
accessible0JJ
quality0.0152605842304358NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.477593335041337
WordScorePoS
health0NN
facility0.0815069365350084NN
accessible0JJ
quality0.076326555629389NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.445095926553134
WordScorePoS
health0.0229054731708393NN
facility0NN
accessible0.110490367594664JJ
quality0.0136980135278128NN

Some have medicines and drugs in stock are run by welltrained and motivated staff and are well maintained

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.794875393661837
WordScorePoS
medicine0.123094312756122NN
drug0.0407408489778079NN
stock0NN
maintain0VB

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.427610856739653
WordScorePoS
medicine0NN
drug0NN
stock0NN
maintain0.0881366997038154VB

They are often dilapidated rarely have medicines in stock and are run by poorly trained and rude medical staff who frequently fail to come to work

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.870991254707045
WordScorePoS
rarely0RB
medicine0.123094312756122NN
stock0NN
poorly0RB

It is often precisely the people who are materially disadvantaged who also have to struggle with poor quality and BOX

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.649773218334336
WordScorePoS
people0.0371911007748996NNS
disadvantaged0JJ
poor0.150659516460257JJ
quality0NN

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.394140913327425
WordScorePoS
people0.024149913320522NNS
disadvantaged0JJ
poor0.0642010940957526JJ
quality0.0255958462813622NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.316547844381208
WordScorePoS
people0.0257736572183839NNS
disadvantaged0JJ
poor0.0548141757796873JJ
quality0.0109267235789154NN

Poor people and ethnic minorities receive lower quality care New studies from India Indonesia Mexico and Tanzania demonstrate that the poor systematically receive lower quality care from private and public providers

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.413401216988741
WordScorePoS
poor0.150659516460257JJ
people0.0371911007748996NNS
receive0VB
quality0NN
care0NN
study0NN
private0JJ
public0NN
provider0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.523453039046157
WordScorePoS
poor0JJ
people0.00539943740774902NNS
receive0.0814816979556159VB
quality0.0152605842304358NN
care0.104031537001265NN
study0NN
private0JJ
public0.021678073222951NN
provider0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.384483141811543
WordScorePoS
poor0JJ
people0NNS
receive0VB
quality0NN
care0.0931221694711702NN
study0NN
private0.0558185411034276JJ
public0.0727679293221751NN
provider0NN

The situation is often worse for ethnic minorities

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.650426114935323
WordScorePoS
situation0.0631828116343571NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.534767843685244
WordScorePoS
situation0.0519476926891779NN

Evidence from Mexico suggests that even in poor rural villages there is difference in the quality of care between wealthy and poor and between indigenous and nonindigenous groups

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.526049408703874
WordScorePoS
evidence0NN
suggest0VB
poor0.0548141757796873JJ
rural0.148975141598503JJ
quality0.0109267235789154NN
care0NN
indigenous0.0357189919948307JJ

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.51927636359058
WordScorePoS
evidence0NN
suggest0VB
poor0.150659516460257JJ
rural0JJ
quality0NN
care0NN
indigenous0JJ

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.300817449007167
WordScorePoS
evidence0.12939607756667NN
suggest0VB
poor0JJ
rural0.0330412182586772JJ
quality0.0121171980355011NN
care0NN
indigenous0JJ

Among the poorest fifth of the population in Mexico indigenous women receive prenatal care from doctors who rank only in the twenty fifth percentile in quality while equally poor nonindigenous women receive care ranking in the fortieth percentile

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.650071794219188
WordScorePoS
poorest0JJS
population0.024255976440725NN
indigenous0JJ
woman0.221979360474357NN
receive0VB
care0.0931221694711702NN
quality0NN
poor0JJ

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.239143517287445
WordScorePoS
poorest0JJS
population0NN
indigenous0JJ
woman0.0450489732120807NN
receive0VB
care0NN
quality0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.459488949704524
WordScorePoS
poorest0JJS
population0NN
indigenous0JJ
woman0.0381514605760894NN
receive0.0814816979556159VB
care0.104031537001265NN
quality0.0152605842304358NN
poor0JJ

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.329378771474898
WordScorePoS
poorest0JJS
population0NN
indigenous0.0499016491051341JJ
woman0.0610612445035112NN
receive0VB
care0.0416255041156371NN
quality0.076326555629389NN
poor0JJ

The wealthiest fifth fare much better but even among the wealthy the indigenous receive worse care than the nonindigenous suggesting that discriminatory practices or cultural barriers may be at play see figure below

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.470315614373137
WordScorePoS
indigenous0JJ
receive0VB
care0.0931221694711702NN
suggest0VB
discriminatory0JJ
practice0.0393804437159645NN
cultural0JJ
barrier0.0558185411034276NN
figure0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.469538937158145
WordScorePoS
indigenous0JJ
receive0VB
care0.030745604615229NN
suggest0.0602029956716497VB
discriminatory0JJ
practice0NN
cultural0JJ
barrier0.0368585655748969NN
figure0.0602029956716497NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.463303081386571
WordScorePoS
indigenous0JJ
receive0.0814816979556159VB
care0.104031537001265NN
suggest0VB
discriminatory0JJ
practice0NN
cultural0JJ
barrier0NN
figure0NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.382337312592586
WordScorePoS
indigenous0.0499016491051341JJ
receive0VB
care0.0416255041156371NN
suggest0VB
discriminatory0JJ
practice0NN
cultural0.0615662203253227JJ
barrier0NN
figure0NN

Indigenous Mexicans receive lower quality care regardless of income Doctor quality percentile Nonindigenous Indigenous Poorest quintile Second quintile Average Source Barber Bertozzi and Gertler

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.657577160543426
WordScorePoS
indigenous0JJ
receive0VB
quality0.0121171980355011NN
care0NN
income0.166475342664294NN
poorest0.0330412182586772JJS
quintile0.064698038783335NN
average0.146608885563018NN
source0NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.2709853555226
WordScorePoS
indigenous0JJ
receive0VB
quality0NN
care0NN
income0NN
poorest0.0279982034978914JJS
quintile0NN
average0.1656430212089NN
source0.0123065238088614NN

Fourth quintile Wealthiest quintile WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT inaccessible health facilities

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.638991534278716
WordScorePoS
quintile0NN
world0.00087176582269799NN
development0.00837573444202498NN
report0.0307735781890304NN
health0.191387734041787NN
facility0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.52581884406618
WordScorePoS
quintile0.064698038783335NN
world0.00276879546803864NN
development0.0177346522508396NN
report0NN
health0.0405241466500776NN
facility0NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.306999083576854
WordScorePoS
quintile0NN
world0.0017440716962658NN
development0.0279277626235394NN
report0NN
health0NN
facility0.0815069365350084NN

Ethnic minorities often fare even worse in terms of the quality of health care received box

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.793585815641549
WordScorePoS
term0NN
quality0.0152605842304358NN
health0.191387734041787NN
care0.104031537001265NN
receive0.0814816979556159VB

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.321670510044295
WordScorePoS
term0.149793392961411NN
quality0.00916459792075908NN
health0NN
care0NN
receive0VB

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.304004452611179
WordScorePoS
term0NN
quality0NN
health0.0571058915334038NN
care0.0931221694711702NN
receive0VB

An important obstacle to the provision of equitable health services everywhere is the difficulty of enticing urban educated doctors to work in poor areas

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.619526565772103
WordScorePoS
provision0NN
equitable0JJ
health0.0229054731708393NN
service0.0269743071558856NN
difficulty0NN
urban0.27622591898666JJ
educate0VB
poor0.0229054731708393JJ

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.474106897640595
WordScorePoS
provision0.0249430985430622NN
equitable0JJ
health0.191387734041787NN
service0.0100171139310145NN
difficulty0NN
urban0JJ
educate0.0407408489778079VB
poor0JJ

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.346169409870718
WordScorePoS
provision0NN
equitable0JJ
health0NN
service0.0443555132287109NN
difficulty0NN
urban0JJ
educate0VB
poor0.150659516460257JJ

Chile Mexico and Thailand have used financial and other incentives to encourage qualified staff to work in rural areas

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.599821097836469
WordScorePoS
financial0.00896409157262106JJ
incentive0NN
encourage0VB
qualify0VB
rural0.148975141598503JJ

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.404909922937134
WordScorePoS
financial0.0370951943725875JJ
incentive0NN
encourage0.0695218668857431VB
qualify0VB
rural0JJ

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.344874249646046
WordScorePoS
financial0.0298222075472138JJ
incentive0NN
encourage0.02794560829783VB
qualify0VB
rural0.0330412182586772JJ

In Indonesia doctors had to complete compulsory service in health centers before they could obtain lucrative civil service post

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.567338335264059
WordScorePoS
complete0JJ
service0.0100171139310145NN
health0.191387734041787NN
obtain0VB
civil0JJ
post0NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.437438090819365
WordScorePoS
complete0.0815069365350084JJ
service0NN
health0NN
obtain0.0815069365350084VB
civil0JJ
post0NN

Compulsory service was for five years with shorter periods allowed for work in remote provinces

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

This system increased the number of doctors in health centers by an average of percent from to with gains of more than percent for the most remote provinces

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.520298132425249
WordScorePoS
system0NN
increase0.0143984997539974NN
health0.191387734041787NN
average0NN
gain0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.480362882834994
WordScorePoS
system0NN
increase0.00285817158600878NN
health0.0405241466500776NN
average0.146608885563018NN
gain0NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.455543216607429
WordScorePoS
system0NN
increase0.0145316075945746NN
health0NN
average0.1656430212089NN
gain0NN

Expanding rural health infrastructure and providing incentives to doctors to work BOX

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.525571894883323
WordScorePoS
expand0VB
rural0JJ
health0.0377086395700813NN
infrastructure0.192202909044225NN
provide0.00740117451847634VB
incentive0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.446047418740906
WordScorePoS
expand0VB
rural0JJ
health0.191387734041787NN
infrastructure0NN
provide0.0100171139310145VB
incentive0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.411961373466824
WordScorePoS
expand0VB
rural0.148975141598503JJ
health0NN
infrastructure0.0155217067874935NN
provide0.0215170467912497VB
incentive0NN

Better maternal health in Malaysia and Sri Lanka Despite huge improvements in health survival and fertility around the world in recent decades global maternal mortality has not declined significantly

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.920642543990116
WordScorePoS
maternal0.184641469134183JJ
health0.191387734041787NN
improvement0NN
fertility0NN
world0.00087176582269799NN
decade0NN
global0.013959557403375JJ
mortality0.276962203701274NN
decline0.0351951258079907NN
significantly0RB

Two exceptions are Sri Lanka and Malaysia

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

In Sri Lanka the maternal mortality ratio the number of maternal deaths per live births dropped from in to in

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.964712995709618
WordScorePoS
maternal0.184641469134183JJ
mortality0.276962203701274NN
ratio0.0615471563780609NN
death0.193573191943949NN
live0.0300513417930436VB
birth0.0748292956291867NN

In Malaysia it dropped from in to just in

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

What can account for this impressive decline

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.666573971768939
WordScorePoS
account0.0577345906651901NN
decline0.0234335422829798NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.419234372711989
WordScorePoS
account0.0194583992186006NN
decline0.0315914058171786NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.370852744971071
WordScorePoS
account0.0172128079963482NN
decline0.02794560829783NN

Improving access for rural and disadvantaged communities was an important part of the strategy in both countries

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.66742187670005
WordScorePoS
improve0.0218534471578307VB
access0.00749031153171887NN
rural0.148975141598503JJ
disadvantaged0JJ
community0.0182713919265625NN
strategy0NN
country0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.446450985778095
WordScorePoS
improve0.0121171980355011VB
access0.00138439773401932NN
rural0.0330412182586772JJ
disadvantaged0.064698038783335JJ
community0.0202620733250388NN
strategy0NN
country0NN

Sri Lanka and Malaysia made competent professional midwives and supervisory nurse midwives widely available in rural areas

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.935148787618495
WordScorePoS
widely0RB
rural0.148975141598503JJ

Midwives assisted deliveries in homes and small rural hospitals and performed initial treatment in the event of complications

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.543195780035917
WordScorePoS
assist0VB
home0NN
rural0.148975141598503JJ
treatment0NN
event0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.662467091323995
WordScorePoS
assist0VB
home0.0908430554521382NN
rural0JJ
treatment0NN
event0.0908430554521382NN

They were given steady supply of appropriate drugs and equipment and supported by improved communication transportation and backup services

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.384464474243956
WordScorePoS
supply0.0528748274225028NN
drug0NN
support0.0188084899376888NN
improve0.0229264916384433VB
communication0NN
transportation0NN
service0.0451471467893167NN

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.384092622344932
WordScorePoS
supply0.0590310971343993NN
drug0NN
support0.0209983814716066NN
improve0.0511916925627245VB
communication0NN
transportation0NN
service0.0084006124696649NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.370798987299687
WordScorePoS
supply0NN
drug0NN
support0.0277502419802315NN
improve0VB
communication0.0922368138456871NN
transportation0NN
service0.0148023490369527NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.33458098394731
WordScorePoS
supply0NN
drug0NN
support0.0224752180723703NN
improve0.0273960270556257VB
communication0NN
transportation0.04477822029736NN
service0.0269743071558856NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.326045507316468
WordScorePoS
supply0.0703006268489394NN
drug0NN
support0.00833571598658786NN
improve0VB
communication0NN
transportation0.0332151194779746NN
service0.00666957305782837NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.312013251134322
WordScorePoS
supply0NN
drug0NN
support0.0451108483130998NN
improve0.0183291958415182VB
communication0.0499801157438617NN
transportation0NN
service0NN

Besides reducing financial and geographic barriers they also helped overcome cultural obstacles and allegiances to traditional practices

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.49994219431872
WordScorePoS
reduce0.0200483235258943VB
financial0.0112376090361851JJ
geographic0JJ
barrier0NN
help0NN
overcome0.0731385760866977VBN
cultural0.055245183797332JJ
traditional0JJ
practice0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.459832002522759
WordScorePoS
reduce0.022306853314744VB
financial0JJ
geographic0JJ
barrier0NN
help0.0542519672965169NN
overcome0VBN
cultural0JJ
traditional0JJ
practice0.0703006268489394NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.381830511854705
WordScorePoS
reduce0.00799614078871077VB
financial0.00896409157262106JJ
geographic0JJ
barrier0.0357189919948307NN
help0NN
overcome0VBN
cultural0JJ
traditional0.0440683498519077JJ
practice0.0252000451111224NN

Because midwives were available locally and were well respected they developed links with communities and partnerships with traditional birth attendants

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.923758688222465
WordScorePoS
respect0.0299586785922821NN
develop0VB
community0NN
partnership0.3914644359026NN
traditional0JJ
birth0NN

Malaysia and Sri Lanka pursued other complementary strategies

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.754673755777969
WordScorePoS
pursue0.0517339898971162VB
strategy0.0190167691930804NN

Transportation in Malaysia and transportation subsidies in Sri Lanka were provided for emergency visits to the hospital

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.811524496671445
WordScorePoS
transportation0.0325700316331562NN
subsidy0.162850158165781NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.472912968756842
WordScorePoS
transportation0.0332151194779746NN
subsidy0.0664302389559493NN

In Malaysia health programs were part of integrated rural development efforts that included investment in clinics rural roads and rural schools

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.65815494592495
WordScorePoS
health0NN
integrate0VB
rural0.148975141598503JJ
development0.0159922815774215NN
effort0NN
include0VB
investment0.0182713919265625NN
road0NN
school0.0297950283197006NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.336920822391381
WordScorePoS
health0NN
integrate0VB
rural0JJ
development0.0279277626235394NN
effort0.0255262687343935NN
include0VB
investment0NN
road0NN
school0.208127520578185NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.305859319782011
WordScorePoS
health0.191387734041787NN
integrate0VB
rural0JJ
development0.00837573444202498NN
effort0.0127591822694525NN
include0VB
investment0NN
road0.0249430985430622NN
school0NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.343176460063317
WordScorePoS
health0.0229054731708393NN
integrate0.0537696560159885VB
rural0.0373517915079663JJ
development0.0100241617629471NN
effort0.0229054731708393NN
include0VB
investment0NN
road0.04477822029736NN
school0NN

Similarly in Sri Lanka the government invested in free primary and secondary education free health care and food subsidies for all districts

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.566345344226924
WordScorePoS
government0NN
invest0VB
free0.0499016491051341JJ
primary0.108423939529757JJ
secondary0.0615662203253227JJ
education0.244244978014045NN
health0NN
care0.0416255041156371NN
food0NN
subsidy0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.409650748752357
WordScorePoS
government0NN
invest0.0583416713841148VB
free0JJ
primary0.0155217067874935JJ
secondary0JJ
education0NN
health0NN
care0NN
food0.292342270824999NN
subsidy0.0357189919948307NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.370893960002352
WordScorePoS
government0NN
invest0VB
free0.0332151194779746JJ
primary0JJ
secondary0JJ
education0.0101607690729067NN
health0.0339811641917276NN
care0NN
food0.186896403054502NN
subsidy0.0664302389559493NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.327699377858022
WordScorePoS
government0NN
invest0VB
free0JJ
primary0.0108390366114755JJ
secondary0JJ
education0.0152605842304358NN
health0.191387734041787NN
care0.104031537001265NN
food0NN
subsidy0NN

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.21436770562179
WordScorePoS
government0NN
invest0VB
free0JJ
primary0.0141533244035107JJ
secondary0JJ
education0NN
health0.0166605993001162NN
care0NN
food0.0166605993001162NN
subsidy0.162850158165781NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.374405541062608
WordScorePoS
government0NN
invest0VB
free0JJ
primary0.0970239057629001JJ
secondary0.0688661930304451JJ
education0.0512260062633133NN
health0.0571058915334038NN
care0.0931221694711702NN
food0NN
subsidy0NN

The concept was that basic health care acts in synergy with education and other types of infrastructure

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.499183500086297
WordScorePoS
basic0.0480507272610562JJ
health0.0377086395700813NN
care0.030745604615229NN
education0.022550656390892NN
type0NN
infrastructure0.192202909044225NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.49614179317195
WordScorePoS
basic0.0433695758119029JJ
health0NN
care0.0416255041156371NN
education0.244244978014045NN
type0NN
infrastructure0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.468172862869373
WordScorePoS
basic0JJ
health0.191387734041787NN
care0.104031537001265NN
education0.0152605842304358NN
type0NN
infrastructure0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.443905833437472
WordScorePoS
basic0JJ
health0.0571058915334038NN
care0.0931221694711702NN
education0.0512260062633133NN
type0.0688661930304451NN
infrastructure0.024255976440725NN

For example better roads make it easier to get to rural health facilities and facilitate transportation of obstetric emergencies

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.576557995077976
WordScorePoS
road0.0249430985430622NN
rural0JJ
health0.191387734041787NN
facility0NN
facilitate0VB
transportation0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.464206120051085
WordScorePoS
road0NN
rural0.148975141598503JJ
health0NN
facility0NN
facilitate0.0252000451111224VB
transportation0NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.399278681247751
WordScorePoS
road0.04477822029736NN
rural0.0373517915079663JJ
health0.0229054731708393NN
facility0NN
facilitate0VB
transportation0.04477822029736NN

By addressing the multidimensionality of equity these countries made significant health gains

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.680844822931467
WordScorePoS
address0NN
country0NN
significant0.0127591822694525JJ
health0.191387734041787NN
gain0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.486074624360277
WordScorePoS
address0.064698038783335NN
country0NN
significant0.0405241466500776JJ
health0.0405241466500776NN
gain0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.334879337056223
WordScorePoS
address0NN
country0NN
significant0JJ
health0.0339811641917276NN
gain0.0664302389559493NN

Dramatic improvements in maternal mortality are thus possible

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.95578418336553
WordScorePoS
improvement0NN
maternal0.184641469134183JJ
mortality0.276962203701274NN

Just as important the experiences of Malaysia and Sri Lanka show that these can be attained with only modest expenditures

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.715470010808703
WordScorePoS
experience0.0299586785922821NN
attain0.048933054487825VB
expenditure0NN

Since the public expenditures on health services have hovered between

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.64760086611617
WordScorePoS
public0.021678073222951NN
expenditure0NN
health0.191387734041787NN
service0.0100171139310145NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.442093189693013
WordScorePoS
public0.0727679293221751NN
expenditure0NN
health0.0571058915334038NN
service0.022416649027415NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.378513438653551
WordScorePoS
public0.0172128079963482NN
expenditure0.064698038783335NN
health0.0405241466500776NN
service0.00795378154685591NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.314259904465542
WordScorePoS
public0.0583751976558017NN
expenditure0NN
health0.0229054731708393NN
service0.0269743071558856NN

percent of GDP in Malaysia and averaged

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.728061902236968
WordScorePoS
gdp0NN
average0.1656430212089NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.644399886749458
WordScorePoS
gdp0NN
average0.146608885563018NN

percent in Sri Lanka with spending on maternal and child health MCH services amounting to less than

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.851911752102562
WordScorePoS
spending0NN
maternal0.184641469134183JJ
child0.10682408961305NN
health0.191387734041787NN
service0.0100171139310145NN
amount0.020806307400253NN

percent of GDP in both countries

Label: 14, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
gdp0.0531983120572613NN
country0NN

Countries with similar income levels have significantly higher health expenditures and similar if not higher maternal mortality ratios

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.848098359210989
WordScorePoS
country0NN
income0NN
level0NN
significantly0RB
health0.191387734041787NN
expenditure0NN
maternal0.184641469134183JJ
mortality0.276962203701274NN
ratio0.0615471563780609NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.438491003035241
WordScorePoS
country0NN
income0.166475342664294NN
level0NN
significantly0RB
health0.0405241466500776NN
expenditure0.064698038783335NN
maternal0.0488696285210061JJ
mortality0.0488696285210061NN
ratio0NN

Source Pathmanathan and others

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.73415387760794
WordScorePoS
source0.0613562156822703NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.32879500351909
WordScorePoS
source0.0274787313211514NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.323029740864511
WordScorePoS
source0.0269969049497485NN

in poor areas may not be affordable for many poor countries

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.775598973633387
WordScorePoS
poor0.150659516460257JJ
affordable0JJ
country0NN

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.385593651828372
WordScorePoS
poor0.0642010940957526JJ
affordable0.0214003646985842JJ
country0NN

But there are other approaches to reducing the indirect costs for transport and time spent in transit and the medical isolation of poor communities

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.426248768398086
WordScorePoS
approach0NN
reduce0.0164833460638534VB
cost0NN
transport0NN
time0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
community0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.509872907703282
WordScorePoS
approach0.0542519672965169NN
reduce0.022306853314744VB
cost0.0277064208763707NN
transport0.0277064208763707NN
time0.0169905820958638NN
poor0.0339811641917276JJ
community0.0169905820958638NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.454360988983753
WordScorePoS
approach0NN
reduce0.0310356414389692VB
cost0.0660824365173543NN
transport0NN
time0.0607862199751165NN
poor0JJ
community0.0202620733250388NN

Roving extension clinics visit sparsely populated areas in Afghanistan Somalia and Tunisia to provide care locally and offer transportation to better equipped facilities when required

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Bangladesh Cuba Gambia India and Madagascar have trained community health workers to scale up service delivery for wide range of services including malaria prevention immunizations family planning treatment of TB patients home visits and neonatal care

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.866405645604633
WordScorePoS
community0NN
health0.191387734041787NN
worker0NN
scale0NN
service0.0100171139310145NN
wide0.0307735781890304JJ
range0.0249430985430622NN
include0VB
malaria0.20370424488904NN
prevention0.0923207345670913NN
family0.0624189222007589NN
plan0.021678073222951NN
treatment0.0624189222007589NN
tb0.0407408489778079NN
neonatal0.0407408489778079JJ
care0.104031537001265NN

The results have often yielded substantial increase in coverage and measurable improvements in outcomes at much lower unit costs

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.506190583738081
WordScorePoS
result0NN
yield0NN
substantial0.0736315832425121JJ
increase0NN
coverage0.0908430554521382NN
improvement0NN
outcome0NN
cost0NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.385783846103476
WordScorePoS
result0NN
yield0.0828215106044499NN
substantial0JJ
increase0.0145316075945746NN
coverage0NN
improvement0NN
outcome0NN
cost0.0279982034978914NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.334500116409653
WordScorePoS
result0NN
yield0NN
substantial0JJ
increase0.0162235147372888NN
coverage0NN
improvement0.0924643738905717NN
outcome0NN
cost0NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.326012728048937
WordScorePoS
result0NN
yield0NN
substantial0.0499016491051341JJ
increase0.0144029596227568NN
coverage0NN
improvement0NN
outcome0.0416255041156371NN
cost0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.313861399098217
WordScorePoS
result0NN
yield0NN
substantial0JJ
increase0.00285817158600878NN
coverage0NN
improvement0NN
outcome0.0330412182586772NN
cost0.0660824365173543NN

Through village health worker program that monitored infants weight and health for the first month of life rural infant mortality in Maharasthra India was cut in half from

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.829997470519748
WordScorePoS
health0.191387734041787NN
worker0NN
monitor0NN
infant0NN
life0.0250390290383647NN
rural0JJ
mortality0.276962203701274NN
cut0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.321996746941632
WordScorePoS
health0NN
worker0NN
monitor0NN
infant0.0583416713841148NN
life0NN
rural0.148975141598503JJ
mortality0NN
cut0NN

per live births between and

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.626802438566237
WordScorePoS
live0.0300513417930436VB
birth0.0748292956291867NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.47227778029676
WordScorePoS
live0.013214597504793VB
birth0.0658099748168827NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.441806109925493
WordScorePoS
live0.0739258553811849VB
birth0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.331795478799317
WordScorePoS
live0.0159075630937118VB
birth0.0396106020715138NN

Other outreach programs focus on maternal health and safe delivery

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.861584741112664
WordScorePoS
focus0NN
maternal0.184641469134183JJ
health0.191387734041787NN
safe0.0127591822694525JJ

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.33657580672419
WordScorePoS
focus0.0373517915079663NN
maternal0JJ
health0.0229054731708393NN
safe0.0916218926833571JJ

By making professional midwives and supervisory nurse midwives widely available in rural areas Malaysia and Sri Lanka dramatically reduced maternal mortality rates box

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.87551768410501
WordScorePoS
widely0RB
rural0JJ
reduce0.01675146888405VB
maternal0.184641469134183JJ
mortality0.276962203701274NN
rate0.0433561464459019NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.289471717082551
WordScorePoS
widely0RB
rural0.148975141598503JJ
reduce0.00799614078871077VB
maternal0JJ
mortality0NN
rate0.0155217067874935NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.300440096137969
WordScorePoS
widely0RB
rural0.0330412182586772JJ
reduce0.0310356414389692VB
maternal0.0488696285210061JJ
mortality0.0488696285210061NN
rate0.0172128079963482NN

In Bolivia expectant mothers with high obstetric risk are transported to larger clinics few days before their due date in Sri Lanka they are picked up by radiodispatched four wheel drive vehicles

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.652029876479036
WordScorePoS
mother0NN
risk0.0519476926891779NN
transport0NN
day0.25973846344589NN
due0.0519476926891779JJ
drive0NN
vehicle0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.480814419690642
WordScorePoS
mother0NN
risk0NN
transport0.0277064208763707NN
day0NN
due0.0234335422829798JJ
drive0NN
vehicle0.217007869186068NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.449979250470743
WordScorePoS
mother0.162963395911232NN
risk0.0703902516159815NN
transport0NN
day0.0175975629039954NN
due0JJ
drive0NN
vehicle0NN

Financing affordable care For consumers health care finance systems have two goals affordable access to basic package and financial protection in the event of catastrophic illness costs

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.551117271845506
WordScorePoS
financing0.0307735781890304NN
affordable0.025518364538905JJ
care0.104031537001265NN
consumer0NN
health0.191387734041787NN
finance0NN
system0NN
goal0NN
access0.00610236075888593NN
basic0JJ
financial0.00625975725959118JJ
protection0.020806307400253NN
event0NN
catastrophic0JJ
illness0.0407408489778079NN
cost0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.401005643348703
WordScorePoS
financing0NN
affordable0JJ
care0NN
consumer0.325511803779102NN
health0.0339811641917276NN
finance0NN
system0NN
goal0NN
access0.00232174891244877NN
basic0.0144336476662975JJ
financial0JJ
protection0NN
event0NN
catastrophic0JJ
illness0NN
cost0.0277064208763707NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.35067034207304
WordScorePoS
financing0NN
affordable0JJ
care0NN
consumer0NN
health0NN
finance0NN
system0.0519476926891779NN
goal0NN
access0.00514687440545096NN
basic0.0639932865717261JJ
financial0.0184786920895884JJ
protection0.122839698738001NN
event0.0908430554521382NN
catastrophic0JJ
illness0NN
cost0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.309447303647161
WordScorePoS
financing0NN
affordable0JJ
care0.0931221694711702NN
consumer0NN
health0.0571058915334038NN
finance0NN
system0NN
goal0NN
access0.00780347258345989NN
basic0JJ
financial0.0140083044329373JJ
protection0.0465610847355851NN
event0NN
catastrophic0JJ
illness0NN
cost0NN

The classic case for government intervention public subsidies is when the full benefit of treatment accrues not just to the individual but also spills over to the community more broadly

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.53409878644076
WordScorePoS
government0NN
intervention0NN
public0NN
subsidy0.162850158165781NN
full0JJ
benefit0.0229784274580034NN
treatment0.0271683202880942NN
individual0JJ
community0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.397970704929804
WordScorePoS
government0NN
intervention0NN
public0.0727679293221751NN
subsidy0NN
full0.0465610847355851JJ
benefit0.0393804437159645NN
treatment0NN
individual0JJ
community0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.365208895389787
WordScorePoS
government0NN
intervention0.0407408489778079NN
public0.021678073222951NN
subsidy0NN
full0.020806307400253JJ
benefit0NN
treatment0.0624189222007589NN
individual0JJ
community0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.339055193784846
WordScorePoS
government0NN
intervention0NN
public0.0172128079963482NN
subsidy0NN
full0JJ
benefit0NN
treatment0.0330412182586772NN
individual0.064698038783335JJ
community0.0202620733250388NN

Interventions to avoid the spread of malaria fall into this category

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.985986184869649
WordScorePoS
intervention0.0407408489778079NN
avoid0VB
spread0.0407408489778079NN
malaria0.20370424488904NN
fall0.123094312756122NN

A bed net distribution program involving the Red Cross and national ministries of health increased use among the poorest quintile from percent to nearly percent in northern district of Ghana and from Human capacities percent to percent in five rural Zambian districts

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.489711485693709
WordScorePoS
involve0VB
national0.00558382296134999JJ
health0.191387734041787NN
increase0.0143984997539974NN
poorest0JJS
quintile0NN
northern0.0307735781890304JJ
human0JJ
capacity0.00625975725959118NN
rural0JJ

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.421065794473468
WordScorePoS
involve0VB
national0.00399807039435538JJ
health0NN
increase0.0128868286091919NN
poorest0.0297950283197006JJS
quintile0NN
northern0JJ
human0JJ
capacity0.0179281831452421NN
rural0.148975141598503JJ

Immunizations vector control and interventions for tuberculosis HIV AIDS and other communicable diseases are similarly deserving

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.991928777536834
WordScorePoS
control0.020806307400253NN
intervention0.0407408489778079NN
tuberculosis0.162963395911232NN
hiv0.448149338755887NN
aid0.123094312756122NN
communicable0.122222546933424JJ
disease0.215415047323213NN

But the case for government intervention goes beyond these well accepted public health reasons inequality in access to financial protection from health risk based on wealth ethnicity and location provides another important rationale

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.749787716433103
WordScorePoS
government0NN
intervention0NN
public0.0172128079963482NN
health0.0405241466500776NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
access0.00138439773401932NN
financial0.0298222075472138JJ
protection0.0660824365173543NN
risk0NN
base0NN
ethnicity0.0488696285210061NN
location0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.506693206436363
WordScorePoS
government0NN
intervention0.0407408489778079NN
public0.021678073222951NN
health0.191387734041787NN
inequality0.0307735781890304NN
access0.00610236075888593NN
financial0.00625975725959118JJ
protection0.020806307400253NN
risk0.0703902516159815NN
base0.0149758277542848NN
ethnicity0NN
location0NN

Out of pocket payments are the dominant form of health care finance in lower income countries

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.522275136470608
WordScorePoS
dominant0JJ
form0NN
health0.191387734041787NN
care0.104031537001265NN
finance0NN
income0NN
country0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.365956784570274
WordScorePoS
dominant0JJ
form0NN
health0.0405241466500776NN
care0NN
finance0NN
income0.166475342664294NN
country0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.279416905661648
WordScorePoS
dominant0JJ
form0.158049144643351NN
health0NN
care0NN
finance0NN
income0NN
country0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.443336274852807
WordScorePoS
dominant0JJ
form0.100540298425703NN
health0.0571058915334038NN
care0.0931221694711702NN
finance0NN
income0NN
country0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.316639310249309
WordScorePoS
dominant0JJ
form0NN
health0.0377086395700813NN
care0.030745604615229NN
finance0NN
income0.110649350233433NN
country0NN

But liquidity constraints and imperfect credit markets often make out of pocket payments more difficult for the poor reducing their use rates and health and productivity

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.447936517275066
WordScorePoS
constraint0NN
credit0NN
market0NN
poor0JJ
reduce0.01675146888405VB
rate0.0433561464459019NN
health0.191387734041787NN
productivity0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.411674895384741
WordScorePoS
constraint0NN
credit0NN
market0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
reduce0.0164833460638534VB
rate0.0639932865717261NN
health0NN
productivity0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.513061697811501
WordScorePoS
constraint0.0602029956716497NN
credit0.0602029956716497NN
market0.0377086395700813NN
poor0JJ
reduce0VB
rate0NN
health0.0377086395700813NN
productivity0.0922368138456871NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.408367211368904
WordScorePoS
constraint0NN
credit0NN
market0.0913569596328122NN
poor0.0548141757796873JJ
reduce0.00799614078871077VB
rate0.0155217067874935NN
health0NN
productivity0.0595900566394012NN

In Vietnam in before the establishment of health insurance percent of poor households nonfood budget went to medical costs while only percent of spending for the richest fifth of the population was health related

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.576591688216206
WordScorePoS
health0.191387734041787NN
insurance0NN
poor0JJ
household0NN
cost0NN
spending0NN
richest0JJS
population0NN
related0.0125195145191824JJ

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.246711163818703
WordScorePoS
health0NN
insurance0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
household0NN
cost0NN
spending0NN
richest0JJS
population0NN
related0.0184786920895884JJ

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.482712449240332
WordScorePoS
health0.0405241466500776NN
insurance0NN
poor0JJ
household0.0330412182586772NN
cost0.0660824365173543NN
spending0NN
richest0.064698038783335JJS
population0.0860640399817412NN
related0JJ

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.303151513556744
WordScorePoS
health0.0339811641917276NN
insurance0NN
poor0.0339811641917276JJ
household0.0554128417527413NN
cost0.0277064208763707NN
spending0NN
richest0JJS
population0.0144336476662975NN
related0.00833571598658786JJ

In Cambodia single hospital stay absorbed percent of an average household nonfood consumption in and for the poorest among them the cost was higher than the entire nonfood budget

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.699645639749881
WordScorePoS
single0JJ
absorb0VB
average0NN
household0.0554128417527413NN
consumption0.332151194779746NN
poorest0JJS
cost0.0277064208763707NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.469676667819291
WordScorePoS
single0JJ
absorb0VB
average0.146608885563018NN
household0.0330412182586772NN
consumption0NN
poorest0.0330412182586772JJS
cost0.0660824365173543NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.373417026839904
WordScorePoS
single0JJ
absorb0VB
average0.1656430212089NN
household0NN
consumption0NN
poorest0.0279982034978914JJS
cost0.0279982034978914NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.249033433704733
WordScorePoS
single0JJ
absorb0VB
average0NN
household0NN
consumption0.147812295323721NN
poorest0JJS
cost0NN

In the transition economies of Europe and Central Asia with the collapse of prepayment in the out of pocket spending skyrocketed accounting for as much as percent of health resources in Georgia and Azerbaijan

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.43998013393359
WordScorePoS
economy0NN
central0JJ
asia0IN
spending0NN
accounting0NN
health0.191387734041787NN
resource0NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.568849360075754
WordScorePoS
economy0.0625160381065121NN
central0.0924643738905717JJ
asia0IN
spending0NN
accounting0.0924643738905717NN
health0NN
resource0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.372158993715049
WordScorePoS
economy0NN
central0JJ
asia0IN
spending0.0602029956716497NN
accounting0.0454743001434393NN
health0.0377086395700813NN
resource0.0185001613201543NN

In Armenia percent of patients reported having to make some payment for service received

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.79645246839872
WordScorePoS
report0.0307735781890304NN
service0.0100171139310145NN
receive0.0814816979556159VB

While health care use has plummeted in the region the collapse of prepayment especially hurts poor people

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.670459937021662
WordScorePoS
health0.191387734041787NN
care0.104031537001265NN
region0.124837844401518NN
poor0JJ
people0.00539943740774902NNS

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.586117977859447
WordScorePoS
health0NN
care0NN
region0.184259548107002NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
people0.0371911007748996NNS

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.309966420992161
WordScorePoS
health0.0571058915334038NN
care0.0931221694711702NN
region0.0465610847355851NN
poor0JJ
people0NNS

The regressive nature of out of pocket payments is well understood but there are no easy answers especially in low income countries

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.608333403967138
WordScorePoS
nature0NN
income0.166475342664294NN
country0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.594741841209905
WordScorePoS
nature0.162755901889551NN
income0NN
country0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.404334328417596
WordScorePoS
nature0NN
income0.110649350233433NN
country0NN

Given the small formal sector and limited administrative capacity these low income countries have limited capacity to mobilize resources to pay for essential health services and to establish large enough risk pools

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.380678578244779
WordScorePoS
sector0NN
limited0JJ
capacity0.00625975725959118NN
income0NN
country0NN
mobilize0VB
resource0NN
pay0NN
essential0.059903311017139JJ
health0.191387734041787NN
service0.0100171139310145NN
establish0VB
risk0.0703902516159815NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.268627497948905
WordScorePoS
sector0NN
limited0JJ
capacity0NN
income0.166475342664294NN
country0NN
mobilize0VB
resource0NN
pay0.02794560829783NN
essential0JJ
health0.0405241466500776NN
service0.00795378154685591NN
establish0VB
risk0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.503149559814199
WordScorePoS
sector0NN
limited0.120266261535276JJ
capacity0NN
income0.0442083771593746NN
country0NN
mobilize0VB
resource0.0739147683583536NN
pay0NN
essential0JJ
health0NN
service0.0443555132287109NN
establish0VB
risk0.0519476926891779NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.365601356288271
WordScorePoS
sector0.0459744293658165NN
limited0JJ
capacity0.0451108483130998NN
income0.017987180284335NN
country0NN
mobilize0.0898760357768464VB
resource0.0375923735942499NN
pay0NN
essential0JJ
health0NN
service0NN
establish0.048933054487825VB
risk0NN

So developing countries face difficult tradeoff between providing basic package of health services and extending financial protection

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.462083421069212
WordScorePoS
develop0VB
country0NN
provide0.0100171139310145VB
basic0JJ
health0.191387734041787NN
service0.0100171139310145NN
extend0VB
financial0.00625975725959118JJ
protection0.020806307400253NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.541037788342373
WordScorePoS
develop0VB
country0NN
provide0.0295703421524739VB
basic0.0639932865717261JJ
health0NN
service0.0443555132287109NN
extend0VB
financial0.0184786920895884JJ
protection0.122839698738001NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.405104966580157
WordScorePoS
develop0VB
country0NN
provide0VB
basic0JJ
health0.0405241466500776NN
service0.00795378154685591NN
extend0.064698038783335VB
financial0.0298222075472138JJ
protection0.0660824365173543NN

Some evidence suggests that the poor are better able to cover low cost high frequency health shocks than low frequency high cost events

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.63544573253996
WordScorePoS
evidence0NN
suggest0VB
poor0.150659516460257JJ
cover0NN
cost0NN
health0NN
shock0.120266261535276NN
event0.0908430554521382NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.530611451746639
WordScorePoS
evidence0.12939607756667NN
suggest0VB
poor0JJ
cover0NN
cost0.0660824365173543NN
health0.0405241466500776NN
shock0NN
event0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.336171907619394
WordScorePoS
evidence0NN
suggest0VB
poor0JJ
cover0NN
cost0NN
health0.191387734041787NN
shock0NN
event0NN

If so poor people may be better served by having protection against these low risk high cost events through some type of pooling mechanism

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.776125686096183
WordScorePoS
poor0.150659516460257JJ
people0.0371911007748996NNS
serve0VB
protection0.122839698738001NN
risk0.0519476926891779NN
cost0NN
event0.0908430554521382NN
type0NN
mechanism0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.286664151492045
WordScorePoS
poor0.0153248097886055JJ
people0.00432344066632653NNS
serve0VB
protection0NN
risk0NN
cost0NN
event0NN
type0NN
mechanism0.147846224719512NN

It is no easy task however to cover catastrophic health risks in ways that reach the poor

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.627050329356272
WordScorePoS
cover0NN
catastrophic0JJ
health0.191387734041787NN
risk0.0703902516159815NN
reach0NN
poor0JJ

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.485315512333411
WordScorePoS
cover0NN
catastrophic0JJ
health0NN
risk0.0519476926891779NN
reach0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ

Reducing out of pocket costs involves combination of pooling health risks and prepayment through contributory insurance schemes national health services that are funded out of general revenues or mix of the two

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.67505468602354
WordScorePoS
reduce0.01675146888405VB
cost0NN
involve0VB
health0.191387734041787NN
risk0.0703902516159815NN
insurance0NN
national0.00558382296134999JJ
service0.0100171139310145NN
fund0NN
revenue0NN
mix0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.339054042406197
WordScorePoS
reduce0.0310356414389692VB
cost0.0660824365173543NN
involve0.0488696285210061VB
health0.0405241466500776NN
risk0NN
insurance0NN
national0.00886732612541978JJ
service0.00795378154685591NN
fund0NN
revenue0NN
mix0NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.300702559776097
WordScorePoS
reduce0.0200483235258943VB
cost0NN
involve0VB
health0.0229054731708393NN
risk0.0631828116343571NN
insurance0NN
national0.00501208088147356JJ
service0.0269743071558856NN
fund0.055245183797332NN
revenue0NN
mix0NN

In all instances reaching the poor requires some means of subsidizing their health care costs so fiscal room and political commitment are crucial

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.451042866909125
WordScorePoS
reach0NN
poor0JJ
require0VB
means0NNS
health0.191387734041787NN
care0.104031537001265NN
cost0NN
fiscal0JJ
political0JJ
commitment0NN
crucial0JJ

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.413646473350352
WordScorePoS
reach0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
require0VB
means0.120266261535276NNS
health0NN
care0NN
cost0NN
fiscal0JJ
political0JJ
commitment0NN
crucial0JJ

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.399812796641959
WordScorePoS
reach0NN
poor0JJ
require0VB
means0NNS
health0.0571058915334038NN
care0.0931221694711702NN
cost0NN
fiscal0JJ
political0.111637082206855JJ
commitment0NN
crucial0JJ

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.382500053016699
WordScorePoS
reach0NN
poor0JJ
require0VB
means0NNS
health0.0405241466500776NN
care0NN
cost0.0660824365173543NN
fiscal0.064698038783335JJ
political0.0792212041430275JJ
commitment0NN
crucial0JJ

In very low income countries community insurance schemes sometimes supplemented through NGO or donor funding can provide some protection to some people but generally these services do not reach the poorest

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.543752385660371
WordScorePoS
income0.166475342664294NN
country0NN
community0.0202620733250388NN
insurance0NN
provide0VB
protection0.0660824365173543NN
people0.00571634317201755NNS
service0.00795378154685591NN
reach0NN
poorest0.0330412182586772JJS

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.504965432871989
WordScorePoS
income0.0442083771593746NN
country0NN
community0NN
insurance0NN
provide0.0295703421524739VB
protection0.122839698738001NN
people0.0371911007748996NNS
service0.0443555132287109NN
reach0NN
poorest0JJS

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.315940484137835
WordScorePoS
income0.0643370113878709NN
country0NN
community0.0182713919265625NN
insurance0NN
provide0.0215170467912497VB
protection0NN
people0.0257736572183839NNS
service0.0143446978608332NN
reach0NN
poorest0.0297950283197006JJS

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.309197414094168
WordScorePoS
income0.110649350233433NN
country0NN
community0.0188543197850406NN
insurance0NN
provide0.00740117451847634VB
protection0NN
people0.0186171553883251NNS
service0.0148023490369527NN
reach0NN
poorest0JJS

Contributory schemes private or social operate best where the share of the formal labor market is high and administrative capacity is strong

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.546670425383703
WordScorePoS
private0.0898760357768464JJ
social0JJ
operate0VB
share0.0766240489430275NN
market0.030649619577211NN
capacity0.0451108483130998NN
strong0JJ

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.398514891389239
WordScorePoS
private0.0368585655748969JJ
social0.0188543197850406JJ
operate0VB
share0.0377086395700813NN
market0.0377086395700813NN
capacity0NN
strong0.0454743001434393JJ

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.384609203068966
WordScorePoS
private0JJ
social0.101310366625194JJ
operate0VB
share0NN
market0.0202620733250388NN
capacity0NN
strong0.0488696285210061JJ

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.329066427965123
WordScorePoS
private0JJ
social0JJ
operate0VB
share0.0365427838531249NN
market0.0913569596328122NN
capacity0.0179281831452421NN
strong0JJ

And because premiums and copayments can be unaffordably high purely contributory schemes generally bypass the poor

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.842193888314487
WordScorePoS
poor0.150659516460257JJ

Private insurance is significant part of health finance systems in Brazil Chile Namibia South Africa the United States Uruguay and Zimbabwe

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.53021778182936
WordScorePoS
private0JJ
insurance0NN
significant0.0127591822694525JJ
health0.191387734041787NN
finance0NN
system0NN
south0RB
africa0IN
unite0VB

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.480320530043911
WordScorePoS
private0.0898760357768464JJ
insurance0NN
significant0JJ
health0NN
finance0.036961556179878NN
system0.0211360962287062NN
south0RB
africa0IN
unite0.036961556179878VB

But in all seven countries private insurance is used by formal sector workers leaving the ministries of health to provide public funds for programs for the poor and underserved

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.363067645706949
WordScorePoS
country0NN
private0JJ
insurance0NN
sector0NN
worker0NN
leave0NN
health0.191387734041787NN
provide0.0100171139310145VB
public0.021678073222951NN
fund0NN
poor0JJ

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.293324249574451
WordScorePoS
country0NN
private0JJ
insurance0NN
sector0NN
worker0NN
leave0NN
health0NN
provide0.0295703421524739VB
public0NN
fund0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.413395923706039
WordScorePoS
country0NN
private0.0558185411034276JJ
insurance0NN
sector0.0571058915334038NN
worker0NN
leave0NN
health0.0571058915334038NN
provide0.0112083245137075VB
public0.0727679293221751NN
fund0NN
poor0JJ

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.369858953684917
WordScorePoS
country0NN
private0JJ
insurance0.0804764811724088NN
sector0.0252035516550537NN
worker0.121575732851624NN
leave0NN
health0NN
provide0VB
public0NN
fund0NN
poor0JJ

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.325536868944606
WordScorePoS
country0NN
private0.0368585655748969JJ
insurance0NN
sector0.0565629593551219NN
worker0.0454743001434393NN
leave0NN
health0.0377086395700813NN
provide0.00740117451847634VB
public0.0160169090870187NN
fund0NN
poor0JJ

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.319391567866987
WordScorePoS
country0NN
private0.0898760357768464JJ
insurance0NN
sector0.0459744293658165NN
worker0NN
leave0NN
health0NN
provide0.00601568197638796VB
public0.0390556786919513NN
fund0NN
poor0.0153248097886055JJ

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.30337533086485
WordScorePoS
country0NN
private0JJ
insurance0NN
sector0NN
worker0NN
leave0NN
health0.0229054731708393NN
provide0.0269743071558856VB
public0.0583751976558017NN
fund0.055245183797332NN
poor0.0229054731708393JJ

Social insurance is characterized by compulsory coverage financed by employment taxes

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.711947835755728
WordScorePoS
social0.0504071033101074JJ
insurance0.0804764811724088NN
coverage0NN
finance0NN
employment0.173804667214358NN
tax0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.47629602856128
WordScorePoS
social0.112994637345193JJ
insurance0NN
coverage0.0908430554521382NN
finance0NN
employment0NN
tax0NN

Benefits are often limited to contributors and providers are often from the public sector even when private providers are eligible

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.633397397194885
WordScorePoS
benefit0NN
limited0JJ
contributor0NN
provider0.048933054487825NN
public0.0390556786919513NN
sector0.0459744293658165NN
private0.0898760357768464JJ

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.522635744014034
WordScorePoS
benefit0.0393804437159645NN
limited0JJ
contributor0NN
provider0NN
public0.0727679293221751NN
sector0.0571058915334038NN
private0.0558185411034276JJ

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.314507429985215
WordScorePoS
benefit0.0260040237236563NN
limited0JJ
contributor0NN
provider0NN
public0.0160169090870187NN
sector0.0565629593551219NN
private0.0368585655748969JJ

Social insurance has the appeal of generating large risk sharing pool and can in principle reach the poor through cross subsidization

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.620221482955765
WordScorePoS
social0.112994637345193JJ
insurance0NN
generate0VB
risk0.0519476926891779NN
share0NN
principle0NN
reach0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.391172783505128
WordScorePoS
social0.101310366625194JJ
insurance0NN
generate0VB
risk0NN
share0NN
principle0.0977392570420122NN
reach0NN
poor0JJ

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.315661320534843
WordScorePoS
social0JJ
insurance0NN
generate0.0440683498519077VB
risk0.0252000451111224NN
share0.0365427838531249NN
principle0NN
reach0NN
poor0.0548141757796873JJ

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.306742803062814
WordScorePoS
social0.0504071033101074JJ
insurance0.0804764811724088NN
generate0VB
risk0NN
share0.0252035516550537NN
principle0NN
reach0NN
poor0JJ

But when the formal sector is small this potential is limited because of the difficulties of enrolling large enough share of the population

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.535081889911788
WordScorePoS
sector0.0565629593551219NN
potential0.0454743001434393NN
limited0JJ
difficulty0.0602029956716497NN
enrol0VB
share0.0377086395700813NN
population0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.478434647552114
WordScorePoS
sector0.0571058915334038NN
potential0NN
limited0JJ
difficulty0NN
enrol0.0688661930304451VB
share0.0285529457667019NN
population0.024255976440725NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.328084961704899
WordScorePoS
sector0.0459744293658165NN
potential0NN
limited0JJ
difficulty0NN
enrol0VB
share0.0766240489430275NN
population0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.321843732112178
WordScorePoS
sector0NN
potential0NN
limited0.120266261535276JJ
difficulty0NN
enrol0VB
share0NN
population0NN

This can turn the system into ticket to privileged access to health services for some while leaving the bulk of the population underserved

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.541641019101264
WordScorePoS
system0NN
access0.00610236075888593NN
health0.191387734041787NN
service0.0100171139310145NN
leave0NN
population0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.354798735936349
WordScorePoS
system0NN
access0.00138439773401932NN
health0.0405241466500776NN
service0.00795378154685591NN
leave0NN
population0.0860640399817412NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.335358263821788
WordScorePoS
system0.0756001353333673NN
access0.00749031153171887NN
health0NN
service0.0143446978608332NN
leave0NN
population0.0310434135749871NN

For example in Mexico social security health spending per person is five times higher than what the Ministry of Health spends per person

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.568476162376278
WordScorePoS
social0JJ
security0NN
health0.191387734041787NN
spending0NN
person0NN
time0.0127591822694525NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.440800654515902
WordScorePoS
social0.0458109463416786JJ
security0NN
health0.0229054731708393NN
spending0NN
person0.107539312031977NN
time0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.417817468949739
WordScorePoS
social0.101310366625194JJ
security0NN
health0.0405241466500776NN
spending0NN
person0.0237821918091848NN
time0.0607862199751165NN

And the payroll tax WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT required for social insurance introduces labor market distortions especially in settings characterized by dual labor markets

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.504681121635013
WordScorePoS
tax0NN
world0.00172202218602071NN
development0.0055149369084567NN
report0NN
require0.104282800328615VB
social0.0504071033101074JJ
insurance0.0804764811724088NN
introduce0VB
market0.0252035516550537NN
distortion0NN
setting0VBG

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.356345193960451
WordScorePoS
tax0NN
world0.00464349782489754NN
development0.022306853314744NN
report0.0409791940864438NN
require0.0468670845659596VB
social0.0169905820958638JJ
insurance0NN
introduce0VB
market0.0169905820958638NN
distortion0.0409791940864438NN
setting0VBG

The challenges from both an equity and efficiency perspective are enormous but handful of mainly middle income countries have made important attempts to make social insurance systems work

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.453638645164543
WordScorePoS
challenge0NN
efficiency0NN
perspective0NN
middle0JJ
income0.166475342664294NN
country0NN
social0.101310366625194JJ
insurance0NN
system0NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.394480631194465
WordScorePoS
challenge0.0528748274225028NN
efficiency0.134992154141495NN
perspective0NN
middle0JJ
income0.0449973847138318NN
country0NN
social0JJ
insurance0NN
system0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.396347525845397
WordScorePoS
challenge0NN
efficiency0.0442597400933733NN
perspective0NN
middle0.0602029956716497JJ
income0.110649350233433NN
country0NN
social0.0188543197850406JJ
insurance0NN
system0NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.382761051533146
WordScorePoS
challenge0.0947742174515357NN
efficiency0.0537696560159885NN
perspective0NN
middle0JJ
income0NN
country0NN
social0.0458109463416786JJ
insurance0NN
system0.0315914058171786NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.354308837832748
WordScorePoS
challenge0NN
efficiency0NN
perspective0NN
middle0JJ
income0.0442083771593746NN
country0NN
social0.112994637345193JJ
insurance0NN
system0.0519476926891779NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.330721013965034
WordScorePoS
challenge0.0347609334428716NN
efficiency0.0295821503613099NN
perspective0NN
middle0JJ
income0NN
country0NN
social0.0504071033101074JJ
insurance0.0804764811724088NN
system0NN

Colombia for example has cross subsidization scheme for the poor topped up by general revenues

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.713563630266275
WordScorePoS
poor0.150659516460257JJ
revenue0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.536102363821827
WordScorePoS
poor0.0153248097886055JJ
revenue0.0978661089756501NN

The scheme has delivered considerable benefits higher coverage among the poor percent up from percent in years lower out of pocket costs for ambulatory care large increases in physician assisted delivery by percent and prenatal care among rural women by percent and lower child mortality rates from per BOX

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.636823764676878
WordScorePoS
deliver0VB
benefit0NN
coverage0.0307735781890304NN
poor0JJ
cost0NN
care0.104031537001265NN
increase0.0143984997539974NN
assist0VB
rural0JJ
woman0.0381514605760894NN
child0.10682408961305NN
mortality0.276962203701274NN
rate0.0433561464459019NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.415409590632999
WordScorePoS
deliver0VB
benefit0.0393804437159645NN
coverage0NN
poor0JJ
cost0NN
care0.0931221694711702NN
increase0.00402768349408688NN
assist0VB
rural0JJ
woman0.221979360474357NN
child0.0170753354211044NN
mortality0NN
rate0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.350610090607325
WordScorePoS
deliver0VB
benefit0NN
coverage0.0908430554521382NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
cost0NN
care0NN
increase0NN
assist0VB
rural0JJ
woman0.0450489732120807NN
child0.0450489732120807NN
mortality0NN
rate0.0639932865717261NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.324970952894971
WordScorePoS
deliver0VB
benefit0.0252000451111224NN
coverage0NN
poor0.0548141757796873JJ
cost0NN
care0NN
increase0.0128868286091919NN
assist0VB
rural0.148975141598503JJ
woman0.0546336178945768NN
child0.0546336178945768NN
mortality0NN
rate0.0155217067874935NN

Mobilizing support for universal coverage in Thailand With the introduction of the universal coverage scheme in almost the entire Thai population now has health coverage box figure

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.557453345460242
WordScorePoS
mobilize0VB
support0.00625975725959118NN
universal0.0182906962166331JJ
coverage0.0307735781890304NN
introduction0NN
population0NN
health0.191387734041787NN
figure0NN

This was possible largely because the democratic transition of ushered in period of increased voice and openness and raised the political profile of poor people concerns

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.480326389177425
WordScorePoS
democratic0JJ
period0NN
increase0NN
voice0NN
raise0NN
political0JJ
poor0.150659516460257JJ
people0.0371911007748996NNS

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.389920337120572
WordScorePoS
democratic0JJ
period0NN
increase0.00285817158600878NN
voice0.064698038783335NN
raise0NN
political0.0792212041430275JJ
poor0JJ
people0.00571634317201755NNS

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.351691887006525
WordScorePoS
democratic0JJ
period0.0440683498519077NN
increase0.0128868286091919NN
voice0NN
raise0NN
political0JJ
poor0.0548141757796873JJ
people0.0257736572183839NNS

Technical preparation with design details that had been under consideration and subject to experimentation for some time also helped to garner support for the reform while prior investments in health care infrastructure establishing health center in nearly every rural subdistrict provided assurance of implementation success

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.575710053249912
WordScorePoS
technical0JJ
time0.0127591822694525NN
help0NN
support0.00625975725959118NN
reform0NN
investment0NN
health0.191387734041787NN
care0.104031537001265NN
infrastructure0NN
establish0VB
rural0JJ
implementation0.0149758277542848NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.457012073286578
WordScorePoS
technical0.030745604615229JJ
time0.0188543197850406NN
help0NN
support0.0277502419802315NN
reform0NN
investment0.0377086395700813NN
health0.0377086395700813NN
care0.030745604615229NN
infrastructure0.192202909044225NN
establish0VB
rural0JJ
implementation0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.232144476906407
WordScorePoS
technical0JJ
time0.0182713919265625NN
help0NN
support0.00896409157262106NN
reform0NN
investment0.0182713919265625NN
health0NN
care0NN
infrastructure0.0155217067874935NN
establish0VB
rural0.148975141598503JJ
implementation0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.356790039788822
WordScorePoS
technical0JJ
time0NN
help0NN
support0NN
reform0.0911713013253052NN
investment0NN
health0.0571058915334038NN
care0.0931221694711702NN
infrastructure0.024255976440725NN
establish0VB
rural0JJ
implementation0NN

Thailand increasing coverage Uninsured Private health insurance Universal coverage scheme Voluntary health card scheme Medical welfare scheme Social Security Government state enterprise Years of corruption and political inequity in the early together with the intervening period of military rule fueling social discontent prepared the ground for democratic reforms and liberal constitution in

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.403566118350488
WordScorePoS
increase0NN
coverage0NN
private0JJ
health0NN
insurance0NN
universal0JJ
welfare0NN
social0JJ
security0NN
government0NN
enterprise0NN
corruption0.322472475577062NN
political0JJ
period0NN
rule0.162386273072618NN
fuel0NN
democratic0JJ
reform0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.39703482574105
WordScorePoS
increase0.0143984997539974NN
coverage0.0307735781890304NN
private0JJ
health0.191387734041787NN
insurance0NN
universal0.0182906962166331JJ
welfare0NN
social0JJ
security0NN
government0NN
enterprise0NN
corruption0NN
political0JJ
period0NN
rule0NN
fuel0NN
democratic0JJ
reform0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.424705706354615
WordScorePoS
increase0.00402768349408688NN
coverage0NN
private0.0558185411034276JJ
health0.0571058915334038NN
insurance0NN
universal0.02046578088155JJ
welfare0NN
social0.0285529457667019JJ
security0NN
government0NN
enterprise0NN
corruption0NN
political0.111637082206855JJ
period0NN
rule0NN
fuel0.0558185411034276NN
democratic0JJ
reform0.0911713013253052NN

Two provisions of the new constitution were important for the ensuing health sector reforms the principle of equity in health care access and the scope for civil society to propose national legislation affecting citizen rights and the role of the state if the measure had signatures

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.535474312304161
WordScorePoS
provision0.0249430985430622NN
health0.191387734041787NN
sector0NN
reform0NN
principle0NN
care0.104031537001265NN
access0.00610236075888593NN
civil0JJ
society0NN
national0.00558382296134999JJ
legislation0NN
affect0.00625975725959118VB
rights0.0175975629039954NNS
measure0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.586868009100799
WordScorePoS
provision0.0558185411034276NN
health0.0571058915334038NN
sector0.0571058915334038NN
reform0.0911713013253052NN
principle0NN
care0.0931221694711702NN
access0.00780347258345989NN
civil0JJ
society0.0335134328085675NN
national0.0124956749436837JJ
legislation0.0558185411034276NN
affect0VB
rights0.078760887431929NNS
measure0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.312652282381434
WordScorePoS
provision0.0658099748168827NN
health0NN
sector0NN
reform0NN
principle0NN
care0NN
access0.00690021170452351NN
civil0JJ
society0.118536858482514NN
national0.0294647633960925JJ
legislation0.0658099748168827NN
affect0.033031539117106VB
rights0NNS
measure0NN

In March nearly at the same time that feasibility study for the scheme was completed network of NGOs submitted to parliament draft bill calling for universal health care coverage

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.698447365102242
WordScorePoS
time0.0127591822694525NN
study0NN
complete0JJ
parliament0NN
universal0.0182906962166331JJ
health0.191387734041787NN
care0.104031537001265NN
coverage0.0307735781890304NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.511974086796344
WordScorePoS
time0NN
study0NN
complete0JJ
parliament0.0911713013253052NN
universal0.02046578088155JJ
health0.0571058915334038NN
care0.0931221694711702NN
coverage0NN

Between and the press also captured the general public interest and kept the issue on the political agenda by highlighting the shortcomings of the current health system

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.503231488507987
WordScorePoS
capture0NN
public0.021678073222951NN
issue0.0249430985430622NN
political0JJ
agenda0NN
current0JJ
health0.191387734041787NN
system0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.510635897537216
WordScorePoS
capture0NN
public0.0727679293221751NN
issue0NN
political0.111637082206855JJ
agenda0NN
current0JJ
health0.0571058915334038NN
system0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.34690712307045
WordScorePoS
capture0NN
public0.0390556786919513NN
issue0.0299586785922821NN
political0JJ
agenda0.0739231123597559NN
current0JJ
health0NN
system0.0211360962287062NN

This political foment attracted the attention of the opposition Thai Rak Thai TRT party

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.572306202862801
WordScorePoS
political0.0792212041430275JJ
attract0VB
attention0.0396106020715138NN
party0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.537655671926238
WordScorePoS
political0.111637082206855JJ
attract0VB
attention0NN
party0NN

TRT adopted the policy because it was broadly supported administratively and technically feasible and consistent with the party ideology

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.591360623694765
WordScorePoS
adopt0.0153248097886055VB
policy0.0641521854453136NN
support0.0451108483130998NN
feasible0JJ
consistent0.036961556179878JJ
party0NN

TRT effectively turned the financial crisis into an opportunity by highlighting the health issues precipitated by the crisis

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.739246570722168
WordScorePoS
effectively0RB
financial0.00625975725959118JJ
opportunity0NN
health0.191387734041787NN
issue0.0249430985430622NN

Following its landslide victory in TRT introduced its own universal coverage legislation which passed in November

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.515576421238486
WordScorePoS
introduce0VB
universal0JJ
coverage0.0908430554521382NN
legislation0NN

Source Pitayarangsarit

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.73415387760794
WordScorePoS
source0.0613562156822703NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.32879500351909
WordScorePoS
source0.0274787313211514NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.323029740864511
WordScorePoS
source0.0269969049497485NN

births to among the insured

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.697805709734311
WordScorePoS
birth0.0748292956291867NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.613697827816785
WordScorePoS
birth0.0658099748168827NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.369380789423535
WordScorePoS
birth0.0396106020715138NN

But there are questions about the program sustainability in the face of mounting fiscal cost reflecting the difficulty of systemic reforms that threaten the privileges of established interests in this case public hospitals and the prereform social security institution

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.550222296171534
WordScorePoS
sustainability0NN
fiscal0JJ
cost0.0548954478802642NN
reflect0VB
difficulty0NN
systemic0JJ
reform0NN
threaten0VB
establish0VB
public0.0285977592242194NN
social0JJ
security0NN
institution0.274477239401321NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.535553908182273
WordScorePoS
sustainability0NN
fiscal0.064698038783335JJ
cost0.0660824365173543NN
reflect0VB
difficulty0NN
systemic0JJ
reform0NN
threaten0VB
establish0VB
public0.0172128079963482NN
social0.101310366625194JJ
security0NN
institution0.0991236547760315NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.302035313198079
WordScorePoS
sustainability0.0409791940864438NN
fiscal0JJ
cost0.0277064208763707NN
reflect0.0409791940864438VB
difficulty0NN
systemic0.0409791940864438JJ
reform0NN
threaten0VB
establish0VB
public0.028867295332595NN
social0.0169905820958638JJ
security0NN
institution0NN

Ministries of health in many developing countries operate essentially as national health services with nationally owned health sector inputs and funding from general tax revenues

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.768757254956585
WordScorePoS
health0.191387734041787NN
develop0VB
country0NN
operate0VB
national0.00558382296134999JJ
service0.0100171139310145NN
nationally0RB
sector0NN
input0NN
tax0NN
revenue0NN

The systems they manage are often inefficient and inequitable reflecting severe resource and institutional capacity constraints but also bias in favor of the wealthy and influential

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.412992568500538
WordScorePoS
system0.0756001353333673NN
manage0.0297950283197006VB
inefficient0JJ
reflect0VB
resource0.0358563662904843NN
institutional0JJ
capacity0.0179281831452421NN
constraint0NN

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.40401802261158
WordScorePoS
system0.0229784274580034NN
manage0.0271683202880942VB
inefficient0JJ
reflect0.0401833161726777VB
resource0.0572167664438909NN
institutional0JJ
capacity0.0081738237776987NN
constraint0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.376840071579526
WordScorePoS
system0NN
manage0VB
inefficient0.0542519672965169JJ
reflect0.0409791940864438VB
resource0.0416785799329393NN
institutional0JJ
capacity0.00833571598658786NN
constraint0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.365308578602737
WordScorePoS
system0.0211360962287062NN
manage0VB
inefficient0JJ
reflect0VB
resource0.0375923735942499NN
institutional0.036961556179878JJ
capacity0.0451108483130998NN
constraint0NN

Services are meant to cover everyone but high out of pocket payments keep many poor people from participating

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.75180292052649
WordScorePoS
service0.0443555132287109NN
cover0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
people0.0371911007748996NNS

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.313248191383287
WordScorePoS
service0.0084006124696649NN
cover0NN
poor0.0642010940957526JJ
people0.024149913320522NNS

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.30735861198032
WordScorePoS
service0.0143446978608332NN
cover0NN
poor0.0548141757796873JJ
people0.0257736572183839NNS

Countries have tried various approaches to improve equity in access to health care provided by the national health system such as eliminating user fees for all waiving fees or giving vouchers to poor people

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.620372404929196
WordScorePoS
country0NN
approach0NN
improve0VB
access0.00610236075888593NN
health0.191387734041787NN
care0.104031537001265NN
national0.00558382296134999JJ
system0NN
eliminate0VB
user0NN
give0VB
poor0JJ
people0.00539943740774902NNS

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.321860328332941
WordScorePoS
country0NN
approach0NN
improve0VB
access0.00514687440545096NN
health0NN
care0NN
national0.0164833460638534JJ
system0.0519476926891779NN
eliminate0VB
user0NN
give0VB
poor0.150659516460257JJ
people0.0371911007748996NNS

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.3772199968632
WordScorePoS
country0NN
approach0NN
improve0VB
access0.00780347258345989NN
health0.0571058915334038NN
care0.0931221694711702NN
national0.0124956749436837JJ
system0NN
eliminate0.078760887431929VB
user0NN
give0VB
poor0JJ
people0NNS

In Uganda abolished user fees for all

Label: 17, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
user0.048933054487825NN

The result was significant increase in health care use lower probability of sickness and better anthropometric measures particularly for the poor

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.590542002771541
WordScorePoS
result0NN
significant0.0127591822694525JJ
increase0.0143984997539974NN
health0.191387734041787NN
care0.104031537001265NN
measure0NN
poor0JJ

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.534967092513485
WordScorePoS
result0NN
significant0.0376648791150643JJ
increase0NN
health0NN
care0NN
measure0.103895385378356NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ

But the elimination of user fees if effective can reduce the resources for the health sector and thus its quality unless budgetary funding is topped up to make up for the shortfall

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.472673347038439
WordScorePoS
elimination0NN
user0NN
effective0.00914534810831654JJ
reduce0.01675146888405VB
resource0NN
health0.191387734041787NN
sector0NN
quality0.0152605842304358NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.339418011853907
WordScorePoS
elimination0NN
user0.048933054487825NN
effective0.0219686053934784JJ
reduce0.00335331148065841VB
resource0.0375923735942499NN
health0NN
sector0.0459744293658165NN
quality0.00916459792075908NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.330693648440572
WordScorePoS
elimination0NN
user0NN
effective0.02046578088155JJ
reduce0VB
resource0.0280166088658745NN
health0.0571058915334038NN
sector0.0571058915334038NN
quality0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.309121433199195
WordScorePoS
elimination0.0607878664258118NN
user0NN
effective0.0180650490434051JJ
reduce0.0055149369084567VB
resource0.0123650647908625NN
health0NN
sector0.0252035516550537NN
quality0.030144637392549NN

Uganda appears to have avoided fall in quality thanks to large increase in the health budget that more than compensated for the loss in revenues from eliminating user charges

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.692502613979143
WordScorePoS
avoid0VB
fall0.123094312756122NN
quality0.0152605842304358NN
increase0.0143984997539974NN
health0.191387734041787NN
loss0NN
revenue0NN
eliminate0VB
user0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.322540075797042
WordScorePoS
avoid0VB
fall0NN
quality0.00916459792075908NN
increase0.00432344066632653NN
health0NN
loss0NN
revenue0.0978661089756501NN
eliminate0VB
user0.048933054487825NN

Introduced in Thailand baht or universal coverage scheme aims to guarantee health care to every Thai citizen

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.790371639259084
WordScorePoS
introduce0VB
universal0.0182906962166331JJ
coverage0.0307735781890304NN
aim0.020806307400253NN
guarantee0NN
health0.191387734041787NN
care0.104031537001265NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.3693274548164
WordScorePoS
introduce0VB
universal0.02046578088155JJ
coverage0NN
aim0NN
guarantee0NN
health0.0571058915334038NN
care0.0931221694711702NN

It combines previously existing schemes targeted to the poor and uninsured and allocates budgetary resources to providers on capitation basis with only small copayment per visit baht

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.506974129564702
WordScorePoS
exist0VB
target0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
resource0.0739147683583536NN
provider0NN
basis0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.678548764078618
WordScorePoS
exist0.0599173571845643VB
target0.0898760357768464NN
poor0.0153248097886055JJ
resource0.0375923735942499NN
provider0.048933054487825NN
basis0.048933054487825NN

The Ministry of Public Health remains strategic manager and central financier but the district offices make the decisions on choice of providers

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.547015087785836
WordScorePoS
public0.021678073222951NN
health0.191387734041787NN
remains0NNS
central0JJ
decision0NN
choice0NN
provider0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.434535402847121
WordScorePoS
public0.0727679293221751NN
health0.0571058915334038NN
remains0NNS
central0JJ
decision0.0393804437159645NN
choice0NN
provider0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.375055284856857
WordScorePoS
public0.0390556786919513NN
health0NN
remains0.036961556179878NNS
central0JJ
decision0.0211360962287062NN
choice0NN
provider0.048933054487825NN

The scheme has markedly increased use and coverage with roughly three quarters of the country benefiting from the scheme and percent of the population insured overall all at limited additional budgetary cost box

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.621615577871545
WordScorePoS
increase0NN
coverage0.0908430554521382NN
quarter0NN
country0NN
benefit0NN
population0NN
limited0.120266261535276JJ
additional0JJ
cost0NN

Human capacities But there is broad agreement that existing capitation rates are too low and that the system is underfunded

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.404067638545937
WordScorePoS
human0JJ
capacity0.0451108483130998NN
agreement0NN
exist0.0599173571845643VB
rate0NN
system0.0211360962287062NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.384776018243041
WordScorePoS
human0JJ
capacity0.016515769558553NN
agreement0.0464294830712827NN
exist0VB
rate0.0571955184484387NN
system0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.371325304064716
WordScorePoS
human0JJ
capacity0NN
agreement0NN
exist0VB
rate0.0639932865717261NN
system0.0519476926891779NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.368322068516518
WordScorePoS
human0.0273960270556257JJ
capacity0.0112376090361851NN
agreement0NN
exist0.04477822029736VB
rate0NN
system0.0315914058171786NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.349255578556728
WordScorePoS
human0JJ
capacity0.0179281831452421NN
agreement0NN
exist0VB
rate0.0155217067874935NN
system0.0756001353333673NN

This provides limited incentives for private providers to participate and could lead to financial squeeze on public providers with adverse impacts on quality

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.560400309181605
WordScorePoS
limited0JJ
incentive0.036961556179878NN
private0.0898760357768464JJ
provider0.048933054487825NN
lead0NN
financial0.0150369494376999JJ
public0.0390556786919513NN
adverse0JJ
impact0NN
quality0.00916459792075908NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.426607235833127
WordScorePoS
limited0JJ
incentive0NN
private0JJ
provider0NN
lead0.0169905820958638NN
financial0JJ
public0.028867295332595NN
adverse0.0664302389559493JJ
impact0.0866018859977851NN
quality0.0203215381458133NN

Higher use has also put strain on human resources with increased workloads and low pay accelerating the number of physicians leaving the public system

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.524775169806534
WordScorePoS
strain0.0731385760866977NN
human0.0273960270556257JJ
resource0.0449504361447405NN
increase0.00323105002784081NN
pay0.0315914058171786NN
accelerate0VB
leave0NN
public0.0583751976558017NN
system0.0315914058171786NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.477893526809594
WordScorePoS
strain0NN
human0JJ
resource0.0739147683583536NN
increase0NN
pay0NN
accelerate0.120266261535276VB
leave0NN
public0NN
system0.0519476926891779NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.389587171304279
WordScorePoS
strain0NN
human0.0170753354211044JJ
resource0.0280166088658745NN
increase0.00402768349408688NN
pay0.078760887431929NN
accelerate0VB
leave0NN
public0.0727679293221751NN
system0NN

Clearly supply side measures need to be considered in tandem with health finance reforms to expand access

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.516878939147433
WordScorePoS
supply0NN
measure0NN
health0.191387734041787NN
finance0NN
reform0NN
expand0VB
access0.00610236075888593NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.408500531920848
WordScorePoS
supply0NN
measure0NN
health0.0571058915334038NN
finance0NN
reform0.0911713013253052NN
expand0VB
access0.00780347258345989NN

Still the achievements have been considerable and the scheme has broad popular support

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.643991634188686
WordScorePoS
achievement0.0736315832425121NN
support0.0184786920895884NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.524850752375511
WordScorePoS
achievement0.0299586785922821NN
support0.0451108483130998NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.451714332742953
WordScorePoS
achievement0.0368585655748969NN
support0.0277502419802315NN

Thailand implemented the reform in large part thanks to the popular support that democratic reforms made possible previous investments in sound design and health infrastructure also helped

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.542423274857954
WordScorePoS
implement0VB
reform0NN
support0.0277502419802315NN
democratic0JJ
previous0JJ
investment0.0377086395700813NN
sound0.0520080474473126NN
health0.0377086395700813NN
infrastructure0.192202909044225NN
help0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.308621881920155
WordScorePoS
implement0VB
reform0NN
support0.00625975725959118NN
democratic0JJ
previous0JJ
investment0NN
sound0NN
health0.191387734041787NN
infrastructure0NN
help0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.473259923662813
WordScorePoS
implement0VB
reform0.0911713013253052NN
support0NN
democratic0JJ
previous0JJ
investment0NN
sound0.0393804437159645NN
health0.0571058915334038NN
infrastructure0.024255976440725NN
help0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.314969363438182
WordScorePoS
implement0.0458229896037954VB
reform0NN
support0.0451108483130998NN
democratic0JJ
previous0JJ
investment0.0766240489430275NN
sound0.0211360962287062NN
health0NN
infrastructure0.0130185595639838NN
help0NN

Other countries reduce costs for the poor through targeted programs funded from general revenues

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.469931091655162
WordScorePoS
country0NN
reduce0.0164833460638534VB
cost0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
target0NN
fund0NN
revenue0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.580361610938439
WordScorePoS
country0NN
reduce0.00335331148065841VB
cost0NN
poor0.0153248097886055JJ
target0.0898760357768464NN
fund0NN
revenue0.0978661089756501NN

Armenia targeted fee waiver system curbed plummeting use among the poor

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.653442204537938
WordScorePoS
target0NN
system0.0519476926891779NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.535807744876036
WordScorePoS
target0.0357189919948307NN
system0.0756001353333673NN
poor0.0548141757796873JJ

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.407457810149625
WordScorePoS
target0.0898760357768464NN
system0.0211360962287062NN
poor0.0153248097886055JJ

But in many instances simple legislation of free or reduced price services can be counterproductive without good funding and targeting

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.69230914925293
WordScorePoS
simple0.048933054487825JJ
legislation0NN
free0.0898760357768464JJ
reduce0.00335331148065841VB
price0NN
service0NN
target0.0898760357768464NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.347295153775568
WordScorePoS
simple0JJ
legislation0NN
free0JJ
reduce0.00799614078871077VB
price0.0583416713841148NN
service0.0143446978608332NN
target0.0357189919948307NN

Targeted payments through government vouchers and civil society partnerships with hospitals can help

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.974382632592899
WordScorePoS
target0.0898760357768464NN
government0.048933054487825NN
civil0.0978661089756501JJ
society0.0359743605686701NN
partnership0.3914644359026NN

Vouchers issued to poor patients as by the MCH poverty alleviation fund in Yunnan Province in China give providers greater assurance of payment

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.883455851419052
WordScorePoS
issue0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
poverty0.269969049497485NN
fund0NN
provider0NN

In Cambodia promising partnership has emerged between government hospitals Médecins Sans Frontières MSF and small local NGO covering the hospital fees of those considered indigent by the local NGO social workers

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.829433870415973
WordScorePoS
partnership0.3914644359026NN
emerge0VB
government0.048933054487825NN
local0.0130185595639838JJ
cover0NN
social0JJ
worker0NN

Because the hospital is fully compensated poor patients receive the same care as those who can pay

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.451475524903063
WordScorePoS
fully0RB
poor0.150659516460257JJ
receive0VB
care0NN
pay0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.555920310222932
WordScorePoS
fully0RB
poor0JJ
receive0.0814816979556159VB
care0.104031537001265NN
pay0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.515075284724815
WordScorePoS
fully0RB
poor0JJ
receive0VB
care0.0931221694711702NN
pay0.078760887431929NN

Vietnam has introduced health cards for the poor

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.652556359209618
WordScorePoS
introduce0VB
health0.191387734041787NN
poor0JJ

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.513689270808344
WordScorePoS
introduce0VB
health0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ

million eligible people benefited from Vietnam program in its first year of implementation in

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.540874253266657
WordScorePoS
people0.0159982027144574NNS
benefit0.0446918591208085NN
implementation0.0190167691930804NN

The program has already significantly increased the flow of government health funding to the poor and to predominantly poor areas of the country

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.648107703830034
WordScorePoS
significantly0RB
increase0NN
flow0NN
government0NN
health0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
country0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.442626017256596
WordScorePoS
significantly0RB
increase0.0143984997539974NN
flow0NN
government0NN
health0.191387734041787NN
poor0JJ
country0NN

The funding per beneficiary however is considered inadequate and the cost sharing arrangements are likely to impose too large burden on populations in poorer or ethnic minority regions

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.606274891167112
WordScorePoS
inadequate0.0736315832425121JJ
cost0NN
share0NN
burden0NN
population0NN
region0.184259548107002NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.357680343632812
WordScorePoS
inadequate0JJ
cost0.0660824365173543NN
share0NN
burden0NN
population0.0860640399817412NN
region0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.332533056114014
WordScorePoS
inadequate0JJ
cost0NN
share0.0365427838531249NN
burden0.0440683498519077NN
population0.0310434135749871NN
region0.0297950283197006NN

Many developing countries have mixed system with ministries of health private insurance social insurance and targeted schemes coexisting to serve different segments of the population

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.344609781891846
WordScorePoS
develop0VB
country0NN
system0NN
health0.191387734041787NN
private0JJ
insurance0NN
social0JJ
target0NN
serve0VB
population0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.457674972806224
WordScorePoS
develop0VB
country0NN
system0NN
health0NN
private0JJ
insurance0.0804764811724088NN
social0.0504071033101074JJ
target0NN
serve0VB
population0.0428212738652355NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.4103505960012
WordScorePoS
develop0VB
country0NN
system0NN
health0.0405241466500776NN
private0JJ
insurance0NN
social0.101310366625194JJ
target0NN
serve0VB
population0.0860640399817412NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.36171611535476
WordScorePoS
develop0VB
country0NN
system0.0211360962287062NN
health0NN
private0.0898760357768464JJ
insurance0NN
social0JJ
target0.0898760357768464NN
serve0VB
population0NN

These multitrack systems tend to fragment increasing administrative costs limiting pool sizes and undermining both equity and efficiency objectives

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.587763812379966
WordScorePoS
system0NN
increase0.0162235147372888NN
cost0NN
limit0NN
size0NN
efficiency0.134992154141495NN
objective0.0749457204978913NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.443868620764839
WordScorePoS
system0NN
increase0.0159575617614215NN
cost0NN
limit0.0368585655748969NN
size0.0368585655748969NN
efficiency0.0442597400933733NN
objective0.0368585655748969NN

Chile two track universal coverage system has caused severe segmentation with the healthy and wealthy in the private scheme leaving the public scheme overburdened with the poor and ill

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.583099772810914
WordScorePoS
universal0JJ
coverage0.0908430554521382NN
system0.0519476926891779NN
cause0NN
healthy0JJ
private0JJ
leave0NN
public0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ

Chile is trying to overcome this by creating virtual pool mandating common basic benefits package instituting catastrophic insurance allowing portability of benefits between schemes and initiating minimum quality and maximum wait time standards

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Community based health insurance CBHI schemes have developed in some poor communities outside the reach of national health systems

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.623621769278163
WordScorePoS
community0NN
base0.0149758277542848NN
health0.191387734041787NN
insurance0NN
develop0VB
poor0JJ
reach0NN
national0.00558382296134999JJ
system0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.407103022777032
WordScorePoS
community0NN
base0.0442083771593746NN
health0NN
insurance0NN
develop0VB
poor0.150659516460257JJ
reach0NN
national0.0164833460638534JJ
system0.0519476926891779NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.303848425734765
WordScorePoS
community0.0169905820958638NN
base0.0199423462679015NN
health0.0339811641917276NN
insurance0NN
develop0VB
poor0.0339811641917276JJ
reach0.0332151194779746NN
national0.00743561777158133JJ
system0NN

Communities pool health risks through voluntary contributions to local fund used when any member incurs health shock

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.757011612661012
WordScorePoS
community0NN
health0.191387734041787NN
risk0.0703902516159815NN
contribution0NN
local0JJ
fund0NN
incur0VB
shock0NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.306865710049882
WordScorePoS
community0NN
health0.0229054731708393NN
risk0.0631828116343571NN
contribution0NN
local0.0194583992186006JJ
fund0.055245183797332NN
incur0VB
shock0NN

The schemes are reported to reduce out of pocket spending and increase use by their members but they generally do not reach the poorest and socially excluded groups or offer members enough protection from financial risk

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.49059980070563
WordScorePoS
report0NN
reduce0.0164833460638534VB
spending0NN
increase0NN
reach0NN
poorest0JJS
socially0RB
offer0NN
protection0.122839698738001NN
financial0.0184786920895884JJ
risk0.0519476926891779NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.380878805880619
WordScorePoS
report0NN
reduce0.0310356414389692VB
spending0NN
increase0.00285817158600878NN
reach0NN
poorest0.0330412182586772JJS
socially0RB
offer0NN
protection0.0660824365173543NN
financial0.0298222075472138JJ
risk0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.372786372917027
WordScorePoS
report0.0307735781890304NN
reduce0.01675146888405VB
spending0NN
increase0.0143984997539974NN
reach0NN
poorest0JJS
socially0RB
offer0NN
protection0.020806307400253NN
financial0.00625975725959118JJ
risk0.0703902516159815NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.327773059884094
WordScorePoS
report0NN
reduce0VB
spending0.0602029956716497NN
increase0.0159575617614215NN
reach0NN
poorest0JJS
socially0RB
offer0.0454743001434393NN
protection0NN
financial0.0185001613201543JJ
risk0NN

Many are limited by their small risk pools exposing them to low frequency but highcost catastrophic events that can outstrip the community fund

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.780472485291742
WordScorePoS
limited0.120266261535276JJ
risk0.0519476926891779NN
catastrophic0JJ
event0.0908430554521382NN
community0NN
fund0NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.35136791084307
WordScorePoS
limited0JJ
risk0.0631828116343571NN
catastrophic0JJ
event0NN
community0NN
fund0.055245183797332NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.347607450239742
WordScorePoS
limited0JJ
risk0NN
catastrophic0JJ
event0.0414107553022249NN
community0.0343390275626203NN
fund0.0414107553022249NN

Some communities address large health risks by increasing the maximum benefit as in Cameroon

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.731310344864073
WordScorePoS
community0NN
health0.191387734041787NN
risk0.0703902516159815NN
increase0.0143984997539974NN
maximum0NN
benefit0NN

But they do so by limiting the number of family claims to one year and by requiring high premiums which prohibit the poor from participating

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.513982742587763
WordScorePoS
limit0NN
family0NN
require0VB
prohibit0VB
poor0.150659516460257JJ

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.410505872395119
WordScorePoS
limit0.0357189919948307NN
family0.0297950283197006NN
require0VB
prohibit0VB
poor0.0548141757796873JJ

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.355766173800064
WordScorePoS
limit0NN
family0NN
require0.104282800328615VB
prohibit0VB
poor0JJ

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.338079719224479
WordScorePoS
limit0NN
family0.0348974218717993NN
require0VB
prohibit0VB
poor0.0642010940957526JJ

Insurance alone is not enough for equitable use

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.749384039647112
WordScorePoS
insurance0.0804764811724088NN
equitable0JJ

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.467793976805055
WordScorePoS
insurance0NN
equitable0.0502364757923669JJ

Inadequate knowledge of the scheme benefits and processes and even the paperwork for submitting claims to community insurance schemes can be deterrent

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.536378249633453
WordScorePoS
inadequate0.0368585655748969JJ
knowledge0NN
benefit0.0260040237236563NN
process0.0737171311497939NN
community0.0188543197850406NN
insurance0NN

Hospitals often require payment on or before discharge but insurance claims are not settled until later requiring patients to pay up front

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.873832713708247
WordScorePoS
require0.104282800328615VB
discharge0NN
insurance0.0804764811724088NN
pay0.0695218668857431NN

India Self Employed Women WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT Association SEWA has been seeking to remedy similar difficulties encountered in its large and well established CBHI scheme

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.603519441208864
WordScorePoS
employ0VB
woman0.221979360474357NN
world0.00585260443759492NN
development0.0124956749436837NN
report0NN
seek0VB
difficulty0NN
establish0VB

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.463001664532476
WordScorePoS
employ0VB
woman0.0450489732120807NN
world0.00257343720272548NN
development0.0164833460638534NN
report0NN
seek0.120266261535276VB
difficulty0NN
establish0VB

SEWA is testing door to door visits for member education reimbursement assurance with selected hospitals and reimbursement to members while still in hospital

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.961591108592945
WordScorePoS
education0.244244978014045NN

Enhancing provider incentives Addressing knowledge access and affordability constraints are important but they may not be enough to raise health use and outcomes

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.448867314800457
WordScorePoS
enhance0VB
provider0NN
incentive0NN
address0NN
knowledge0NN
access0.00610236075888593NN
constraint0NN
raise0NN
health0.191387734041787NN
outcome0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.452671202951643
WordScorePoS
enhance0.0601477977507998VB
provider0.048933054487825NN
incentive0.036961556179878NN
address0NN
knowledge0.0499801157438617NN
access0.00314118376811005NN
constraint0NN
raise0NN
health0NN
outcome0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.447521798882661
WordScorePoS
enhance0.0185001613201543VB
provider0NN
incentive0NN
address0NN
knowledge0NN
access0.0128821355880844NN
constraint0.0602029956716497NN
raise0.0368585655748969NN
health0.0377086395700813NN
outcome0.030745604615229NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.339993786115746
WordScorePoS
enhance0.00994073584907126VB
provider0NN
incentive0NN
address0.064698038783335NN
knowledge0NN
access0.00138439773401932NN
constraint0NN
raise0NN
health0.0405241466500776NN
outcome0.0330412182586772NN

Hours of operation waiting time staff disposition competence and integrity and the cultural appropriateness of services are all important

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Complaints of unprofessional treatment abuse and corruption abound worldwide

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.947871753841267
WordScorePoS
treatment0NN
abuse0.0811931365363091NN
corruption0.322472475577062NN
worldwide0RB

Public medical staff who take authorized or unauthorized leave from public clinics undermine the credibility of the public health sector drive up costs for poor families and induce the poor to use private providers including traditional healers

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.353520638660003
WordScorePoS
public0.021678073222951NN
leave0NN
health0.191387734041787NN
sector0NN
drive0NN
cost0NN
poor0JJ
family0.0624189222007589NN
private0JJ
provider0NN
include0VB
traditional0JJ

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.334092975544565
WordScorePoS
public0NN
leave0NN
health0NN
sector0NN
drive0NN
cost0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
family0NN
private0JJ
provider0NN
include0VB
traditional0JJ

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.482197984524426
WordScorePoS
public0.0727679293221751NN
leave0NN
health0.0571058915334038NN
sector0.0571058915334038NN
drive0NN
cost0NN
poor0JJ
family0.0465610847355851NN
private0.0558185411034276JJ
provider0NN
include0VB
traditional0JJ

In Bangladesh such absenteeism rates amount to percent for physicians in larger clinics and percent in smaller subcenters with single physician

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.621909926001208
WordScorePoS
rate0.0639932865717261NN
amount0.0614198493690006NN
single0JJ

More generally poor service delivery has to do with weak management and incentives within the public health system ineffective technical and structural backup lack of professional career structures and inadequate financial incentives all contribute

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.50143386969912
WordScorePoS
poor0.150659516460257JJ
service0.0443555132287109NN
management0NN
incentive0NN
public0NN
health0NN
system0.0519476926891779NN
technical0JJ
lack0.0753297582301286NN
structure0NN
inadequate0.0736315832425121JJ
financial0.0184786920895884JJ
contribute0VB

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.292947069353127
WordScorePoS
poor0JJ
service0.0100171139310145NN
management0.0127591822694525NN
incentive0NN
public0.021678073222951NN
health0.191387734041787NN
system0NN
technical0JJ
lack0NN
structure0NN
inadequate0JJ
financial0.00625975725959118JJ
contribute0VB

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.36659018938065
WordScorePoS
poor0.0229054731708393JJ
service0.0269743071558856NN
management0.0687164195125178NN
incentive0NN
public0.0583751976558017NN
health0.0229054731708393NN
system0.0315914058171786NN
technical0.0373517915079663JJ
lack0.0229054731708393NN
structure0NN
inadequate0JJ
financial0.0112376090361851JJ
contribute0VB

But the weak demand for service provider accountability and quality is also problem

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.538192908985727
WordScorePoS
demand0NN
service0NN
provider0.048933054487825NN
accountability0.048933054487825NN
quality0.00916459792075908NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.383800240119874
WordScorePoS
demand0NN
service0NN
provider0NN
accountability0NN
quality0.076326555629389NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.342426861409396
WordScorePoS
demand0.030745604615229NN
service0.0148023490369527NN
provider0NN
accountability0NN
quality0.022550656390892NN

If they are organized poor citizens and communities can have more voice and greater power to influence health providers

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.498840963815672
WordScorePoS
organize0VB
poor0JJ
community0NN
voice0NN
power0NN
influence0NN
health0.191387734041787NN
provider0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.392685240646762
WordScorePoS
organize0VB
poor0.150659516460257JJ
community0NN
voice0NN
power0NN
influence0NN
health0NN
provider0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.362829393143759
WordScorePoS
organize0VB
poor0.0339811641917276JJ
community0.0169905820958638NN
voice0NN
power0NN
influence0.0542519672965169NN
health0.0339811641917276NN
provider0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.327067400093121
WordScorePoS
organize0VB
poor0JJ
community0.0202620733250388NN
voice0.064698038783335NN
power0NN
influence0NN
health0.0405241466500776NN
provider0NN

Governments can help support organization by communities and enhance provider accountability

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.869808315513231
WordScorePoS
government0.048933054487825NN
support0.0451108483130998NN
organization0.0422721924574123NN
community0NN
enhance0.0601477977507998VB
provider0.048933054487825NN
accountability0.048933054487825NN

It helps to have well defined objectives for health service delivery with transparent metrics for monitoring progress

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.607619700957701
WordScorePoS
help0NN
objective0NN
health0.191387734041787NN
service0.0100171139310145NN
transparent0JJ
monitor0NN
progress0.0449274832628543NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.357234409137286
WordScorePoS
help0NN
objective0.0299586785922821NN
health0NN
service0NN
transparent0.036961556179878JJ
monitor0.0599173571845643NN
progress0.017987180284335NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.316023940220702
WordScorePoS
help0.0542519672965169NN
objective0NN
health0.0339811641917276NN
service0.00666957305782837NN
transparent0JJ
monitor0.0332151194779746NN
progress0NN

This allows for community oversight of health workers and facilities and when coupled with sufficient management autonomy for providers to reach the established objectives can lead to improved provider incentives and accountability

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.410157525468488
WordScorePoS
community0NN
oversight0NN
health0.191387734041787NN
worker0NN
facility0NN
sufficient0JJ
management0.0127591822694525NN
autonomy0.0407408489778079NN
provider0NN
reach0NN
establish0VB
objective0NN
lead0.025518364538905NN
improve0VB
incentive0NN
accountability0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.574643995167625
WordScorePoS
community0NN
oversight0.0978661089756501NN
health0NN
worker0NN
facility0NN
sufficient0JJ
management0NN
autonomy0NN
provider0.048933054487825NN
reach0NN
establish0.048933054487825VB
objective0.0299586785922821NN
lead0NN
improve0.0183291958415182VB
incentive0.036961556179878NN
accountability0.048933054487825NN

There is also need for governments to engage with nonpublic health care providers in many countries NGO and private providers make up large part of the health network

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.740856720275686
WordScorePoS
government0NN
engage0VB
health0.191387734041787NN
care0.104031537001265NN
provider0NN
country0NN
private0JJ

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.400483746813716
WordScorePoS
government0NN
engage0VB
health0.0571058915334038NN
care0.0931221694711702NN
provider0NN
country0NN
private0.0558185411034276JJ

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.360188760737371
WordScorePoS
government0.048933054487825NN
engage0VB
health0NN
care0NN
provider0.048933054487825NN
country0NN
private0.0898760357768464JJ

NGOs are particularly helpful in serving remote areas and hard to reach populations the Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee BRAC trains community workers to seek out the extremely poor in need of urgent medical care

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.50380526216722
WordScorePoS
serve0VB
reach0NN
population0NN
rural0JJ
community0NN
worker0NN
seek0.120266261535276VB
poor0.150659516460257JJ
urgent0JJ
care0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.470664659252669
WordScorePoS
serve0VB
reach0NN
population0.0310434135749871NN
rural0.148975141598503JJ
community0.0182713919265625NN
worker0NN
seek0VB
poor0.0548141757796873JJ
urgent0JJ
care0NN

In Jordan half or more of outpatient visits are to private providers

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.900859747573469
WordScorePoS
private0.0898760357768464JJ
provider0.048933054487825NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.362257808566239
WordScorePoS
private0.0558185411034276JJ
provider0NN

Many private providers offer excellent services

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.663245505287731
WordScorePoS
private0.0898760357768464JJ
provider0.048933054487825NN
offer0NN
service0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.464123022986202
WordScorePoS
private0.0368585655748969JJ
provider0NN
offer0.0454743001434393NN
service0.0148023490369527NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.373816571455614
WordScorePoS
private0.0558185411034276JJ
provider0NN
offer0NN
service0.022416649027415NN

But some do not and misdiagnose misprescribe or overprescribe treatment

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.749062274963216
WordScorePoS
treatment0.0624189222007589NN

In Mexico even wealthy women receive worse care from private providers than from public providers Barber Bertossi and Gertler

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.75639361917124
WordScorePoS
woman0.221979360474357NN
receive0VB
care0.0931221694711702NN
private0.0558185411034276JJ
provider0NN
public0.0727679293221751NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.418257209213582
WordScorePoS
woman0.0381514605760894NN
receive0.0814816979556159VB
care0.104031537001265NN
private0JJ
provider0NN
public0.021678073222951NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.386642024016451
WordScorePoS
woman0NN
receive0VB
care0NN
private0.0898760357768464JJ
provider0.048933054487825NN
public0.0390556786919513NN

Without unduly discouraging beneficial private enterprise in health governments need to ensure accreditation and appropriate regulation for nonpublic providers

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.487091408449422
WordScorePoS
private0JJ
enterprise0NN
health0.191387734041787NN
government0NN
ensure0.00837573444202498VB
regulation0NN
provider0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.556080709982432
WordScorePoS
private0.0898760357768464JJ
enterprise0NN
health0NN
government0.048933054487825NN
ensure0.00335331148065841VB
regulation0.036961556179878NN
provider0.048933054487825NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.413643613347313
WordScorePoS
private0.0368585655748969JJ
enterprise0.0909486002868787NN
health0.0377086395700813NN
government0NN
ensure0.00412562425683033VB
regulation0NN
provider0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.358754856215412
WordScorePoS
private0JJ
enterprise0NN
health0.0405241466500776NN
government0NN
ensure0.00886732612541978VB
regulation0.0977392570420122NN
provider0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.305816960993655
WordScorePoS
private0.0558185411034276JJ
enterprise0NN
health0.0571058915334038NN
government0NN
ensure0.0124956749436837VB
regulation0NN
provider0NN

Social protection managing risk and providing social assistance Social protection policies typically have been thought of as form of redistribution

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.161381219963738
WordScorePoS
social0JJ
protection0NN
manage0VB
risk0NN
provide0.013214597504793VB
assistance0NN
policy0.0201317944152378NN
typically0RB
form0.158049144643351NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.674247802839152
WordScorePoS
social0.112994637345193JJ
protection0.122839698738001NN
manage0VB
risk0.0519476926891779NN
provide0.0295703421524739VB
assistance0NN
policy0.0450489732120807NN
typically0RB
form0.0884167543187491NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.522806412687683
WordScorePoS
social0.101310366625194JJ
protection0.0660824365173543NN
manage0.0660824365173543VB
risk0NN
provide0VB
assistance0.0330412182586772NN
policy0.0848203862485078NN
typically0RB
form0NN

But more recent theoretical and empirical work also highlights crucial opportunity enhancing role for social protection

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.633833776460547
WordScorePoS
crucial0JJ
opportunity0NN
enhance0.0184786920895884VB
social0.112994637345193JJ
protection0.122839698738001NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.514368190824608
WordScorePoS
crucial0JJ
opportunity0.029046330719385NN
enhance0.00994073584907126VB
social0.101310366625194JJ
protection0.0660824365173543NN

As chapter showed pervasive financial market failures in developing countries lead to widespread uninsured risks and credit constraints

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.620565085926228
WordScorePoS
financial0.0185001613201543JJ
market0.0377086395700813NN
develop0VB
country0NN
lead0.0188543197850406NN
risk0NN
credit0.0602029956716497NN
constraint0.0602029956716497NN

Unequal capacity to manage risk means unequal opportunities to engage in risky but highreturn activities

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.500611937007511
WordScorePoS
capacity0NN
manage0VB
risk0.0519476926891779NN
means0.120266261535276NNS
opportunity0NN
engage0VB
activity0NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.353813835854406
WordScorePoS
capacity0.0158976666884135NN
manage0.0528409850971592VB
risk0.0223459295604043NN
means0NNS
opportunity0.0116130458375813NN
engage0VB
activity0.0190167691930804NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.320448381931674
WordScorePoS
capacity0.00833571598658786NN
manage0VB
risk0NN
means0NNS
opportunity0NN
engage0.0819583881728876VB
activity0.0199423462679015NN

Families may deal with crises in ways that narrow future opportunities such as distress sales and forgoing health care schooling or food intake

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.584503442117834
WordScorePoS
family0.0624189222007589NN
future0NN
opportunity0NN
distress0NN
health0.191387734041787NN
care0.104031537001265NN
schooling0.0407408489778079NN
food0NN
intake0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.554508172726703
WordScorePoS
family0.0297950283197006NN
future0.0297950283197006NN
opportunity0.0261926252110933NN
distress0NN
health0NN
care0NN
schooling0NN
food0.292342270824999NN
intake0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.364540483371048
WordScorePoS
family0NN
future0.0277064208763707NN
opportunity0NN
distress0NN
health0.0339811641917276NN
care0NN
schooling0NN
food0.186896403054502NN
intake0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.318597414755287
WordScorePoS
family0.0465610847355851NN
future0NN
opportunity0.02046578088155NN
distress0NN
health0.0571058915334038NN
care0.0931221694711702NN
schooling0NN
food0NN
intake0NN

By helping poor people manage risks social protection programs expand their opportunities and enhance overall efficiency

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.616308557528882
WordScorePoS
help0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
people0.0371911007748996NNS
manage0VB
risk0.0519476926891779NN
social0.112994637345193JJ
protection0.122839698738001NN
expand0VB
opportunity0NN
enhance0.0184786920895884VB
efficiency0NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.330001484071747
WordScorePoS
help0NN
poor0JJ
people0.0108156764915259NNS
manage0VB
risk0NN
social0JJ
protection0NN
expand0.0449973847138318VB
opportunity0.0549574626423028NN
enhance0.0188084899376888VB
efficiency0.134992154141495NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.346974191702481
WordScorePoS
help0NN
poor0JJ
people0.00571634317201755NNS
manage0.0660824365173543VB
risk0NN
social0.101310366625194JJ
protection0.0660824365173543NN
expand0VB
opportunity0.029046330719385NN
enhance0.00994073584907126VB
efficiency0NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.319765173008277
WordScorePoS
help0NN
poor0.0229054731708393JJ
people0.0161552501392041NNS
manage0VB
risk0.0631828116343571NN
social0.0458109463416786JJ
protection0NN
expand0.0268848280079943VB
opportunity0.0164178645080222NN
enhance0.0112376090361851VB
efficiency0.0537696560159885NN

Even purely redistributive programs can have important opportunity enhancing impacts

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.436562289419548
WordScorePoS
opportunity0NN
enhance0VB
impact0.0866018859977851NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.371856025633883
WordScorePoS
opportunity0.0549574626423028NN
enhance0.0188084899376888VB
impact0NN

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.337655149673561
WordScorePoS
opportunity0NN
enhance0.0245214713330961VB
impact0.042459973210532NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.303206564003752
WordScorePoS
opportunity0NN
enhance0.0601477977507998VB
impact0NN

Take the example of social pension schemes in Brazil and South Africa

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.662039062460976
WordScorePoS
social0.112994637345193JJ
south0RB
africa0IN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.593580560228018
WordScorePoS
social0.101310366625194JJ
south0RB
africa0IN

These schemes are pure transfers targeted to the elderly geared strictly to avoiding destitution but they have important welfare impacts beyond that

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.64461995013422
WordScorePoS
transfer0.0803666323453555NN
target0NN
avoid0.0531983120572613VB
welfare0NN
impact0.042459973210532NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.515820175449997
WordScorePoS
transfer0NN
target0NN
avoid0VB
welfare0.0542519672965169NN
impact0.0866018859977851NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.464491296521878
WordScorePoS
transfer0.036961556179878NN
target0.0898760357768464NN
avoid0VB
welfare0NN
impact0NN

They improve the recipients access to credit thanks to the regularity of pension payments and lead to higher investments in the household physical capital and in the human capital of its children and elderly

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

But social protection systems do more than help individual households avoid des Human capacities titution and expand their opportunities they can also help societies embark on reforms that would have insurmountable equity and political costs without them

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.573468771597341
WordScorePoS
social0.101310366625194JJ
protection0.0660824365173543NN
system0NN
individual0.064698038783335JJ
household0.0330412182586772NN
avoid0VB
human0JJ
capacity0NN
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opportunity0.029046330719385NN
society0.0237821918091848NN
reform0NN
political0.0792212041430275JJ
cost0.0660824365173543NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.489631417653398
WordScorePoS
social0.0285529457667019JJ
protection0.0465610847355851NN
system0NN
individual0JJ
household0.0465610847355851NN
avoid0VB
human0.0170753354211044JJ
capacity0NN
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opportunity0.02046578088155NN
society0.0335134328085675NN
reform0.0911713013253052NN
political0.111637082206855JJ
cost0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.356241639654574
WordScorePoS
social0.112994637345193JJ
protection0.122839698738001NN
system0.0519476926891779NN
individual0JJ
household0NN
avoid0VB
human0JJ
capacity0NN
expand0VB
opportunity0NN
society0NN
reform0NN
political0JJ
cost0NN

Reforms desirable for their beneficial impacts on efficiency and the government fiscal position such as increasing utility prices eliminating general food subsidies introducing defined contribution pension system liberalizing trade may not be politically feasible unless policies are in place to compensate losers

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.529914939759422
WordScorePoS
reform0NN
impact0NN
efficiency0NN
government0NN
fiscal0JJ
increase0.0128868286091919NN
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contribution0NN
system0.0756001353333673NN
trade0.0214456704626236NN
feasible0JJ
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Label: 14, with a score of: 0.467301314929324
WordScorePoS
reform0NN
impact0.042459973210532NN
efficiency0NN
government0NN
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feasible0.0531983120572613JJ
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.437441072309578
WordScorePoS
reform0NN
impact0.0866018859977851NN
efficiency0.039884692535803NN
government0NN
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increase0.00958677785775002NN
price0NN
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food0.186896403054502NN
subsidy0.0664302389559493NN
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contribution0NN
system0NN
trade0NN
feasible0JJ
policy0.0203215381458133NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.202376882517171
WordScorePoS
reform0NN
impact0NN
efficiency0.134992154141495NN
government0NN
fiscal0JJ
increase0.0162235147372888NN
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eliminate0VB
food0.0383371018038178NN
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contribution0NN
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trade0NN
feasible0JJ
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Importantly permanent social protection can help reduce the need for special compensatory programs for each and every reform all the more important because such programs are difficult to start and stop and are not always very efficient

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.57139182474876
WordScorePoS
social0.112994637345193JJ
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special0JJ
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.524179961938458
WordScorePoS
social0.101310366625194JJ
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special0.0330412182586772JJ
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.376565282200667
WordScorePoS
social0.0285529457667019JJ
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.334707000270911
WordScorePoS
social0.0169905820958638JJ
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reduce0.022306853314744VB
special0JJ
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efficient0.108503934593034JJ

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.318314849429341
WordScorePoS
social0.0458109463416786JJ
protection0NN
reduce0.0200483235258943VB
special0.0747035830159326JJ
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All of this confirms that there is dynamic efficiency rationale for social protection

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.368780716970819
WordScorePoS
efficiency0.134992154141495NN
social0JJ
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.644268225069854
WordScorePoS
efficiency0NN
social0.112994637345193JJ
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.457295006152425
WordScorePoS
efficiency0NN
social0.101310366625194JJ
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But there are also important efficiency arguments against transfer policies

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.528726890325757
WordScorePoS
efficiency0.134992154141495NN
transfer0NN
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.396034528959754
WordScorePoS
efficiency0NN
transfer0.036961556179878NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.332217967352354
WordScorePoS
efficiency0NN
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Label: 14, with a score of: 0.314773846496102
WordScorePoS
efficiency0NN
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Design issues are of particular concern because poorly designed programs can have large negative consequences on efficiency

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.770329740670525
WordScorePoS
issue0NN
poorly0RB
efficiency0.134992154141495NN

Taxes or contributions have distortionary costs especially when they are not directly linked to benefits see focus for discussion of tax policies while transfers can dampen work incentives reduce private savings and weaken informal insurance mechanisms

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.692646073565795
WordScorePoS
tax0.036961556179878NN
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benefit0NN
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reduce0.00335331148065841VB
private0.0898760357768464JJ
insurance0NN
mechanism0.147846224719512NN

Europe experience in the second half of the suggests that well designed social and tax policies can indeed be consistent with strong growth thanks to careful attention to productivity impacts

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.474259558135038
WordScorePoS
experience0NN
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social0.0504071033101074JJ
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.530717219181178
WordScorePoS
experience0NN
suggest0VB
social0.101310366625194JJ
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attention0.0396106020715138NN
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.370937949087028
WordScorePoS
experience0NN
suggest0.0602029956716497VB
social0.0188543197850406JJ
tax0NN
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strong0.0454743001434393JJ
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productivity0.0922368138456871NN
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Program choices vary by country Social protection generally encompasses two classes of interventions Contributory schemes social insurance in which the primary focus is on managing risks through smoothing an individual income over time and in the face of difficulties These programs often pool risks across large numbers of individuals and include old age and disability pensions and health and unemployment insurance

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.583267517710246
WordScorePoS
choice0NN
country0NN
social0.101310366625194JJ
protection0.0660824365173543NN
class0NN
intervention0NN
insurance0NN
primary0JJ
focus0NN
manage0.0660824365173543VB
risk0NN
individual0.064698038783335JJ
income0.166475342664294NN
time0.0607862199751165NN
difficulty0NN
include0VB
age0.0202620733250388NN
disability0.0558912165956601NN
health0.0405241466500776NN
unemployment0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.365662699983419
WordScorePoS
choice0NN
country0NN
social0JJ
protection0.020806307400253NN
class0NN
intervention0.0407408489778079NN
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primary0.0108390366114755JJ
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risk0.0703902516159815NN
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income0NN
time0.0127591822694525NN
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include0VB
age0.0893142758861673NN
disability0NN
health0.191387734041787NN
unemployment0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.440219923176431
WordScorePoS
choice0NN
country0NN
social0.112994637345193JJ
protection0.122839698738001NN
class0NN
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insurance0NN
primary0JJ
focus0NN
manage0VB
risk0.0519476926891779NN
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income0.0442083771593746NN
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difficulty0NN
include0VB
age0.112994637345193NN
disability0NN
health0NN
unemployment0NN

General tax funded transfers social assistance in which the focus is on redistribution from the better off to the Figure

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.495786271540414
WordScorePoS
tax0NN
fund0.055245183797332NN
transfer0NN
social0.0458109463416786JJ
assistance0.0373517915079663NN
focus0.0373517915079663NN
figure0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.378981452287644
WordScorePoS
tax0NN
fund0NN
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social0.101310366625194JJ
assistance0.0330412182586772NN
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figure0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.374056364427445
WordScorePoS
tax0NN
fund0NN
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social0.0504071033101074JJ
assistance0.0410992516792148NN
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.34950853293189
WordScorePoS
tax0.036961556179878NN
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assistance0.0499801157438617NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.318737377000884
WordScorePoS
tax0NN
fund0NN
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social0.112994637345193JJ
assistance0NN
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.309734121486167
WordScorePoS
tax0NN
fund0NN
transfer0NN
social0.0188543197850406JJ
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focus0.030745604615229NN
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Almost all countries spend more on social insurance than on social assistance percent of GDP of GDP Social insurance spending Social assistance spending Middle East Suband Saharan Africa North Africa Europe and Central Asia East Asia South Asia and the Pacific Latin America and the Caribbean OECD Source Data on countries taken from World Bank Public Expenditure reviews or other similar work

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

OECD data are from the OECD Social Expenditure database

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.705085118031984
WordScorePoS
oecd0.108503934593034NN
datum0NN
social0.0169905820958638JJ
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.500217225714657
WordScorePoS
oecd0NN
datum0NN
social0.101310366625194JJ
expenditure0.064698038783335NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.340475916712481
WordScorePoS
oecd0NN
datum0NN
social0.112994637345193JJ
expenditure0NN

Note The average for Africa is based on data for only two countries

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.645612385298489
WordScorePoS
average0.1656430212089NN
africa0IN
base0NN
datum0NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.571424691625994
WordScorePoS
average0.146608885563018NN
africa0IN
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.358230747268244
WordScorePoS
average0NN
africa0IN
base0.017987180284335NN
datum0.0739231123597559NN
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OECD excludes those OECD members such as Poland and Mexico that are already accounted for in the regional averages

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.441457292104473
WordScorePoS
oecd0NN
account0NN
regional0JJ
average0.1656430212089NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.436603248955961
WordScorePoS
oecd0NN
account0.0172128079963482NN
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average0.146608885563018NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.732219573555699
WordScorePoS
oecd0.108503934593034NN
account0.0577345906651901NN
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poor

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.842193888314487
WordScorePoS
poor0.150659516460257JJ

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.358887180451089
WordScorePoS
poor0.0642010940957526JJ

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.306413859006553
WordScorePoS
poor0.0548141757796873JJ

These include variety of cash or in kind programs targeted at the poor

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.83991076463809
WordScorePoS
include0VB
variety0.120266261535276NN
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target0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.326138484470493
WordScorePoS
include0VB
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target0.0898760357768464NN
poor0.0153248097886055JJ

These are complemented by labor market regulations for example on hiring and firing of workers that are discussed in chapter

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.586829574055556
WordScorePoS
complement0.0978661089756501NN
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.520521140689175
WordScorePoS
complement0NN
market0.0252035516550537NN
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worker0.121575732851624NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.418466320311729
WordScorePoS
complement0NN
market0.0202620733250388NN
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.323977794262943
WordScorePoS
complement0NN
market0.0913569596328122NN
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There is large variation in the share of GDP spent on social protection with more developed regions devoting considerable sums figure

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.787111316859465
WordScorePoS
share0NN
gdp0NN
social0.112994637345193JJ
protection0.122839698738001NN
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region0.184259548107002NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.313636486206679
WordScorePoS
share0NN
gdp0NN
social0.101310366625194JJ
protection0.0660824365173543NN
develop0VB
region0NN
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Almost all countries spend more on social insurance than social assistance programs

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.553870512890766
WordScorePoS
country0NN
social0.101310366625194JJ
insurance0NN
assistance0.0330412182586772NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.531137057463267
WordScorePoS
country0NN
social0.112994637345193JJ
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assistance0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.522677628052636
WordScorePoS
country0NN
social0.0504071033101074JJ
insurance0.0804764811724088NN
assistance0.0410992516792148NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.303123691181485
WordScorePoS
country0NN
social0.0458109463416786JJ
insurance0NN
assistance0.0373517915079663NN

There is no consensus on the appropriate balance of interventions even in countries that have sufficient resources and capacity to implement any combination desired

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.440658860869202
WordScorePoS
consensus0NN
intervention0NN
country0NN
sufficient0JJ
resource0.0375923735942499NN
capacity0.0451108483130998NN
implement0.0458229896037954VB

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.407873430865266
WordScorePoS
consensus0NN
intervention0NN
country0NN
sufficient0JJ
resource0.0739147683583536NN
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implement0.0450489732120807VB

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.372956645454366
WordScorePoS
consensus0NN
intervention0NN
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sufficient0.0440683498519077JJ
resource0.0358563662904843NN
capacity0.0179281831452421NN
implement0.0109267235789154VB

Some observers argue for the universality of social insurance programs over the targeted nature of social assistance programs that are based on political economy considerations

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.332721970026474
WordScorePoS
social0.0169905820958638JJ
insurance0NN
target0NN
nature0.162755901889551NN
assistance0NN
base0.0199423462679015NN
political0JJ
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.483518682005111
WordScorePoS
social0.101310366625194JJ
insurance0NN
target0NN
nature0NN
assistance0.0330412182586772NN
base0NN
political0.0792212041430275JJ
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.467710640559002
WordScorePoS
social0.0504071033101074JJ
insurance0.0804764811724088NN
target0NN
nature0NN
assistance0.0410992516792148NN
base0NN
political0JJ
economy0.0821985033584295NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.414901877595571
WordScorePoS
social0.112994637345193JJ
insurance0NN
target0NN
nature0NN
assistance0NN
base0.0442083771593746NN
political0JJ
economy0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.330610046031211
WordScorePoS
social0.0285529457667019JJ
insurance0NN
target0NN
nature0NN
assistance0NN
base0NN
political0.111637082206855JJ
economy0.0465610847355851NN

They argue that targeted programs are exclusionary by definition and divisive as result

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.683319443565259
WordScorePoS
target0NN
definition0.120266261535276NN
result0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.510650634458046
WordScorePoS
target0.0898760357768464NN
definition0NN
result0NN

But significant group of OECD countries notably New Zealand Australia the United States and the United Kingdom have opted for systems with heavier components of targeted transfers and less generous or less universal programs

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.586221567446761
WordScorePoS
significant0JJ
oecd0NN
country0NN
notably0RB
unite0.036961556179878VB
system0.0211360962287062NN
target0.0898760357768464NN
transfer0.036961556179878NN
universal0.0109843026967392JJ

Many developing countries face constraints on the choice of systems because of limited fiscal and administrative capacity

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.696958660452317
WordScorePoS
develop0VB
country0NN
constraint0NN
choice0NN
system0.0519476926891779NN
limited0.120266261535276JJ
fiscal0JJ
capacity0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.378513877430922
WordScorePoS
develop0VB
country0NN
constraint0NN
choice0NN
system0.0756001353333673NN
limited0JJ
fiscal0JJ
capacity0.0179281831452421NN

Many poor and even middle income coun WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT Table

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.509566657322839
WordScorePoS
poor0.150659516460257JJ
middle0JJ
income0.0442083771593746NN
world0.00257343720272548NN
development0.0164833460638534NN
report0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.445381797895624
WordScorePoS
poor0JJ
middle0JJ
income0.166475342664294NN
world0.00276879546803864NN
development0.0177346522508396NN
report0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.491723377495696
WordScorePoS
poor0JJ
middle0.0602029956716497JJ
income0.110649350233433NN
world0.00257642711761688NN
development0.0330049940546426NN
report0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.351646952274146
WordScorePoS
poor0.0548141757796873JJ
middle0JJ
income0.0643370113878709NN
world0.0124838525528648NN
development0.0159922815774215NN
report0NN

Examples of social protection programs Group served Social insurance Safety net Complementary Labor Market Regulation Working poor or unemployed Unemployment insurance Transfers Public works programs General subsidies to food utilities or housing Minimum wage laws Job security regulations Severance pay Nonworking young Universal child allowances Maternity benefits Means tested child allowances Transfers linked to MCH programs School feeding Conditional cash transfers Child labor laws Nonworking elderly Contributory pensions Transfers Social pensions Retirement age Special groups Disability insurance for disabled Transfers Affirmative action for minorities tries lack the administrative sophistication and levels of urbanization and formal employment needed to administer social insurance scheme and high social security taxes have segmented the labor market and encouraged informality

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.410515301796274
WordScorePoS
social0.112994637345193JJ
protection0.122839698738001NN
serve0VB
insurance0NN
safety0NN
market0NN
regulation0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
unemployment0NN
transfer0NN
public0NN
subsidy0NN
food0NN
housing0NN
wage0NN
law0NN
job0.0225244866060403NN
security0NN
pay0NN
universal0JJ
child0.0450489732120807NN
benefit0NN
means0.120266261535276NNS
school0NN
age0.112994637345193NN
special0JJ
disability0NN
action0.0269969049497485NN
lack0.0753297582301286NN
level0.0113874611101829NN
urbanization0NN
employment0NN
tax0NN
encouraged0JJ

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.401077785118594
WordScorePoS
social0.0504071033101074JJ
protection0NN
serve0VB
insurance0.0804764811724088NN
safety0NN
market0.0252035516550537NN
regulation0NN
poor0JJ
unemployment0.0804764811724088NN
transfer0NN
public0NN
subsidy0NN
food0NN
housing0NN
wage0NN
law0NN
job0.135650868266471NN
security0NN
pay0.0695218668857431NN
universal0JJ
child0.0452169560888236NN
benefit0NN
means0NNS
school0NN
age0.0252035516550537NN
special0JJ
disability0.0347609334428716NN
action0NN
lack0.0252035516550537NN
level0.00761994916892276NN
urbanization0NN
employment0.173804667214358NN
tax0NN
encouraged0JJ

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.324220093681924
WordScorePoS
social0.0458109463416786JJ
protection0NN
serve0VB
insurance0NN
safety0.0731385760866977NN
market0NN
regulation0NN
poor0.0229054731708393JJ
unemployment0NN
transfer0NN
public0.0583751976558017NN
subsidy0NN
food0NN
housing0.219415728260093NN
wage0NN
law0NN
job0.0136980135278128NN
security0NN
pay0.0315914058171786NN
universal0.0164178645080222JJ
child0.0273960270556257NN
benefit0NN
means0NNS
school0NN
age0NN
special0.0747035830159326JJ
disability0.0631828116343571NN
action0NN
lack0.0229054731708393NN
level0.00692515656684925NN
urbanization0.146277152173395NN
employment0NN
tax0NN
encouraged0JJ

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.318311966834115
WordScorePoS
social0JJ
protection0NN
serve0VB
insurance0NN
safety0NN
market0.0913569596328122NN
regulation0NN
poor0.0548141757796873JJ
unemployment0NN
transfer0NN
public0NN
subsidy0.0357189919948307NN
food0.292342270824999NN
housing0NN
wage0NN
law0NN
job0.0109267235789154NN
security0.0893850849591018NN
pay0NN
universal0JJ
child0.0546336178945768NN
benefit0.0252000451111224NN
means0NNS
school0.0297950283197006NN
age0.0365427838531249NN
special0JJ
disability0NN
action0NN
lack0NN
level0.00552410547653725NN
urbanization0NN
employment0.0252000451111224NN
tax0NN
encouraged0JJ

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.272628968088138
WordScorePoS
social0JJ
protection0NN
serve0.0531983120572613VB
insurance0NN
safety0NN
market0.0333211986002325NN
regulation0NN
poor0JJ
unemployment0NN
transfer0.0803666323453555NN
public0NN
subsidy0.162850158165781NN
food0.0166605993001162NN
housing0NN
wage0NN
law0.0543366405761884NN
job0.00996343157341984NN
security0NN
pay0NN
universal0JJ
child0NN
benefit0.0229784274580034NN
means0NNS
school0NN
age0NN
special0.0271683202880942JJ
disability0NN
action0.0119417512090511NN
lack0NN
level0.010074208709011NN
urbanization0NN
employment0NN
tax0NN
encouraged0JJ

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.225048864916562
WordScorePoS
social0JJ
protection0NN
serve0VB
insurance0NN
safety0NN
market0NN
regulation0NN
poor0JJ
unemployment0NN
transfer0NN
public0.0285977592242194NN
subsidy0NN
food0NN
housing0NN
wage0NN
law0.164686343640793NN
job0NN
security0NN
pay0NN
universal0JJ
child0.0603953832457135NN
benefit0NN
means0NNS
school0.0548954478802642NN
age0NN
special0JJ
disability0NN
action0NN
lack0NN
level0.0610668815653026NN
urbanization0NN
employment0NN
tax0.0811931365363091NN
encouraged0JJ

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.198818546537682
WordScorePoS
social0JJ
protection0NN
serve0VB
insurance0NN
safety0NN
market0NN
regulation0NN
poor0JJ
unemployment0NN
transfer0NN
public0NN
subsidy0NN
food0NN
housing0NN
wage0NN
law0NN
job0.0152653111258778NN
security0NN
pay0NN
universal0.0182963616752599JJ
child0.076326555629389NN
benefit0NN
means0NNS
school0.208127520578185NN
age0.0255262687343935NN
special0JJ
disability0.0704120546711269NN
action0NN
lack0.0255262687343935NN
level0.0231525547935232NN
urbanization0NN
employment0.0352060273355634NN
tax0NN
encouraged0JJ

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.144491614057437
WordScorePoS
social0.0169905820958638JJ
protection0NN
serve0VB
insurance0NN
safety0NN
market0.0169905820958638NN
regulation0NN
poor0.0339811641917276JJ
unemployment0NN
transfer0NN
public0.028867295332595NN
subsidy0.0664302389559493NN
food0.186896403054502NN
housing0NN
wage0NN
law0NN
job0.0203215381458133NN
security0NN
pay0NN
universal0JJ
child0NN
benefit0NN
means0NNS
school0NN
age0NN
special0JJ
disability0NN
action0.0121782716594324NN
lack0NN
level0.00513687014008325NN
urbanization0NN
employment0NN
tax0NN
encouraged0JJ

What then are the options for the many developing countries that are far from able to achieve universal social insurance systems

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.54509919724467
WordScorePoS
develop0VB
country0NN
achieve0.0113874611101829VB
universal0JJ
social0.112994637345193JJ
insurance0NN
system0.0519476926891779NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.451720566711706
WordScorePoS
develop0VB
country0NN
achieve0.0152398983378455VB
universal0JJ
social0.0504071033101074JJ
insurance0.0804764811724088NN
system0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.414896052018208
WordScorePoS
develop0VB
country0NN
achieve0.018377882320743VB
universal0.0145231653596925JJ
social0.101310366625194JJ
insurance0NN
system0NN

There is large range of social assistance programs each different in groups served administrative requirements complementary benefits incentive effects and political factors table

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.533860197495045
WordScorePoS
range0NN
social0.101310366625194JJ
assistance0.0330412182586772NN
serve0VB
benefit0NN
incentive0NN
effect0NN
political0.0792212041430275JJ

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.448865831257054
WordScorePoS
range0NN
social0.0285529457667019JJ
assistance0NN
serve0VB
benefit0.0393804437159645NN
incentive0NN
effect0NN
political0.111637082206855JJ

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.410069305054333
WordScorePoS
range0.0368585655748969NN
social0.0188543197850406JJ
assistance0NN
serve0VB
benefit0.0260040237236563NN
incentive0NN
effect0.0454743001434393NN
political0.0368585655748969JJ

A judicious blending of these programs can usually result in social protection system that covers the appropriate groups with feasible instruments

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.738173995570036
WordScorePoS
result0NN
social0.112994637345193JJ
protection0.122839698738001NN
system0.0519476926891779NN
cover0NN
feasible0JJ

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.429370155087551
WordScorePoS
result0NN
social0.101310366625194JJ
protection0.0660824365173543NN
system0NN
cover0NN
feasible0JJ

The mix of programs selected and their specific characteristics will depend on context that is the risks faced the level of urbanization the age structure the size of the formal sector the administrative capacity and the complementary social policies and sociocultural or political factors

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.340198169883224
WordScorePoS
mix0NN
specific0JJ
characteristic0JJ
depend0VB
context0NN
risk0.0631828116343571NN
face0NN
level0.00692515656684925NN
urbanization0.146277152173395NN
age0NN
structure0NN
size0NN
sector0NN
capacity0.0112376090361851NN
social0.0458109463416786JJ
policy0.0136980135278128NN
political0JJ

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.396170898453328
WordScorePoS
mix0NN
specific0JJ
characteristic0JJ
depend0VB
context0NN
risk0.0519476926891779NN
face0NN
level0.0113874611101829NN
urbanization0NN
age0.112994637345193NN
structure0NN
size0NN
sector0NN
capacity0NN
social0.112994637345193JJ
policy0.0450489732120807NN
political0JJ

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.385331291802984
WordScorePoS
mix0NN
specific0JJ
characteristic0JJ
depend0VB
context0NN
risk0NN
face0NN
level0NN
urbanization0NN
age0.0202620733250388NN
structure0NN
size0.0396106020715138NN
sector0NN
capacity0NN
social0.101310366625194JJ
policy0.0848203862485078NN
political0.0792212041430275JJ

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.364115443283549
WordScorePoS
mix0NN
specific0JJ
characteristic0.036961556179878JJ
depend0VB
context0.036961556179878NN
risk0NN
face0NN
level0.0138997399903163NN
urbanization0NN
age0.0153248097886055NN
structure0.048933054487825NN
size0NN
sector0.0459744293658165NN
capacity0.0451108483130998NN
social0JJ
policy0.0641521854453136NN
political0JJ

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.33271492116251
WordScorePoS
mix0NN
specific0JJ
characteristic0JJ
depend0VB
context0NN
risk0NN
face0.120405991343299NN
level0NN
urbanization0NN
age0NN
structure0NN
size0.0368585655748969NN
sector0.0565629593551219NN
capacity0NN
social0.0188543197850406JJ
policy0.011275328195446NN
political0.0368585655748969JJ

Next we discuss programs for four key groups The working poor The nonworking young The nonworking elderly Special vulnerable groups In many cases the second two groups are part of households that could benefit from programs that target the working poor

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.674182357812594
WordScorePoS
key0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
special0JJ
vulnerable0.112994637345193JJ
household0NN
benefit0NN
target0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.404217547247894
WordScorePoS
key0.0297950283197006NN
poor0.0548141757796873JJ
special0JJ
vulnerable0.0182713919265625JJ
household0.0297950283197006NN
benefit0.0252000451111224NN
target0.0357189919948307NN

So the more comprehensive the programs for the first group the less the need for programs for the latter two and the smaller and more focused they might be

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.592384365525351
WordScorePoS
focus0.0410992516792148NN

Programs for the working poor Most people especially poor people rely on labor earnings for their livelihoods many in the informal sector through subsistence farming or as agricultural laborers for others

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.798403703692476
WordScorePoS
poor0.0548141757796873JJ
people0.0257736572183839NNS
rely0VB
livelihood0.0504000902222448NN
sector0.0182713919265625NN
farm0.291708356920574NN
agricultural0.250032943963815JJ

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.442511144061035
WordScorePoS
poor0.150659516460257JJ
people0.0371911007748996NNS
rely0VB
livelihood0.0519476926891779NN
sector0NN
farm0NN
agricultural0JJ

Labor market risk can be reduced significantly by improving the functioning of labor markets and by pursuing sound macroeconomic policies chapter

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.521573172726995
WordScorePoS
market0.0913569596328122NN
risk0.0252000451111224NN
reduce0.00799614078871077VB
significantly0RB
improve0.0218534471578307VB
function0.0440683498519077NN
pursue0VB
sound0NN
macroeconomic0JJ
policy0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.470370657261773
WordScorePoS
market0.030649619577211NN
risk0NN
reduce0.00335331148065841VB
significantly0RB
improve0.0183291958415182VB
function0.036961556179878NN
pursue0VB
sound0.0211360962287062NN
macroeconomic0.048933054487825JJ
policy0.0641521854453136NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.311830237905946
WordScorePoS
market0.0202620733250388NN
risk0NN
reduce0.0310356414389692VB
significantly0RB
improve0.0121171980355011VB
function0NN
pursue0VB
sound0NN
macroeconomic0JJ
policy0.0848203862485078NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.306149346853736
WordScorePoS
market0NN
risk0.0519476926891779NN
reduce0.0164833460638534VB
significantly0RB
improve0VB
function0NN
pursue0VB
sound0.0519476926891779NN
macroeconomic0JJ
policy0.0450489732120807NN

But even wellfunctioning labor market will not fully eliminate the risk of unemployment

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.488926924890794
WordScorePoS
market0.0913569596328122NN
fully0RB
eliminate0VB
risk0.0252000451111224NN
unemployment0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.44330080020676
WordScorePoS
market0.0252035516550537NN
fully0RB
eliminate0VB
risk0NN
unemployment0.0804764811724088NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.330381846877091
WordScorePoS
market0NN
fully0RB
eliminate0.078760887431929VB
risk0NN
unemployment0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.319443639985798
WordScorePoS
market0.0202620733250388NN
fully0RB
eliminate0.0558912165956601VB
risk0NN
unemployment0NN

Moreover in years with bad crops or low prices earnings may not be enough to stave off poverty

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.831668626862247
WordScorePoS
bad0JJ
crop0NN
price0NN
poverty0.269969049497485NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.370453159662211
WordScorePoS
bad0JJ
crop0.0357189919948307NN
price0.0583416713841148NN
poverty0.0261926252110933NN

range of instruments can help address the risk of inadequate incomes for example unemployment insurance needs based social assistance or public works

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.483006883794978
WordScorePoS
range0NN
risk0NN
inadequate0JJ
income0.166475342664294NN
unemployment0NN
insurance0NN
base0NN
social0.101310366625194JJ
assistance0.0330412182586772NN
public0.0172128079963482NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.496600662539855
WordScorePoS
range0NN
risk0.0519476926891779NN
inadequate0.0736315832425121JJ
income0.0442083771593746NN
unemployment0NN
insurance0NN
base0.0442083771593746NN
social0.112994637345193JJ
assistance0NN
public0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.383409915562275
WordScorePoS
range0NN
risk0NN
inadequate0JJ
income0NN
unemployment0.0804764811724088NN
insurance0.0804764811724088NN
base0NN
social0.0504071033101074JJ
assistance0.0410992516792148NN
public0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.332956267428197
WordScorePoS
range0.0368585655748969NN
risk0NN
inadequate0.0368585655748969JJ
income0.110649350233433NN
unemployment0NN
insurance0NN
base0NN
social0.0188543197850406JJ
assistance0NN
public0.0160169090870187NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.310909358401024
WordScorePoS
range0NN
risk0.0631828116343571NN
inadequate0JJ
income0NN
unemployment0NN
insurance0NN
base0NN
social0.0458109463416786JJ
assistance0.0373517915079663NN
public0.0583751976558017NN

Even food utility and housing price subsidies are geared in part to solving the problems of inadequate labor incomes although with notably poor targeting and sometimes large distortionary costs

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.649213601384024
WordScorePoS
food0.292342270824999NN
housing0NN
price0.0583416713841148NN
subsidy0.0357189919948307NN
inadequate0JJ
income0.0643370113878709NN
notably0RB
poor0.0548141757796873JJ
target0.0357189919948307NN
cost0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.377834250027594
WordScorePoS
food0.186896403054502NN
housing0NN
price0NN
subsidy0.0664302389559493NN
inadequate0JJ
income0NN
notably0RB
poor0.0339811641917276JJ
target0NN
cost0.0277064208763707NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.322043545187923
WordScorePoS
food0NN
housing0NN
price0NN
subsidy0NN
inadequate0.0736315832425121JJ
income0.0442083771593746NN
notably0RB
poor0.150659516460257JJ
target0NN
cost0NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.290644807561698
WordScorePoS
food0NN
housing0.219415728260093NN
price0NN
subsidy0NN
inadequate0JJ
income0NN
notably0RB
poor0.0229054731708393JJ
target0NN
cost0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.278934367187393
WordScorePoS
food0NN
housing0NN
price0NN
subsidy0NN
inadequate0JJ
income0.166475342664294NN
notably0RB
poor0JJ
target0NN
cost0.0660824365173543NN

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.215308727634388
WordScorePoS
food0.0166605993001162NN
housing0NN
price0NN
subsidy0.162850158165781NN
inadequate0JJ
income0NN
notably0RB
poor0JJ
target0NN
cost0NN

Unemployment insurance the obvious instrument for mitigating the risk of job loss in the formal sector will not work well in countries with large informal sectors

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.712112548600056
WordScorePoS
unemployment0.0804764811724088NN
insurance0.0804764811724088NN
risk0NN
job0.135650868266471NN
loss0NN
sector0.0252035516550537NN
country0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.417257191955691
WordScorePoS
unemployment0NN
insurance0NN
risk0NN
job0.0902026255635679NN
loss0NN
sector0.0565629593551219NN
country0NN

Even so schemes may be able to cover useful share of workers and take some burden off programs more tailored to those in the informal sector chapter

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.547792466246625
WordScorePoS
cover0NN
share0.0252035516550537NN
worker0.121575732851624NN
burden0NN
sector0.0252035516550537NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.508223883020384
WordScorePoS
cover0NN
share0.0766240489430275NN
worker0NN
burden0.036961556179878NN
sector0.0459744293658165NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.445112735707388
WordScorePoS
cover0NN
share0.0377086395700813NN
worker0.0454743001434393NN
burden0NN
sector0.0565629593551219NN

For example in in response to the East Asian financial crisis Korea expanded its young unemployment insurance program to smaller firms as well as to temporary and daily workers

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.901340971836568
WordScorePoS
response0NN
financial0.0370951943725875JJ
expand0.0295821503613099VB
unemployment0.0804764811724088NN
insurance0.0804764811724088NN
firm0NN
daily0RB
worker0.121575732851624NN

Needs based cash transfers the classic social assistance instrument are common in high income countries

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.635097564146749
WordScorePoS
base0NN
transfer0NN
social0.101310366625194JJ
assistance0.0330412182586772NN
common0JJ
income0.166475342664294NN
country0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.4252142096445
WordScorePoS
base0.0442083771593746NN
transfer0NN
social0.112994637345193JJ
assistance0NN
common0JJ
income0.0442083771593746NN
country0NN

Such programs are potentially very efficient

Label: 12, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
potentially0RB
efficient0.108503934593034JJ

Nontransfer costs can be low usually to percent of Human capacities total program costs

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.443729605302668
WordScorePoS
cost0.0277064208763707NN
human0.0101607690729067JJ
capacity0.00833571598658786NN
total0.0468670845659596NN

The programs need not impose significant forgone earnings on participants

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

And they give cash and thus full consumer sovereignty to the recipient

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.976174825667017
WordScorePoS
full0JJ
consumer0.325511803779102NN

But these programs face two challenges

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.799666530083443
WordScorePoS
challenge0.0947742174515357NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.446136416745782
WordScorePoS
challenge0.0528748274225028NN

First they require targeting mechanism

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.851573786692799
WordScorePoS
require0.0211360962287062VB
target0.0898760357768464NN
mechanism0.147846224719512NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.343062129754178
WordScorePoS
require0.104282800328615VB
target0NN
mechanism0NN

The classic mechanism in high income countries has been verified means test

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.520263873812302
WordScorePoS
mechanism0NN
income0.166475342664294NN
country0NN
means0NNS

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.518257709003597
WordScorePoS
mechanism0.147846224719512NN
income0.017987180284335NN
country0NN
means0NNS

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.514011332259062
WordScorePoS
mechanism0NN
income0.0442083771593746NN
country0NN
means0.120266261535276NNS

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.345798114399119
WordScorePoS
mechanism0NN
income0.110649350233433NN
country0NN
means0NNS

Because income in these settings is mostly formal it is possible and not too costly to collect accurate information on income and assets

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.715947023688223
WordScorePoS
income0.166475342664294NN
setting0VBG
information0NN
asset0.0488696285210061NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.541655757459978
WordScorePoS
income0.110649350233433NN
setting0VBG
information0.0675706773907211NN
asset0NN

Eastern Europe also has successful experience with means tested programs although verifying incomes and assets is more difficult and less accurate there than in high income countries

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.711243031809602
WordScorePoS
eastern0JJ
successful0JJ
experience0NN
means0NNS
income0.166475342664294NN
asset0.0488696285210061NN
country0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.388728245982363
WordScorePoS
eastern0JJ
successful0JJ
experience0NN
means0.120266261535276NNS
income0.0442083771593746NN
asset0NN
country0NN

Latin America proxy means tests relying on easily observable indicators of income have been shown to be fairly accurate and low cost

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.669277439058716
WordScorePoS
means0NNS
rely0VB
income0.166475342664294NN
cost0.0660824365173543NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.473341142846405
WordScorePoS
means0.120266261535276NNS
rely0VB
income0.0442083771593746NN
cost0NN

Low income countries with large shares of income from the informal sector experience greater difficulties in setting up targeting mechanism

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.666319517784674
WordScorePoS
income0.017987180284335NN
country0NN
share0.0766240489430275NN
sector0.0459744293658165NN
experience0.0299586785922821NN
difficulty0NN
set0.0978661089756501NN
target0.0898760357768464NN
mechanism0.147846224719512NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.423283957776734
WordScorePoS
income0.166475342664294NN
country0NN
share0NN
sector0NN
experience0NN
difficulty0NN
set0NN
target0NN
mechanism0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.477724824036332
WordScorePoS
income0.110649350233433NN
country0NN
share0.0377086395700813NN
sector0.0565629593551219NN
experience0NN
difficulty0.0602029956716497NN
set0NN
target0NN
mechanism0NN

Although the evidence is less clear cut community based systems have been shown to work well in some countries around the world especially in fairly homogenous rural communities Albania Bangladesh Ethiopia Indonesia Uganda and Uzbekistan where elite capture is not major concern

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.578145420590987
WordScorePoS
evidence0NN
cut0NN
community0.0182713919265625NN
base0NN
system0.0756001353333673NN
country0NN
world0.0124838525528648NN
rural0.148975141598503JJ
capture0NN
major0JJ

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.434726473558066
WordScorePoS
evidence0.12939607756667NN
cut0NN
community0.0202620733250388NN
base0NN
system0NN
country0NN
world0.00276879546803864NN
rural0.0330412182586772JJ
capture0NN
major0JJ

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.462757731451871
WordScorePoS
evidence0NN
cut0.120266261535276NN
community0NN
base0.0442083771593746NN
system0.0519476926891779NN
country0NN
world0.00257343720272548NN
rural0JJ
capture0NN
major0JJ

So the targeting issue could be surmounted

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.850016842232966
WordScorePoS
target0.0898760357768464NN
issue0.0299586785922821NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.35396456208762
WordScorePoS
target0.0499016491051341NN
issue0NN

The second challenge is perhaps bigger both for technical design and political support

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.523940031101879
WordScorePoS
challenge0.0947742174515357NN
technical0.0373517915079663JJ
political0JJ
support0.0224752180723703NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.423203651219705
WordScorePoS
challenge0NN
technical0.124876512346911JJ
political0JJ
support0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.378335524539688
WordScorePoS
challenge0NN
technical0JJ
political0.111637082206855JJ
support0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.340898281509742
WordScorePoS
challenge0.0347609334428716NN
technical0.0410992516792148JJ
political0JJ
support0.024730129581725NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.323153927283765
WordScorePoS
challenge0NN
technical0.030745604615229JJ
political0.0368585655748969JJ
support0.0277502419802315NN

Needs based transfers inherently present disincentive to work for those of working age because entry into the program or the benefit level depends on income

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.383841234656826
WordScorePoS
base0NN
transfer0NN
age0.0202620733250388NN
benefit0NN
level0NN
depend0VB
income0.166475342664294NN

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.487617979950522
WordScorePoS
base0.058665107245718NN
transfer0.0803666323453555NN
age0NN
benefit0.0229784274580034NN
level0.010074208709011NN
depend0.0651400632663124VB
income0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.437410863536005
WordScorePoS
base0.0442083771593746NN
transfer0NN
age0.112994637345193NN
benefit0NN
level0.0113874611101829NN
depend0VB
income0.0442083771593746NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.343934517355874
WordScorePoS
base0NN
transfer0NN
age0.0365427838531249NN
benefit0.0252000451111224NN
level0.00552410547653725NN
depend0.0357189919948307VB
income0.0643370113878709NN

Traditional mechanisms to partly mitigate the work disincentives include keeping benefits substantially lower than minimum wage as in Bulgaria or Romania or lower than the earning of low skilled agricultural laborers as in Kyrgyz Republic or using sliding withdrawal of benefits as incomes rise as in much of the industrial world or an earned income tax credit as in the United Kingdom and United States

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.638685041124408
WordScorePoS
traditional0JJ
mechanism0NN
include0VB
benefit0.0260040237236563NN
substantially0RB
wage0NN
agricultural0.0368585655748969JJ
withdrawal0NN
income0.110649350233433NN
rise0.0221298700466866NN
industrial0.318320101004075JJ
world0.00257642711761688NN
tax0NN
credit0.0602029956716497NN
unite0VB

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.453998788657873
WordScorePoS
traditional0.0440683498519077JJ
mechanism0NN
include0VB
benefit0.0252000451111224NN
substantially0RB
wage0NN
agricultural0.250032943963815JJ
withdrawal0NN
income0.0643370113878709NN
rise0.0214456704626236NN
industrial0JJ
world0.0124838525528648NN
tax0NN
credit0NN
unite0VB

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.379775750128397
WordScorePoS
traditional0JJ
mechanism0NN
include0VB
benefit0NN
substantially0RB
wage0.064698038783335NN
agricultural0JJ
withdrawal0NN
income0.166475342664294NN
rise0.0237821918091848NN
industrial0JJ
world0.00276879546803864NN
tax0NN
credit0NN
unite0VB

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.267592126272978
WordScorePoS
traditional0JJ
mechanism0.147846224719512NN
include0VB
benefit0NN
substantially0RB
wage0NN
agricultural0JJ
withdrawal0NN
income0.017987180284335NN
rise0NN
industrial0JJ
world0.00418824502414673NN
tax0.036961556179878NN
credit0NN
unite0.036961556179878VB

newer wave of efforts takes more active approach to encouraging independence or graduation from the need for assistance than under the traditional mechanisms just mentioned

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.789404685071449
WordScorePoS
effort0NN
active0.048933054487825JJ
approach0NN
encourage0.0211360962287062VB
assistance0.0499801157438617NN
traditional0JJ
mechanism0.147846224719512NN

Chile Puente program uses extensive social work to diagnose each household barriers to independence and to pre pare customized contracts with the household to address the most important of these barriers over period of two years

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Bangladesh program of income generation for the development of vulnerable groups IGVGD run by BRAC gives in kind assistance to destitute rural women for period of months

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.508335290689234
WordScorePoS
income0.0643370113878709NN
generation0NN
development0.0159922815774215NN
vulnerable0.0182713919265625JJ
kind0NN
assistance0NN
rural0.148975141598503JJ
woman0.0546336178945768NN
period0.0440683498519077NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.432749671184912
WordScorePoS
income0.166475342664294NN
generation0NN
development0.0177346522508396NN
vulnerable0.0202620733250388JJ
kind0NN
assistance0.0330412182586772NN
rural0.0330412182586772JJ
woman0.0242343960710022NN
period0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.344209005810737
WordScorePoS
income0NN
generation0NN
development0.0124956749436837NN
vulnerable0JJ
kind0NN
assistance0NN
rural0JJ
woman0.221979360474357NN
period0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.344396776264238
WordScorePoS
income0.110649350233433NN
generation0.0909486002868787NN
development0.0330049940546426NN
vulnerable0JJ
kind0NN
assistance0NN
rural0JJ
woman0NN
period0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.321103147045193
WordScorePoS
income0.0442083771593746NN
generation0NN
development0.0164833460638534NN
vulnerable0.112994637345193JJ
kind0NN
assistance0NN
rural0JJ
woman0.0450489732120807NN
period0NN

During this time they are required to save some money and participate in business training

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.539233283688867
WordScorePoS
time0.0188543197850406NN
require0.0260040237236563VB
save0IN
money0NN
business0.0909486002868787NN
training0.030745604615229NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.470691334606573
WordScorePoS
time0NN
require0.104282800328615VB
save0IN
money0NN
business0NN
training0.0410992516792148NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.404302260463461
WordScorePoS
time0NN
require0VB
save0IN
money0NN
business0NN
training0.124876512346911NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.348014072363115
WordScorePoS
time0NN
require0VB
save0IN
money0.107490825192354NN
business0NN
training0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.339421553211451
WordScorePoS
time0.0169905820958638NN
require0.0468670845659596VB
save0IN
money0NN
business0.0409791940864438NN
training0NN

At the end of the cycle women have the opportunity of graduating into the regular microfinance program

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.656722627780202
WordScorePoS
cycle0NN
woman0.221979360474357NN
opportunity0.02046578088155NN
regular0JJ
microfinance0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.447797199680774
WordScorePoS
cycle0NN
woman0.0450489732120807NN
opportunity0NN
regular0JJ
microfinance0.120266261535276NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.319574665495566
WordScorePoS
cycle0NN
woman0.0242343960710022NN
opportunity0.029046330719385NN
regular0.064698038783335JJ
microfinance0NN

few programs as in Romania and Bulgaria add public service requirement thus blurring the line between the means tested social assistance and public works programs

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.496005748568352
WordScorePoS
add0VB
public0NN
service0.0443555132287109NN
line0NN
means0.120266261535276NNS
social0.112994637345193JJ
assistance0NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.472105294448481
WordScorePoS
add0VB
public0.0583751976558017NN
service0.0269743071558856NN
line0.0373517915079663NN
means0NNS
social0.0458109463416786JJ
assistance0.0373517915079663NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.416057684362541
WordScorePoS
add0.0804764811724088VB
public0NN
service0.0197870712294258NN
line0.0410992516792148NN
means0NNS
social0.0504071033101074JJ
assistance0.0410992516792148NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.315757928597089
WordScorePoS
add0VB
public0.0172128079963482NN
service0.00795378154685591NN
line0NN
means0NNS
social0.101310366625194JJ
assistance0.0330412182586772NN

So whether through traditional or more innovative mechanisms the disincentive problem can also be mitigated

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.899057702936132
WordScorePoS
traditional0JJ
mechanism0.147846224719512NN

Public works programs that support the working or unemployed poor have been used in many countries box

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.612243916609015
WordScorePoS
public0NN
support0.0184786920895884NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
country0NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.375573989670464
WordScorePoS
public0.0583751976558017NN
support0.0224752180723703NN
poor0.0229054731708393JJ
country0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.360137228775624
WordScorePoS
public0.0390556786919513NN
support0.0451108483130998NN
poor0.0153248097886055JJ
country0NN

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.308403766727975
WordScorePoS
public0NN
support0.0209983814716066NN
poor0.0642010940957526JJ
country0NN

By offering employment for low wages these programs self select the able bodied poor avoiding both the means testing and work disincentives

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.743591081572582
WordScorePoS
employment0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
avoid0VB
means0.120266261535276NNS

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.477029544521297
WordScorePoS
employment0.173804667214358NN
poor0JJ
avoid0VB
means0NNS

In good programs the work is in highreturn activities that create assets and services

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.517128598104571
WordScorePoS
activity0.0295821503613099NN
create0.0695218668857431VB
asset0NN
service0.0197870712294258NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.418880359389983
WordScorePoS
activity0NN
create0.0519476926891779VB
asset0NN
service0.0443555132287109NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.353157611817485
WordScorePoS
activity0NN
create0VB
asset0.0811931365363091NN
service0NN

The self targeting aspect is useful because informality is widespread in developing countries and incomes are hard to assess

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.625943679241211
WordScorePoS
target0NN
aspect0NN
develop0VB
country0NN
income0.166475342664294NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.416039158005708
WordScorePoS
target0NN
aspect0NN
develop0VB
country0NN
income0.110649350233433NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.405563353921281
WordScorePoS
target0.0898760357768464NN
aspect0NN
develop0VB
country0NN
income0.017987180284335NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.376208403510151
WordScorePoS
target0.0357189919948307NN
aspect0NN
develop0VB
country0NN
income0.0643370113878709NN

It is doubly useful as part of countercyclical measure in fighting poverty during periods of crisis workers leave the program when their regular source of livelihood picks up again after the crisis

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.736184759106102
WordScorePoS
measure0.103895385378356NN
fight0NN
poverty0.269969049497485NN
period0NN
worker0NN
leave0NN
regular0JJ
source0.0269969049497485NN
livelihood0.0519476926891779NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.371656733952215
WordScorePoS
measure0.0347609334428716NN
fight0NN
poverty0.0722601961736204NN
period0NN
worker0.121575732851624NN
leave0NN
regular0JJ
source0NN
livelihood0NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.304954374727335
WordScorePoS
measure0.0223459295604043NN
fight0.0517339898971162NN
poverty0.0232260916751625NN
period0NN
worker0NN
leave0NN
regular0JJ
source0.0232260916751625NN
livelihood0.0670377886812128NN

Public works programs for infrastructure are especially welcome in lowincome countries postconflict settings and sometimes post natural disaster settings

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.574975963384746
WordScorePoS
public0.0583751976558017NN
infrastructure0.0194583992186006NN
country0NN
setting0VBG
post0NN
natural0.0229054731708393JJ
disaster0.157957029085893NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.462787768845023
WordScorePoS
public0.0160169090870187NN
infrastructure0.192202909044225NN
country0NN
setting0VBG
post0NN
natural0JJ
disaster0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.332689911842887
WordScorePoS
public0.028867295332595NN
infrastructure0.028867295332595NN
country0NN
setting0VBG
post0.0409791940864438NN
natural0.0509717462875914JJ
disaster0NN

Public works programs have some disadvantages too

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.640633878746864
WordScorePoS
public0.0727679293221751NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.513923230263676
WordScorePoS
public0.0583751976558017NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.343838160032559
WordScorePoS
public0.0390556786919513NN

The administrative capacity to select and run the programs is significant

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Indeed the often cited good programs are minority of all the public works programs implemented around the world

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.505762610364723
WordScorePoS
public0.0583751976558017NN
implement0.0273960270556257VB
world0.00626002771693937NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.489471928167666
WordScorePoS
public0.0390556786919513NN
implement0.0458229896037954VB
world0.00418824502414673NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.43206329734086
WordScorePoS
public0.0727679293221751NN
implement0VB
world0.00585260443759492NN

Many have failed often over the inability to line up and deliver useful public works to provide sufficient nonlabor inputs or to set the wage right

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.533683437204518
WordScorePoS
line0NN
deliver0.0299586785922821VB
public0.0390556786919513NN
provide0.00601568197638796VB
sufficient0JJ
input0NN
set0.0978661089756501NN
wage0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.382529190512052
WordScorePoS
line0NN
deliver0VB
public0NN
provide0.0215170467912497VB
sufficient0.0440683498519077JJ
input0.0583416713841148NN
set0NN
wage0NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.378745566268116
WordScorePoS
line0.0373517915079663NN
deliver0VB
public0.0583751976558017NN
provide0.0269743071558856VB
sufficient0JJ
input0NN
set0NN
wage0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.375103697673782
WordScorePoS
line0NN
deliver0.0396106020715138VB
public0.0172128079963482NN
provide0VB
sufficient0JJ
input0NN
set0NN
wage0.064698038783335NN

Even when programs are well run the net benefits transferred to participants are often small share of total program costs

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.426085520922627
WordScorePoS
benefit0NN
transfer0.036961556179878NN
share0.0766240489430275NN
total0NN
cost0NN

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.387670898908778
WordScorePoS
benefit0.0229784274580034NN
transfer0.0803666323453555NN
share0NN
total0NN
cost0NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.342156757774911
WordScorePoS
benefit0NN
transfer0NN
share0.0383371018038178NN
total0.0528748274225028NN
cost0NN

First management materials equipment and skilled labor requirements can run up to to percent of program costs

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.601088440970101
WordScorePoS
management0.0687164195125178NN
material0.055245183797332NN
cost0NN

Second BOX

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT Public works programs key issues Public works programs have been demonstrated to work in some middle income countries Chile Argentina and South Africa and low income countries Senegal Kenya India and Bangladesh and not to work in many others

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.565983263436486
WordScorePoS
world0.00276879546803864NN
development0.0177346522508396NN
report0NN
public0.0172128079963482NN
key0NN
issue0NN
middle0JJ
income0.166475342664294NN
country0NN
south0RB
africa0IN

This international experience offers several lessons in the design and implementation of public works programs

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.45336575288896
WordScorePoS
international0.00648516099948979JJ
experience0.0299586785922821NN
offer0NN
implementation0.017987180284335NN
public0.0390556786919513NN

Wage rate

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.611942294217756
WordScorePoS
wage0.064698038783335NN
rate0.0172128079963482NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.478083186034764
WordScorePoS
wage0NN
rate0.0639932865717261NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.42729819253917
WordScorePoS
wage0NN
rate0.0571955184484387NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.323906549225504
WordScorePoS
wage0NN
rate0.0433561464459019NN

The key to self targeting is setting the wage rate low enough no higher than the market wage for unskilled manual labor in agriculture or the informal sector during normal year

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.640867039409435
WordScorePoS
key0.0297950283197006NN
target0.0357189919948307NN
set0NN
wage0NN
rate0.0155217067874935NN
market0.0913569596328122NN
agriculture0.148975141598503NN
sector0.0182713919265625NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.498833967831935
WordScorePoS
key0NN
target0.0898760357768464NN
set0.0978661089756501NN
wage0NN
rate0NN
market0.030649619577211NN
agriculture0NN
sector0.0459744293658165NN

While determining the precise level of the wage rate may not be easy it is better to start with wage rate that is too low if there is no demand at the offered wage rate it can be raised

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Setting low wage rate level does more than ensure that the workfare scheme will be well self targeted

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.609276872564974
WordScorePoS
set0.0978661089756501NN
wage0NN
rate0NN
level0.0138997399903163NN
ensure0.00335331148065841VB
target0.0898760357768464NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.417174138552996
WordScorePoS
set0NN
wage0NN
rate0.0571955184484387NN
level0.0610668815653026NN
ensure0.0220985725470694VB
target0NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.397786455270819
WordScorePoS
set0NN
wage0NN
rate0.0216847879059514NN
level0.0231525547935232NN
ensure0.0390988676729552VB
target0.0499016491051341NN

It also maintains the incentive to take up regular work when it becomes available and it helps ensure that the program can reach as many of those in need as possible

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.466268602195271
WordScorePoS
maintain0.0881366997038154VB
incentive0NN
regular0JJ
help0NN
ensure0.0159922815774215VB
reach0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.424955193537667
WordScorePoS
maintain0VB
incentive0NN
regular0JJ
help0.0542519672965169NN
ensure0.00743561777158133VB
reach0.0332151194779746NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.398526385662951
WordScorePoS
maintain0VB
incentive0NN
regular0JJ
help0NN
ensure0.0390988676729552VB
reach0.0499016491051341NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.393636766595281
WordScorePoS
maintain0VB
incentive0NN
regular0JJ
help0NN
ensure0.0220985725470694VB
reach0.0658099748168827NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.329410884884657
WordScorePoS
maintain0VB
incentive0NN
regular0.064698038783335JJ
help0NN
ensure0.00886732612541978VB
reach0NN

Conditions of eligibility

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.947616466099916
WordScorePoS
condition0.121575732851624NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.3194104462542
WordScorePoS
condition0.0409791940864438NN

Rationing should be avoided ideally the only requirement should be the willingness to work at the offered wage

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

If rationing is unavoidable for example if the demand for employment at the wage set exceeds the available budget explicit secondary criteria should be used the program may target poor areas work may be offered only in seasons of greatest need the length of employment of any individual may be limited or such addi tional options as community based selection of the neediest or lottery may be implemented

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.468398290184612
WordScorePoS
demand0NN
employment0.173804667214358NN
wage0NN
set0NN
exceed0VB
secondary0JJ
criterion0NN
target0NN
poor0JJ
offer0NN
individual0JJ
limited0JJ
community0NN
base0NN
implement0.030144637392549VB

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.446611218055616
WordScorePoS
demand0NN
employment0NN
wage0NN
set0NN
exceed0VB
secondary0JJ
criterion0NN
target0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
offer0NN
individual0JJ
limited0.120266261535276JJ
community0NN
base0.0442083771593746NN
implement0.0450489732120807VB

Least desirable is rationing with entry determined by foremen or political figures

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.636923535351549
WordScorePoS
determine0VB
political0.111637082206855JJ
figure0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.553765751610581
WordScorePoS
determine0VB
political0.0368585655748969JJ
figure0.0602029956716497NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.451981083884737
WordScorePoS
determine0VB
political0.0792212041430275JJ
figure0NN

Women participation can be enhanced through nondiscriminatory wages the provision of onsite child care and adequately private latrines

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.705335628752896
WordScorePoS
woman0.221979360474357NN
participation0.0465610847355851NN
enhance0.0140083044329373VB
provision0.0558185411034276NN
child0.0170753354211044NN
care0.0931221694711702NN
private0.0558185411034276JJ
latrine0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.383095182623216
WordScorePoS
woman0.0381514605760894NN
participation0NN
enhance0VB
provision0.0249430985430622NN
child0.10682408961305NN
care0.104031537001265NN
private0JJ
latrine0NN

Employment guarantee

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.905244343622244
WordScorePoS
employment0.173804667214358NN
guarantee0.0804764811724088NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.370298711274557
WordScorePoS
employment0.104016094894625NN
guarantee0NN

A workfare program that guarantees employment can reduce the longer term risk the poor face

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.563873120867334
WordScorePoS
guarantee0.0804764811724088NN
employment0.173804667214358NN
reduce0.0055149369084567VB
term0NN
risk0NN
poor0JJ

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.475524005607275
WordScorePoS
guarantee0NN
employment0NN
reduce0.0164833460638534VB
term0NN
risk0.0519476926891779NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.365658159931644
WordScorePoS
guarantee0NN
employment0NN
reduce0.00335331148065841VB
term0.149793392961411NN
risk0NN
poor0.0153248097886055JJ

While highly desirable guarantees have not been feature of most public workfare schemes

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.54001795411778
WordScorePoS
highly0RB
guarantee0.0804764811724088NN
feature0NN
public0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.48829158215507
WordScorePoS
highly0RB
guarantee0NN
feature0NN
public0.0727679293221751NN

One exception is the Employment Guarantee Scheme in Maharasthra India which guarantees unskilled manual work within the district within days of registering for employment with the scheme

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.835408032800453
WordScorePoS
employment0.173804667214358NN
guarantee0.0804764811724088NN
day0.0347609334428716NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.399371104937879
WordScorePoS
employment0NN
guarantee0NN
day0.25973846344589NN

While this does not necessarily mean locally accessible employment the scheme comes closest to offering guarantee of any kind

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.81811132265556
WordScorePoS
accessible0JJ
employment0.173804667214358NN
guarantee0.0804764811724088NN
kind0NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.355486127646708
WordScorePoS
accessible0.110490367594664JJ
employment0NN
guarantee0NN
kind0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.334656129687892
WordScorePoS
accessible0JJ
employment0.104016094894625NN
guarantee0NN
kind0NN

India recently announced its intention to extend the guarantee by providing days of employment on rural public works projects at minimum wage

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.508885944552376
WordScorePoS
extend0VB
guarantee0NN
provide0.0295703421524739VB
day0.25973846344589NN
employment0NN
rural0JJ
public0NN
project0NN
wage0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.508416785044072
WordScorePoS
extend0VB
guarantee0.0804764811724088NN
provide0VB
day0.0347609334428716NN
employment0.173804667214358NN
rural0JJ
public0NN
project0NN
wage0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.344217062044448
WordScorePoS
extend0VB
guarantee0NN
provide0.0215170467912497VB
day0NN
employment0.0252000451111224NN
rural0.148975141598503JJ
public0NN
project0NN
wage0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.315999413094784
WordScorePoS
extend0.064698038783335VB
guarantee0NN
provide0VB
day0NN
employment0NN
rural0.0330412182586772JJ
public0.0172128079963482NN
project0NN
wage0.064698038783335NN

The scheme is not far enough into implementation to draw lessons

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.754359745690934
WordScorePoS
implementation0.0475643836183697NN

Murgai and Ravallion simulate some possible outcomes for range of design parameters the targeting could be good and impacts of poverty large but the costs could also be substantial to percent of GDP for the day scheme

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.841889131197225
WordScorePoS
outcome0NN
range0NN
target0NN
impact0NN
poverty0.269969049497485NN
cost0NN
substantial0.0736315832425121JJ
gdp0NN
day0.25973846344589NN

Labor intensity

Label: 7, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
intensity0.122412709674631NN

The labor intensity that is the share of the wage bill in total costs should be higher than normal for similar projects in the workers have to forgo some income to participate in the absence of the program they usually would have been able to pick up some part time work or engage in low return self employment activities

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.44924708398955
WordScorePoS
intensity0NN
share0NN
wage0.064698038783335NN
total0NN
cost0.0660824365173543NN
project0NN
worker0NN
income0.166475342664294NN
time0.0607862199751165NN
engage0VB
return0NN
employment0NN
activity0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.439364889043556
WordScorePoS
intensity0NN
share0.0252035516550537NN
wage0NN
total0NN
cost0NN
project0NN
worker0.121575732851624NN
income0NN
time0NN
engage0VB
return0NN
employment0.173804667214358NN
activity0.0295821503613099NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.487063463592622
WordScorePoS
intensity0NN
share0.0377086395700813NN
wage0NN
total0.0260040237236563NN
cost0NN
project0NN
worker0.0454743001434393NN
income0.110649350233433NN
time0.0188543197850406NN
engage0.0454743001434393VB
return0NN
employment0.104016094894625NN
activity0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.326098854034113
WordScorePoS
intensity0NN
share0NN
wage0NN
total0.0468670845659596NN
cost0.0277064208763707NN
project0.0664302389559493NN
worker0NN
income0NN
time0.0169905820958638NN
engage0.0819583881728876VB
return0NN
employment0NN
activity0.0199423462679015NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.324501532369939
WordScorePoS
intensity0.122412709674631NN
share0.0383371018038178NN
wage0NN
total0.0528748274225028NN
cost0NN
project0NN
worker0NN
income0.0449973847138318NN
time0NN
engage0VB
return0NN
employment0NN
activity0NN

In Argentina Trabajar forgone earnings were half of gross earnings in Maharashtra Employment Guarantee scheme percent and in Bolivia ESF percent

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.887163119650003
WordScorePoS
gross0.0410992516792148JJ
employment0.173804667214358NN
guarantee0.0804764811724088NN

Theoretically forgone earnings can be minimized by allowing flexible working hours or part time work but this can complicate the supervision of the public works and the workers

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.509534487272558
WordScorePoS
minimize0VB
time0NN
public0NN
worker0.121575732851624NN

Programs for the nonworking young Earlier we focused on interventions geared to overcoming the disadvantaged family circumstances of young children through variety of services that improve their cognitive and social skills and prepare them for learning in school

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.831975706900259
WordScorePoS
focus0NN
intervention0NN
overcome0VBN
disadvantaged0JJ
family0NN
circumstance0NN
child0.076326555629389NN
variety0NN
service0NN
improve0.0305306222517556VB
social0JJ
skill0.407534682675042NN
learn0.244520809605025VB
school0.208127520578185NN

Here we focus on ways of augmenting the family income to alleviate poverty among children and improve their chances in life

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.583539317926006
WordScorePoS
focus0NN
family0NN
income0.0442083771593746NN
poverty0.269969049497485NN
child0.0450489732120807NN
improve0VB
chance0NN
life0.0184786920895884NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.403110383244333
WordScorePoS
focus0NN
family0NN
income0.166475342664294NN
poverty0.05809266143877NN
child0.0242343960710022NN
improve0.0121171980355011VB
chance0NN
life0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.314287210654039
WordScorePoS
focus0NN
family0.0624189222007589NN
income0NN
poverty0.00914534810831654NN
child0.10682408961305NN
improve0VB
chance0NN
life0.0250390290383647NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.304066281107397
WordScorePoS
focus0NN
family0.0297950283197006NN
income0.0643370113878709NN
poverty0.0261926252110933NN
child0.0546336178945768NN
improve0.0218534471578307VB
chance0NN
life0NN

same setting

Label: 17, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
set0.0978661089756501NN

There is tradeoff between immediate income gains through employment of the poor and gains to the poor from the quality and durability of the assets created

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.518138673804236
WordScorePoS
income0.0442083771593746NN
gain0NN
employment0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
quality0NN
asset0NN
create0.0519476926891779VB

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.356490228277815
WordScorePoS
income0NN
gain0NN
employment0.173804667214358NN
poor0JJ
quality0.030144637392549NN
asset0NN
create0.0695218668857431VB

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.296514035419158
WordScorePoS
income0.166475342664294NN
gain0NN
employment0NN
poor0JJ
quality0.0121171980355011NN
asset0.0488696285210061NN
create0VB

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.377025418531953
WordScorePoS
income0.110649350233433NN
gain0NN
employment0.104016094894625NN
poor0JJ
quality0.022550656390892NN
asset0NN
create0.0520080474473126VB

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.318825659736277
WordScorePoS
income0NN
gain0.0664302389559493NN
employment0NN
poor0.0339811641917276JJ
quality0.0203215381458133NN
asset0NN
create0.0234335422829798VB

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.309820398740141
WordScorePoS
income0NN
gain0.041835863322702NN
employment0NN
poor0.0642010940957526JJ
quality0.0255958462813622NN
asset0NN
create0VB

In crisis situation in which current transfers to the poor have high weight high labor intensity is desirable

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.636691220419793
WordScorePoS
situation0.0519476926891779NN
current0JJ
transfer0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
intensity0NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.384680771453448
WordScorePoS
situation0NN
current0JJ
transfer0NN
poor0JJ
intensity0.122412709674631NN

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.354902388323131
WordScorePoS
situation0NN
current0.0325700316331562JJ
transfer0.0803666323453555NN
poor0JJ
intensity0NN

Illustrative average labor intensities range from

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.712623379285717
WordScorePoS
average0.1656430212089NN
intensity0NN
range0.0335649154577099NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.524461631456388
WordScorePoS
average0.146608885563018NN
intensity0NN
range0NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.437905036795047
WordScorePoS
average0NN
intensity0.122412709674631NN
range0NN

percent in low income countries and are somewhat lower

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.756711939782219
WordScorePoS
income0.166475342664294NN
country0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.502955471427553
WordScorePoS
income0.110649350233433NN
country0NN

in middle income countries although labor intensity often varies significantly by subprojects

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.550808578918684
WordScorePoS
middle0JJ
income0.166475342664294NN
country0NN
intensity0NN
significantly0RB

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.565290549019465
WordScorePoS
middle0.0602029956716497JJ
income0.110649350233433NN
country0NN
intensity0NN
significantly0RB

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.553901344853816
WordScorePoS
middle0JJ
income0.0449973847138318NN
country0NN
intensity0.122412709674631NN
significantly0RB

Administration and implementation

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.754359745690934
WordScorePoS
implementation0.0475643836183697NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.319611666632869
WordScorePoS
implementation0.0201523636533764NN

Administering and implementing an effective scheme is hard requiring the selection and management of plethora of small projects over wide geographic area and many administrative entities

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.456472785478758
WordScorePoS
implement0.0203215381458133VB
effective0JJ
require0.0468670845659596VB
management0.0339811641917276NN
project0.0664302389559493NN
wide0JJ
geographic0JJ

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.44143889863397
WordScorePoS
implement0.0102677744436108VB
effective0.0123065238088614JJ
require0.0473606524958885VB
management0.0171695137813101NN
project0.0335649154577099NN
wide0.0414107553022249JJ
geographic0JJ

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.415326130417066
WordScorePoS
implement0.030144637392549VB
effective0.0180650490434051JJ
require0.104282800328615VB
management0NN
project0NN
wide0JJ
geographic0JJ

Ideally public works schemes require menu of works well integrated into the local planning process yet elastic in size and timing

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.489127863735163
WordScorePoS
public0NN
require0.104282800328615VB
integrate0.0295821503613099VB
local0.0214106369326177JJ
plan0NN
process0NN
size0.049270765107907NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.454291911984518
WordScorePoS
public0.0583751976558017NN
require0VB
integrate0.0537696560159885VB
local0.0194583992186006JJ
plan0.0583751976558017NN
process0NN
size0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.364901463269693
WordScorePoS
public0.0160169090870187NN
require0.0260040237236563VB
integrate0VB
local0JJ
plan0NN
process0.0737171311497939NN
size0.0368585655748969NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.307486419312511
WordScorePoS
public0.0727679293221751NN
require0VB
integrate0VB
local0JJ
plan0NN
process0.0558185411034276NN
size0NN

This can be difficult in low capacity settings because of the forward planning and interagency coordination needed

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.772289088358727
WordScorePoS
capacity0.0451108483130998NN
setting0VBG
plan0.0130185595639838NN
coordination0.0978661089756501NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.344633051660065
WordScorePoS
capacity0.0112376090361851NN
setting0VBG
plan0.0583751976558017NN
coordination0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.340008455500595
WordScorePoS
capacity0.00625975725959118NN
setting0.0407408489778079VBG
plan0.021678073222951NN
coordination0NN

In highcapacity settings fitting many small laborintensive projects into the sophisticated and often capital intensive infrastructure plans of large and middle income cities can be difficult

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.816784442344127
WordScorePoS
setting0VBG
project0NN
intensive0JJ
infrastructure0.0194583992186006NN
plan0.0583751976558017NN
middle0JJ
income0NN
city0.607697021770652NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.432566942874091
WordScorePoS
setting0VBG
project0NN
intensive0JJ
infrastructure0.192202909044225NN
plan0NN
middle0.0602029956716497JJ
income0.110649350233433NN
city0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.239366080843155
WordScorePoS
setting0VBG
project0NN
intensive0JJ
infrastructure0NN
plan0.0344256159926965NN
middle0JJ
income0.166475342664294NN
city0NN

Moreover ensuring that the workfare program is poverty focused is not easy because of conflicting pressures from alternative target groups such as the skilled unemployed

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.81965907706667
WordScorePoS
ensure0.0247250190957801VB
poverty0.269969049497485NN
focus0NN
conflict0.147263166485024NN
pressure0NN
alternative0NN
target0NN

Sources Subbarao and Murgai and Ravallion

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.73415387760794
WordScorePoS
source0.0613562156822703NN

Programs aimed at children can be universal or means tested free standing or linked to the use of health and education services

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.574089702607351
WordScorePoS
aim0NN
child0.076326555629389NN
universal0.0182963616752599JJ
means0NNS
free0.0499016491051341JJ
health0NN
education0.244244978014045NN
service0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.535425661657373
WordScorePoS
aim0.020806307400253NN
child0.10682408961305NN
universal0.0182906962166331JJ
means0NNS
free0JJ
health0.191387734041787NN
education0.0152605842304358NN
service0.0100171139310145NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.342878949959014
WordScorePoS
aim0NN
child0.0450489732120807NN
universal0JJ
means0.120266261535276NNS
free0JJ
health0NN
education0.0225244866060403NN
service0.0443555132287109NN

In both Eastern and Western Europe the traditional approach to income support for children is through child allowances independent from but complemented by extensive public education and health care

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.572550481074022
WordScorePoS
eastern0.0407408489778079JJ
western0JJ
traditional0JJ
approach0NN
income0NN
support0.00625975725959118NN
child0.10682408961305NN
complement0NN
public0.021678073222951NN
education0.0152605842304358NN
health0.191387734041787NN
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Label: 4, with a score of: 0.423396377218477
WordScorePoS
eastern0JJ
western0JJ
traditional0JJ
approach0NN
income0NN
support0NN
child0.076326555629389NN
complement0NN
public0NN
education0.244244978014045NN
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care0.0416255041156371NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.274973946621213
WordScorePoS
eastern0JJ
western0JJ
traditional0JJ
approach0NN
income0.166475342664294NN
support0NN
child0.0242343960710022NN
complement0NN
public0.0172128079963482NN
education0.0121171980355011NN
health0.0405241466500776NN
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.364225709343884
WordScorePoS
eastern0JJ
western0.0688661930304451JJ
traditional0JJ
approach0NN
income0NN
support0NN
child0.0170753354211044NN
complement0NN
public0.0727679293221751NN
education0.0512260062633133NN
health0.0571058915334038NN
care0.0931221694711702NN

Most Western European programs are universal although few are means tested Italy and Spain

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.705075513517705
WordScorePoS
western0JJ
universal0JJ
means0.120266261535276NNS

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.523719508493041
WordScorePoS
western0.0688661930304451JJ
universal0.02046578088155JJ
means0NNS

A higher fraction of Eastern European programs and those in other middle income countries are means tested Bulgaria Belarus the Czech Republic the Kyrgyz Republic Poland Romania the Russian Federation Serbia and Montenegro the Slovak Republic Argentina Chile

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.548543464242737
WordScorePoS
eastern0JJ
middle0JJ
income0.166475342664294NN
country0NN
means0NNS

In Africa Latin America and Asia there is long and extensive history of school feeding programs and maternal and child health programs that distribute food or occasionally food stamps

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.657740587551373
WordScorePoS
africa0IN
asia0IN
history0NN
school0.0297950283197006NN
maternal0JJ
child0.0546336178945768NN
health0NN
distribute0VB
food0.292342270824999NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.474646463797671
WordScorePoS
africa0IN
asia0IN
history0NN
school0NN
maternal0.184641469134183JJ
child0.10682408961305NN
health0.191387734041787NN
distribute0VB
food0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.400843229035508
WordScorePoS
africa0IN
asia0IN
history0NN
school0NN
maternal0JJ
child0NN
health0.0339811641917276NN
distribute0VB
food0.186896403054502NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.279619344842601
WordScorePoS
africa0IN
asia0IN
history0NN
school0.208127520578185NN
maternal0JJ
child0.076326555629389NN
health0NN
distribute0VB
food0NN

Many of these programs rely on existing Human capacities service delivery mechanisms to make their administration feasible or cheaper

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.704541934537094
WordScorePoS
rely0VB
exist0.0599173571845643VB
human0JJ
capacity0.0451108483130998NN
service0NN
mechanism0.147846224719512NN
feasible0JJ

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.334594766936183
WordScorePoS
rely0.0749457204978913VB
exist0VB
human0JJ
capacity0NN
service0.0451471467893167NN
mechanism0NN
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Label: 11, with a score of: 0.307550593958312
WordScorePoS
rely0VB
exist0.04477822029736VB
human0.0273960270556257JJ
capacity0.0112376090361851NN
service0.0269743071558856NN
mechanism0NN
feasible0JJ

new wave of CCT recognizes that imperfect markets can lead to underinvestment in human capital chapter and explicitly seeks to enhance the opportunitygenerating potential of income support through links to the use of services

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.334298383287619
WordScorePoS
recognize0VB
market0.0202620733250388NN
lead0NN
human0JJ
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enhance0.00994073584907126VB
potential0NN
income0.166475342664294NN
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service0.00795378154685591NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.52583048633052
WordScorePoS
recognize0.0368585655748969VB
market0.0377086395700813NN
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human0.011275328195446JJ
seek0VB
enhance0.0185001613201543VB
potential0.0454743001434393NN
income0.110649350233433NN
support0.0277502419802315NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.401532520325806
WordScorePoS
recognize0VB
market0NN
lead0NN
human0JJ
seek0.120266261535276VB
enhance0.0184786920895884VB
potential0NN
income0.0442083771593746NN
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service0.0443555132287109NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.336361858319349
WordScorePoS
recognize0VB
market0.0913569596328122NN
lead0NN
human0JJ
seek0VB
enhance0.0268922747178632VB
potential0NN
income0.0643370113878709NN
support0.00896409157262106NN
service0.0143446978608332NN

CCT programs are now being implemented in about two dozen countries mainly in Latin America but they are being discussed by many other countries and in all regions

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.826487800054601
WordScorePoS
implement0.0450489732120807VB
country0NN
region0.184259548107002NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.449948195511664
WordScorePoS
implement0VB
country0NN
region0.124837844401518NN

These programs transfer income in cash or in kind to poor households with children

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.498162799536569
WordScorePoS
transfer0NN
income0.0442083771593746NN
kind0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
household0NN
child0.0450489732120807NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.464595943616127
WordScorePoS
transfer0NN
income0.166475342664294NN
kind0NN
poor0JJ
household0.0330412182586772NN
child0.0242343960710022NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.422712671543101
WordScorePoS
transfer0NN
income0.0643370113878709NN
kind0NN
poor0.0548141757796873JJ
household0.0297950283197006NN
child0.0546336178945768NN

They grant benefits only if children comply with standards for attendance in school or participation in health care program

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.579615873925542
WordScorePoS
benefit0NN
child0.10682408961305NN
standard0NN
school0NN
participation0NN
health0.191387734041787NN
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Label: 4, with a score of: 0.469867049166533
WordScorePoS
benefit0NN
child0.076326555629389NN
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school0.208127520578185NN
participation0NN
health0NN
care0.0416255041156371NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.499100509110546
WordScorePoS
benefit0.0393804437159645NN
child0.0170753354211044NN
standard0NN
school0.0931221694711702NN
participation0.0465610847355851NN
health0.0571058915334038NN
care0.0931221694711702NN

In the CCT programs with good data the targeting outcomes have been quite good at generally reasonable administrative costs

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.675202458272161
WordScorePoS
datum0.0739231123597559NN
target0.0898760357768464NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.408601242064346
WordScorePoS
datum0NN
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outcome0.0330412182586772NN
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Label: 4, with a score of: 0.377287425217737
WordScorePoS
datum0NN
target0.0499016491051341NN
outcome0.0416255041156371NN
cost0NN

All five programs reviewed by Morley and Coady distribute far more than proportional share to the bottom quintiles table

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.760192566077423
WordScorePoS
review0NN
distribute0.064698038783335VB
share0NN
bottom0.064698038783335NN
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.444871458504858
WordScorePoS
review0.036961556179878NN
distribute0VB
share0.0766240489430275NN
bottom0NN
quintile0NN

On average the share of program benefits going to the bottom percent of the population is an impressive percent

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.750463936064489
WordScorePoS
average0.146608885563018NN
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benefit0NN
bottom0.064698038783335NN
population0.0860640399817412NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.418027072545295
WordScorePoS
average0.1656430212089NN
share0NN
benefit0NN
bottom0NN
population0NN

The evidence on poverty impact is more limited but PROGRESA now Oportunidades had powerful effect program communities experienced declines of

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.731095909723634
WordScorePoS
evidence0NN
poverty0.269969049497485NN
impact0NN
limited0.120266261535276JJ
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community0NN
experienced0JJ
decline0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.44157123711286
WordScorePoS
evidence0.12939607756667NN
poverty0.05809266143877NN
impact0NN
limited0JJ
effect0NN
community0.0202620733250388NN
experienced0JJ
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percent in the incidence of poverty compared with the control group

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.897672822943293
WordScorePoS
incidence0NN
poverty0.269969049497485NN
compare0VB
control0.0614198493690006NN

The conditioning of benefits on use of health and education services serves the dual objectives of avoiding severe deprivation and enhancing opportunities for human development

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.446907481390028
WordScorePoS
benefit0NN
health0NN
education0.244244978014045NN
service0NN
serve0VB
objective0NN
avoid0VB
enhance0VB
opportunity0NN
human0.0152653111258778JJ
development0.0279277626235394NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.349893065227393
WordScorePoS
benefit0NN
health0.191387734041787NN
education0.0152605842304358NN
service0.0100171139310145NN
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objective0NN
avoid0VB
enhance0VB
opportunity0NN
human0JJ
development0.00837573444202498NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.364092890405591
WordScorePoS
benefit0.0393804437159645NN
health0.0571058915334038NN
education0.0512260062633133NN
service0.022416649027415NN
serve0VB
objective0NN
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enhance0.0140083044329373VB
opportunity0.02046578088155NN
human0.0170753354211044JJ
development0.0124956749436837NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.333066577745235
WordScorePoS
benefit0.0260040237236563NN
health0.0377086395700813NN
education0.022550656390892NN
service0.0148023490369527NN
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objective0.0368585655748969NN
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enhance0.0185001613201543VB
opportunity0.0135141354781442NN
human0.011275328195446JJ
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Label: 14, with a score of: 0.301831873154473
WordScorePoS
benefit0.0229784274580034NN
health0.0166605993001162NN
education0NN
service0NN
serve0.0531983120572613VB
objective0NN
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opportunity0NN
human0.0199268631468397JJ
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Label: 7, with a score of: 0.301410882799151
WordScorePoS
benefit0NN
health0NN
education0NN
service0.0451471467893167NN
serve0VB
objective0.0749457204978913NN
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opportunity0.0549574626423028NN
human0JJ
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But there is tension between these goals

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

A simulation of the results that might be expected from the federal Bolsa Escola program in Brazil shows only small reduction percentage point in the poverty index because of the simulated loss of labor income of children who drop out of the labor force to attend school

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.471540905451539
WordScorePoS
result0NN
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poverty0.269969049497485NN
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force0NN
attend0VB
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.389027815400627
WordScorePoS
result0NN
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reduction0.0475643836183697NN
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poverty0.05809266143877NN
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income0.166475342664294NN
child0.0242343960710022NN
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Label: 4, with a score of: 0.373390521139976
WordScorePoS
result0NN
expect0VB
reduction0NN
percentage0NN
poverty0NN
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income0NN
child0.076326555629389NN
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.468822716577552
WordScorePoS
result0NN
expect0.0357189919948307VB
reduction0NN
percentage0.0583416713841148NN
poverty0.0261926252110933NN
loss0NN
income0.0643370113878709NN
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force0.0297950283197006NN
attend0.0583416713841148VB
school0.0297950283197006NN

Mexico PROGRESA now Oportunidades had impressive poverty impacts but increased primary enrollment rates by only about percentage point because they were already above percent

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.7088139097162
WordScorePoS
poverty0.269969049497485NN
impact0NN
increase0NN
primary0JJ
rate0.0639932865717261NN
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Label: 4, with a score of: 0.306716904394772
WordScorePoS
poverty0NN
impact0NN
increase0.0144029596227568NN
primary0.108423939529757JJ
rate0.0216847879059514NN
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Cambodia program which focuses on grades seven through nine may well help with the transition to secondary school but it misses some of the poorest households because so many have dropped out by then

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.713058210431799
WordScorePoS
focus0NN
secondary0.0615662203253227JJ
school0.208127520578185NN
poorest0JJS
household0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.551395427774144
WordScorePoS
focus0NN
secondary0.0688661930304451JJ
school0.0931221694711702NN
poorest0JJS
household0.0465610847355851NN

Table

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Targeting performance of conditional transfer schemesa Quintile PRAF Honduras RPS Nicaragua PROGRESA now Oportunidades Mexico SUF Chile FFE Bangladesh Source Morley and Coady table

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Note PRAF Programa de Asignación Familiar RPS Red de Protección Social SUF Subsido Unitario Familiar FFE Food For Education not available

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.594564147327109
WordScorePoS
social0JJ
food0.292342270824999NN
education0NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.496744130371689
WordScorePoS
social0JJ
food0NN
education0.244244978014045NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.435329178082582
WordScorePoS
social0.0169905820958638JJ
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Cumulative share percent of benefit captured by income quintile

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.626735015158561
WordScorePoS
share0NN
benefit0NN
capture0NN
income0.166475342664294NN
quintile0.064698038783335NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.472713504066579
WordScorePoS
share0.0377086395700813NN
benefit0.0260040237236563NN
capture0NN
income0.110649350233433NN
quintile0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.341815524605176
WordScorePoS
share0.0365427838531249NN
benefit0.0252000451111224NN
capture0NN
income0.0643370113878709NN
quintile0NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.305345792225418
WordScorePoS
share0.016202004209163NN
benefit0.0446918591208085NN
capture0.0517339898971162NN
income0NN
quintile0NN

In settings with low access to health and education services this tension means that conditional transfer programs may not be appropriate vehicles for social assistance

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.43017134220395
WordScorePoS
setting0VBG
access0.00232174891244877NN
health0.0339811641917276NN
education0.0101607690729067NN
service0.00666957305782837NN
means0NNS
transfer0NN
vehicle0.217007869186068NN
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Label: 3, with a score of: 0.394780038612667
WordScorePoS
setting0.0407408489778079VBG
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means0NNS
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Label: 4, with a score of: 0.376371491604906
WordScorePoS
setting0VBG
access0.00697628678506322NN
health0NN
education0.244244978014045NN
service0NN
means0NNS
transfer0NN
vehicle0NN
social0JJ
assistance0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.457372168037006
WordScorePoS
setting0VBG
access0.00514687440545096NN
health0NN
education0.0225244866060403NN
service0.0443555132287109NN
means0.120266261535276NNS
transfer0NN
vehicle0NN
social0.112994637345193JJ
assistance0NN

The conditions would keep the program from serving the poorest

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.796961651458316
WordScorePoS
condition0.121575732851624NN
serve0VB
poorest0JJS

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.348729254083074
WordScorePoS
condition0NN
serve0.0531983120572613VB
poorest0JJS

The opposite may be true as well when the use of services is already satisfactory it may not be worth using administrative resources to verify compliance with service use conditions

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.504386701410232
WordScorePoS
service0.0197870712294258NN
worth0JJ
resource0.0123650647908625NN
condition0.121575732851624NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.47273328834647
WordScorePoS
service0.0443555132287109NN
worth0JJ
resource0.0739147683583536NN
condition0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.398172805084192
WordScorePoS
service0.00666957305782837NN
worth0.0409791940864438JJ
resource0.0416785799329393NN
condition0.0409791940864438NN

Programs for the nonworking elderly Most countries have public pensions programs for the elderly

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Two arguments provide rationale for governments to mandate pension system to provide for old age security imperfect financial markets limit the scope for redistribution over one life and human failures to see far enough into the future may lead to undersaving for old age

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.607835267555141
WordScorePoS
provide0.0215170467912497VB
government0NN
mandate0.0583416713841148NN
system0.0756001353333673NN
age0.0365427838531249NN
security0.0893850849591018NN
financial0.00896409157262106JJ
market0.0913569596328122NN
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future0.0297950283197006NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.449950433742355
WordScorePoS
provide0.0295703421524739VB
government0NN
mandate0NN
system0.0519476926891779NN
age0.112994637345193NN
security0NN
financial0.0184786920895884JJ
market0NN
limit0NN
life0.0184786920895884NN
human0JJ
future0NN
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The need for old age security will grow

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.609204625834784
WordScorePoS
age0.0365427838531249NN
security0.0893850849591018NN
grow0.0182713919265625VB

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.477373153042097
WordScorePoS
age0.112994637345193NN
security0NN
grow0VB

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.377329743191262
WordScorePoS
age0.0893142758861673NN
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grow0VB

The population of year olds about percent of the world population today is projected to reach about percent by

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.583284738080916
WordScorePoS
population0.0860640399817412NN
world0.00276879546803864NN
project0NN
reach0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.444078550935989
WordScorePoS
population0.0144336476662975NN
world0.00464349782489754NN
project0.0664302389559493NN
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Label: 6, with a score of: 0.396672597839859
WordScorePoS
population0.0363595928905615NN
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project0.041835863322702NN
reach0NN

Within this group the fraction of people over the age of about percent today is expected to reach percent by

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.591393321210381
WordScorePoS
people0.0371911007748996NNS
age0.112994637345193NN
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.386038655088809
WordScorePoS
people0.0257736572183839NNS
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Label: 3, with a score of: 0.37295856564135
WordScorePoS
people0.00539943740774902NNS
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Label: 4, with a score of: 0.325373597507026
WordScorePoS
people0.00720147981137839NNS
age0.0255262687343935NN
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.308773294466402
WordScorePoS
people0.0119834723221875NNS
age0NN
expect0.0332151194779746VB
reach0.0332151194779746NN

Contributory pension programs have not solved the problem of old age security

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.597903378251093
WordScorePoS
age0.0365427838531249NN
security0.0893850849591018NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.536496615325775
WordScorePoS
age0.112994637345193NN
security0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.424062662078536
WordScorePoS
age0.0893142758861673NN
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Coverage is low only percent of the global workforce

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.637288937860773
WordScorePoS
coverage0.0908430554521382NN
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workforce0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.52970029671097
WordScorePoS
coverage0.0307735781890304NN
global0.013959557403375JJ
workforce0.0307735781890304NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.319014681905356
WordScorePoS
coverage0NN
global0JJ
workforce0.0454743001434393NN

Even in pension systems with extensive coverage the lifetime poor cannot contribute enough to have pension at old age that would keep them out of poverty

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.888272711744828
WordScorePoS
system0.0519476926891779NN
coverage0.0908430554521382NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
contribute0VB
age0.112994637345193NN
poverty0.269969049497485NN

Elderly women who have not worked outside the home are particularly vulnerable

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.685373244808162
WordScorePoS
woman0.221979360474357NN
vulnerable0JJ

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.487968169461181
WordScorePoS
woman0.0450489732120807NN
vulnerable0.112994637345193JJ

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.346157347123924
WordScorePoS
woman0.0610612445035112NN
vulnerable0.051052537468787JJ

Moreover in some countries such as in Kenya Uganda Sri Lanka and Zambia poorly governed schemes gave WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT lower income workers returns less than bank deposits and the alternatives of investing in land tools or vehicle

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.562207319180556
WordScorePoS
country0NN
poorly0RB
world0.00464349782489754NN
development0.022306853314744NN
report0.0409791940864438NN
income0NN
worker0NN
return0NN
bank0NN
alternative0NN
invest0VB
land0.0144336476662975NN
tool0.0542519672965169NN
vehicle0.217007869186068NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.297268095550079
WordScorePoS
country0NN
poorly0RB
world0.00276879546803864NN
development0.0177346522508396NN
report0NN
income0.166475342664294NN
worker0NN
return0NN
bank0NN
alternative0NN
invest0VB
land0NN
tool0NN
vehicle0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.454468968902071
WordScorePoS
country0NN
poorly0RB
world0.0124838525528648NN
development0.0159922815774215NN
report0NN
income0.0643370113878709NN
worker0NN
return0NN
bank0.0881366997038154NN
alternative0NN
invest0.0583416713841148VB
land0.0465651203624806NN
tool0NN
vehicle0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.400495859679937
WordScorePoS
country0NN
poorly0RB
world0.00257642711761688NN
development0.0330049940546426NN
report0NN
income0.110649350233433NN
worker0.0454743001434393NN
return0NN
bank0NN
alternative0.0602029956716497NN
invest0VB
land0NN
tool0NN
vehicle0NN

Options for assisting the elderly poor include the following broadening pension systems to include more people adding redistributive element as part of an existing contributory pension scheme or covering them through separate social pension financed by general revenue

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.609036427889893
WordScorePoS
assist0VB
poor0.150659516460257JJ
include0VB
broaden0VB
system0.0519476926891779NN
people0.0371911007748996NNS
add0VB
exist0VB
cover0NN
social0.112994637345193JJ
finance0NN
revenue0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.491075515044299
WordScorePoS
assist0.048933054487825VB
poor0.0153248097886055JJ
include0VB
broaden0VB
system0.0211360962287062NN
people0.00432344066632653NNS
add0VB
exist0.0599173571845643VB
cover0NN
social0JJ
finance0.036961556179878NN
revenue0.0978661089756501NN

A fourth option is general needs based social assistance program

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.597447504388113
WordScorePoS
base0.0442083771593746NN
social0.112994637345193JJ
assistance0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.510601017114239
WordScorePoS
base0NN
social0.101310366625194JJ
assistance0.0330412182586772NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.347768416504728
WordScorePoS
base0NN
social0.0504071033101074JJ
assistance0.0410992516792148NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.316058635026427
WordScorePoS
base0NN
social0.0458109463416786JJ
assistance0.0373517915079663NN

Broadening the coverage of contributory pensions has been attempted generally with little success

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.746144758398782
WordScorePoS
broaden0.107490825192354VB
coverage0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.630584699124296
WordScorePoS
broaden0VB
coverage0.0908430554521382NN

In the Republic of Korea mandating the expansion of coverage to farmers fishermen and self employed was met with massive protests in the end the government had to subsidize in full or in part the contributions of almost two thirds of the target population

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.789378564073472
WordScorePoS
mandate0.0583416713841148NN
expansion0NN
coverage0NN
farmer0.175025014152344NN
employ0VB
meet0.0881366997038154VB
government0NN
full0JJ
contribution0NN
third0.0357189919948307JJ
target0.0357189919948307NN
population0.0310434135749871NN

Adding redistributive element is common but as pension reforms strengthen the link between contributions and benefits for efficiency reasons that redistributive element is becoming smaller

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.424854394875554
WordScorePoS
add0VB
common0JJ
reform0NN
strengthen0VB
contribution0NN
benefit0NN
efficiency0.134992154141495NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.446154733594127
WordScorePoS
add0VB
common0JJ
reform0.0911713013253052NN
strengthen0.0112083245137075VB
contribution0NN
benefit0.0393804437159645NN
efficiency0NN

Social pensions provide transfers to the elderly without requiring prior contributions or withdrawing from the labor force

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.553293531659784
WordScorePoS
social0.0504071033101074JJ
provide0VB
transfer0NN
require0.104282800328615VB
contribution0NN
force0.0410992516792148NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.402883810746193
WordScorePoS
social0.112994637345193JJ
provide0.0295703421524739VB
transfer0NN
require0VB
contribution0NN
force0NN

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.337637124552379
WordScorePoS
social0JJ
provide0.00654003986398914VB
transfer0.0803666323453555NN
require0VB
contribution0.0325700316331562NN
force0NN

They can be universal as in Botswana Mauritius Namibia or Bolivia

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.767490526626369
WordScorePoS
universal0.0549574626423028JJ

Or they can be meanstested as in South Africa Senegal India Bangladesh number of Latin American countries Australia Italy and New Zealand

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Many of them complement contributory systems that cover higher income groups

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.537042317957006
WordScorePoS
complement0NN
system0NN
cover0NN
income0.166475342664294NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.45143123564558
WordScorePoS
complement0NN
system0.0756001353333673NN
cover0NN
income0.0643370113878709NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.441921884291949
WordScorePoS
complement0.0978661089756501NN
system0.0211360962287062NN
cover0NN
income0.017987180284335NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.356950059863399
WordScorePoS
complement0NN
system0NN
cover0NN
income0.110649350233433NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.31019535872791
WordScorePoS
complement0NN
system0.0519476926891779NN
cover0NN
income0.0442083771593746NN

When the transfers are means tested the programs are really special case of needs based cash transfers limited to the elderly

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.713652471653122
WordScorePoS
transfer0NN
means0.120266261535276NNS
special0JJ
base0.0442083771593746NN
limited0.120266261535276JJ

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.617975602350336
WordScorePoS
transfer0.0803666323453555NN
means0NNS
special0.0271683202880942JJ
base0.058665107245718NN
limited0JJ

The targeting challenges discussed earlier and the potential solutions are similar

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.435057883524989
WordScorePoS
target0NN
challenge0.0947742174515357NN
potential0NN
solution0NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.416860997013958
WordScorePoS
target0NN
challenge0.0236803262479443NN
potential0NN
solution0.0671298309154199NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.412572943951619
WordScorePoS
target0.0898760357768464NN
challenge0NN
potential0NN
solution0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.377946273439645
WordScorePoS
target0NN
challenge0NN
potential0.0454743001434393NN
solution0.0368585655748969NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.327933682319532
WordScorePoS
target0.0357189919948307NN
challenge0NN
potential0NN
solution0.0357189919948307NN

Labor disincentives are lessened however because societies expect lower work efforts from the elderly

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.621464466260798
WordScorePoS
lessen0VB
society0.118536858482514NN
expect0VB
effort0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.458572017966168
WordScorePoS
lessen0.0542519672965169VB
society0NN
expect0.0332151194779746VB
effort0NN

Evidence from various countries implementing large social pension schemes indicates that the costs are to percent of GDP not negligible for low income developing countries

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.837353076443813
WordScorePoS
evidence0.12939607756667NN
country0NN
implement0.0121171980355011VB
social0.101310366625194JJ
cost0.0660824365173543NN
gdp0NN
income0.166475342664294NN
develop0VB

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.356253560834257
WordScorePoS
evidence0NN
country0NN
implement0.0450489732120807VB
social0.112994637345193JJ
cost0NN
gdp0NN
income0.0442083771593746NN
develop0VB

Schwartz simulates the costs in six African countries of providing social pensions limiting the benefit to percent of GDP per capita and eligibility to those age and above

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.567620142648159
WordScorePoS
cost0NN
african0IN
country0NN
provide0.0295703421524739VB
social0.112994637345193JJ
limit0NN
benefit0NN
gdp0NN
capita0NN
age0.112994637345193NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.416797806574622
WordScorePoS
cost0.0660824365173543NN
african0IN
country0NN
provide0VB
social0.101310366625194JJ
limit0NN
benefit0NN
gdp0NN
capita0NN
age0.0202620733250388NN

The costs would range from

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.560125772239141
WordScorePoS
cost0.0660824365173543NN
range0NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.521819281548441
WordScorePoS
cost0.0279982034978914NN
range0.0335649154577099NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.465302987553606
WordScorePoS
cost0.0548954478802642NN
range0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.312419359731755
WordScorePoS
cost0NN
range0.0368585655748969NN

percent of GDP in Kenya to

Label: 14, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
gdp0.0531983120572613NN

percent of GDP in Ghana still not insub stantial

Label: 14, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
gdp0.0531983120572613NN

Kakwani and Subbarao simulate various options for African countries and conclude that the best taking into account poverty impact fiscal cost and incentive effects is to keep the benefit low about one third of the poverty threshold the eligible age limit at or older and to target only the elderly poor thus sacrificing the administrative simplicity and political advantage of universalism

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.74222858471229
WordScorePoS
african0IN
country0NN
account0NN
poverty0.269969049497485NN
impact0NN
fiscal0JJ
cost0NN
incentive0NN
effect0NN
benefit0NN
threshold0NN
age0.112994637345193NN
limit0NN
target0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
political0JJ

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.381029905845164
WordScorePoS
african0IN
country0NN
account0.0172128079963482NN
poverty0.05809266143877NN
impact0NN
fiscal0.064698038783335JJ
cost0.0660824365173543NN
incentive0NN
effect0NN
benefit0NN
threshold0.0488696285210061NN
age0.0202620733250388NN
limit0NN
target0NN
poor0JJ
political0.0792212041430275JJ

There is enough variation across countries to warrant countryspecific efforts to determine benefit and eligibility levels and targeting methods rather than relying on rules of thumb

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.60723780631675
WordScorePoS
country0NN
effort0NN
determine0VB
benefit0NN
level0.0610668815653026NN
target0NN
rely0VB
rule0.162386273072618NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.482899796988607
WordScorePoS
country0NN
effort0NN
determine0VB
benefit0NN
level0.0138997399903163NN
target0.0898760357768464NN
rely0VB
rule0.0739231123597559NN

How should we think about the balance between social pensions for the elderly and other programs such as those targeting families with children

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.454300705563732
WordScorePoS
social0JJ
target0NN
family0.0624189222007589NN
child0.10682408961305NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.424238041006965
WordScorePoS
social0.112994637345193JJ
target0NN
family0NN
child0.0450489732120807NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.338835629656751
WordScorePoS
social0JJ
target0.0499016491051341NN
family0NN
child0.076326555629389NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.337001059372896
WordScorePoS
social0.101310366625194JJ
target0NN
family0NN
child0.0242343960710022NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.322513504251879
WordScorePoS
social0JJ
target0.0357189919948307NN
family0.0297950283197006NN
child0.0546336178945768NN

Are the elderly poor more deserving than other poor

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.842193888314487
WordScorePoS
poor0.150659516460257JJ

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.358887180451089
WordScorePoS
poor0.0642010940957526JJ

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.306413859006553
WordScorePoS
poor0.0548141757796873JJ

Brazil spends percent of GDP to transfer month to

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.963777627399033
WordScorePoS
gdp0.0531983120572613NN
transfer0.0803666323453555NN

million elderly poor and only

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.842193888314487
WordScorePoS
poor0.150659516460257JJ

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.358887180451089
WordScorePoS
poor0.0642010940957526JJ

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.306413859006553
WordScorePoS
poor0.0548141757796873JJ

percent of GDP to transfer to per month to million families to support school attendance through the Bolsa Escola program

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.640247172767938
WordScorePoS
gdp0NN
transfer0NN
family0NN
support0NN
school0.208127520578185NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.429697179596699
WordScorePoS
gdp0NN
transfer0NN
family0.0465610847355851NN
support0NN
school0.0931221694711702NN

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.410875879350889
WordScorePoS
gdp0.0531983120572613NN
transfer0.0803666323453555NN
family0NN
support0NN
school0NN

When considering whether this the right balance one can argue generally that young families with children who have their entire lives ahead of them should have higher priority

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.676025373693014
WordScorePoS
family0.0624189222007589NN
child0.10682408961305NN
life0.0250390290383647NN
priority0NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.30916300365609
WordScorePoS
family0NN
child0.076326555629389NN
life0.0125233923809486NN
priority0NN

Indeed some argue for shifting public spending away from pensions and toward families with children in Brazil and others suggest that focus on unemployment may be more appropriate to reduce poverty in South Africa

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.558920386089563
WordScorePoS
public0NN
spending0NN
family0NN
child0.0450489732120807NN
suggest0VB
focus0NN
unemployment0NN
reduce0.0164833460638534VB
poverty0.269969049497485NN
south0RB
africa0IN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.412348045547116
WordScorePoS
public0NN
spending0NN
family0NN
child0.0452169560888236NN
suggest0VB
focus0.0410992516792148NN
unemployment0.0804764811724088NN
reduce0.0055149369084567VB
poverty0.0722601961736204NN
south0RB
africa0IN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.36556092049224
WordScorePoS
public0.021678073222951NN
spending0NN
family0.0624189222007589NN
child0.10682408961305NN
suggest0VB
focus0NN
unemployment0NN
reduce0.01675146888405VB
poverty0.00914534810831654NN
south0RB
africa0IN

There may be important political economy reasons why programs for the elderly garner such political support

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.729316640517878
WordScorePoS
political0.111637082206855JJ
economy0.0465610847355851NN
support0NN

There is direct evidence from attitude surveys across societies and age groups that concerns about old age poverty are strong and widely shared perhaps because most people expect to be old one day but not necessarily unemployed or single parent or disabled and also because old age is more easily verifiable and less subject to moral hazard for example when compared with unemployment insurance

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.733225433783461
WordScorePoS
direct0JJ
evidence0NN
survey0NN
society0NN
age0.112994637345193NN
poverty0.269969049497485NN
strong0JJ
widely0RB
share0NN
people0.0371911007748996NNS
expect0VB
day0.25973846344589NN
single0JJ
hazard0NN
compare0VB
unemployment0NN
insurance0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.348814316017427
WordScorePoS
direct0.0396106020715138JJ
evidence0.12939607756667NN
survey0.064698038783335NN
society0.0237821918091848NN
age0.0202620733250388NN
poverty0.05809266143877NN
strong0.0488696285210061JJ
widely0RB
share0NN
people0.00571634317201755NNS
expect0VB
day0NN
single0JJ
hazard0NN
compare0VB
unemployment0NN
insurance0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.355019606332794
WordScorePoS
direct0JJ
evidence0NN
survey0NN
society0.0591643007226199NN
age0.0252035516550537NN
poverty0.0722601961736204NN
strong0JJ
widely0RB
share0.0252035516550537NN
people0.0106656521351091NNS
expect0VB
day0.0347609334428716NN
single0JJ
hazard0NN
compare0VB
unemployment0.0804764811724088NN
insurance0.0804764811724088NN

Programs for special vulnerable groups Some groups are vulnerable regardless of age the disabled HIV infected ethnic minorities certain castes internally displaced households refugees and orphans Human capacities box

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.762924527727846
WordScorePoS
special0JJ
vulnerable0JJ
age0.0893142758861673NN
hiv0.448149338755887NN
infected0.0407408489778079JJ
household0NN
human0JJ
capacity0.00625975725959118NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.442489260690641
WordScorePoS
special0JJ
vulnerable0.112994637345193JJ
age0.112994637345193NN
hiv0NN
infected0JJ
household0NN
human0JJ
capacity0NN

One of the key issues in providing transfers for these groups is whether to set up specific programs or to include them in more general program

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.654381560226338
WordScorePoS
key0NN
issue0.0299586785922821NN
provide0.00601568197638796VB
transfer0.036961556179878NN
set0.0978661089756501NN
specific0JJ
include0VB

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.437047343301538
WordScorePoS
key0.0271683202880942NN
issue0NN
provide0.00654003986398914VB
transfer0.0803666323453555NN
set0NN
specific0JJ
include0VB

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.373012714883463
WordScorePoS
key0.0528409850971592NN
issue0NN
provide0.0445201436316848VB
transfer0NN
set0NN
specific0JJ
include0VB

There is no universal answer to this and complex set of issues must be diagnosed in each case

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.845767534903923
WordScorePoS
universal0.0109843026967392JJ
set0.0978661089756501NN
issue0.0299586785922821NN

One is targeting

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.825847373096909
WordScorePoS
target0.0898760357768464NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.458533194866339
WordScorePoS
target0.0499016491051341NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.328212470138784
WordScorePoS
target0.0357189919948307NN

Not all orphans widows or disabled are poor so universal programs will include some non poor

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.807475302078708
WordScorePoS
poor0.150659516460257JJ
universal0JJ
include0VB

A second issue relates to the special needs of the groups

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.703543995502252
WordScorePoS
issue0NN
special0.0747035830159326JJ

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.328657215962145
WordScorePoS
issue0NN
special0.0348974218717993JJ

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.316107926507034
WordScorePoS
issue0.0335649154577099NN
special0JJ

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.311175846880247
WordScorePoS
issue0NN
special0.0330412182586772JJ

Will income support alone be sufficient and if not as is usually the case does it make sense to link the income support to other programs for the group

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.689150503674099
WordScorePoS
income0.166475342664294NN
support0NN
sufficient0JJ
sense0.064698038783335NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.47971057317157
WordScorePoS
income0.110649350233433NN
support0.0277502419802315NN
sufficient0JJ
sense0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.33044418749279
WordScorePoS
income0.0643370113878709NN
support0.00896409157262106NN
sufficient0.0440683498519077JJ
sense0NN

For example when large groups of internally displaced people or refugees emerge suddenly their needs for housing food and health care may strain local availability

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.512154754103695
WordScorePoS
people0.0161552501392041NNS
emerge0VB
housing0.219415728260093NN
food0NN
health0.0229054731708393NN
care0NN
strain0.0731385760866977NN
local0.0194583992186006JJ
availability0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.498275681823917
WordScorePoS
people0.00539943740774902NNS
emerge0.0407408489778079VB
housing0NN
food0NN
health0.191387734041787NN
care0.104031537001265NN
strain0NN
local0JJ
availability0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.486718981688051
WordScorePoS
people0.0257736572183839NNS
emerge0VB
housing0NN
food0.292342270824999NN
health0NN
care0NN
strain0NN
local0.0155217067874935JJ
availability0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.360759715877851
WordScorePoS
people0.0119834723221875NNS
emerge0VB
housing0NN
food0.186896403054502NN
health0.0339811641917276NN
care0NN
strain0NN
local0.0144336476662975JJ
availability0NN

In such cases in kind provision to the group is usually the first response

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.558103071871394
WordScorePoS
kind0NN
provision0.0658099748168827NN
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.473370478318598
WordScorePoS
kind0NN
provision0.0558185411034276NN
response0NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.464930372507449
WordScorePoS
kind0NN
provision0NN
response0.0548233071065585NN

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.451149562967375
WordScorePoS
kind0.0531983120572613NN
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Only after the groups become long standing or somewhat smaller does the question of whether to switch to needs based cash assistance or workfare program arise

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Special programs for groups viewed positively or as deserving such as veterans or the disabled may have adequate political support but if the group is excluded as ethnic minorities or the HIV positive are in many cases such programs may not garner sufficient support

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.750553210030395
WordScorePoS
special0JJ
view0NN
positively0RB
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political0JJ
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Label: 11, with a score of: 0.387899505322322
WordScorePoS
special0.0747035830159326JJ
view0NN
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adequate0.0631828116343571JJ
political0JJ
support0.0224752180723703NN
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While standard transfers may protect these groups broader set of policies can help expand their opportunities and facilitate their integration into society

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WordScorePoS
standard0NN
transfer0.036961556179878NN
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set0.0978661089756501NN
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society0.0359743605686701NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.375590260718756
WordScorePoS
standard0NN
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protect0.0180650490434051VB
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policy0.0452169560888236NN
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integration0NN
society0.0591643007226199NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.33054935010616
WordScorePoS
standard0NN
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set0NN
policy0.0848203862485078NN
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opportunity0.029046330719385NN
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society0.0237821918091848NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.327110885585909
WordScorePoS
standard0.0454743001434393NN
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set0NN
policy0.011275328195446NN
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society0.0221298700466866NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.324966674312321
WordScorePoS
standard0NN
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society0.118536858482514NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.30506897551543
WordScorePoS
standard0NN
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Some countries have used affirmative action see chapter

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.572491426812187
WordScorePoS
country0NN
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Others have used regulations and awareness campaigns that sanction harmful local practices to help prevent discrimination

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.56571909993048
WordScorePoS
regulation0NN
awareness0NN
harmful0.0558185411034276JJ
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discrimination0.111637082206855NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.546769488619955
WordScorePoS
regulation0NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.343761752566666
WordScorePoS
regulation0.0977392570420122NN
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Policy responses include creating framework to hear advocacy groups and mainstreaming such concerns into government practice often building on informal or private arrangements such as those of faith based organizations

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WordScorePoS
policy0.0641521854453136NN
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.309905696238682
WordScorePoS
policy0.0452169560888236NN
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Summary Equity in the acquisition of human capacities through early childhood development formal education health services and social protection is at the core of strategy to equalize the opportunities for people to lead productive fulfilling lives

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 3, with a score of: 0.332485733835473
WordScorePoS
human0JJ
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people0.0371911007748996NNS
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.366317406416666
WordScorePoS
human0.0150723186962745JJ
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Broad provisioning of these services is also good for development and poverty reduc BOX

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Africa orphans and public action Conflict and the HIV AIDS pandemic are generating major humanitarian crisis for families in Sub Saharan Africa

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WordScorePoS
africa0IN
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saharan0.0299516555085695JJ

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.274142636575284
WordScorePoS
africa0IN
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There are as many as million orphaned children in the region today percent of whom have lost both parents

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WordScorePoS
child0.0450489732120807NN
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Label: 3, with a score of: 0.60539663704127
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child0.10682408961305NN
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.335798151816698
WordScorePoS
child0.0546336178945768NN
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Orphans make up more than percent of all children in countries and the numbers are rising

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.520465623700532
WordScorePoS
child0NN
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rise0.120914181920259NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.459815925177116
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child0.10682408961305NN
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Label: 4, with a score of: 0.328541679310717
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child0.076326555629389NN
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.327477336708414
WordScorePoS
child0.0546336178945768NN
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The death of an earning family member is most likely to drive family into penury because of the costs of funeral the loss of regular income and the risk of losing one property

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.613222103693308
WordScorePoS
death0.193573191943949NN
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property0.0249430985430622NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.440571144825852
WordScorePoS
death0NN
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.323690078423975
WordScorePoS
death0.0252000451111224NN
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Erosion of human capital is another major risk microstudies and analysis of household surveys suggest that relative to other children in the household fostered children are underenrolled in schools work longer hours doing household chores and have lower immunization coverage and the disadvantage is stronger for fostered girls than for fostered boys

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.647213947632349
WordScorePoS
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Label: 4, with a score of: 0.529264498525005
WordScorePoS
erosion0NN
human0.0152653111258778JJ
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Psychological risks are also high because the death of parent often leaves the child in state of trauma lacking nurturance and guidance and impeding socialization

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.353305400831096
WordScorePoS
risk0.0519476926891779NN
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The main coping strategy in Africa is fostering by the extended family

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.508847853812954
WordScorePoS
strategy0.0149758277542848NN
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When possible interventions should first try to strengthen grassroots responses to orphan care and turn to supplementary interventions only when the extended family is no longer sufficient or capable

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.754098779990213
WordScorePoS
intervention0.0407408489778079NN
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.432720167586954
WordScorePoS
intervention0NN
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When no other living arrangement is possible experience and research show that orphanages must be the last resort

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.61582061080283
WordScorePoS
live0.00740117451847634VB
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.408599722958294
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live0.0739258553811849VB
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Label: 3, with a score of: 0.401227314313121
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Recognizing the scope for exploitation of vulnerable children under all arrangements appropriate checks and balances must be in place including oversight by NGOs or communitybased organizations

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WordScorePoS
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organization0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.371343688872131
WordScorePoS
recognize0.0558185411034276VB
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.37089431038555
WordScorePoS
recognize0VB
exploitation0.0811931365363091NN
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child0.0603953832457135NN
include0VB
oversight0NN
organization0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.367095430820497
WordScorePoS
recognize0VB
exploitation0NN
vulnerable0JJ
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oversight0.0978661089756501NN
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When access to basic education and health services is generally low waiving school fees and uniform obligations would help increase enrollment rates of all children including orphans as in Uganda

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.682567904310001
WordScorePoS
access0.00697628678506322NN
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Label: 3, with a score of: 0.429810224219348
WordScorePoS
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When average access to services is high but the difference in access between the poor and the non poor and between orphans and non orphan children is large cash transfers conditional on children attending school seem appropriate

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.517176432588179
WordScorePoS
average0NN
access0.00514687440545096NN
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attend0VB
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Label: 4, with a score of: 0.434471754112882
WordScorePoS
average0NN
access0.00697628678506322NN
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poor0JJ
child0.076326555629389NN
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school0.208127520578185NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.238608152079572
WordScorePoS
average0.146608885563018NN
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attend0VB
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Label: 13, with a score of: 0.192049204454691
WordScorePoS
average0.1656430212089NN
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poor0JJ
child0NN
transfer0NN
attend0VB
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.389978464246467
WordScorePoS
average0NN
access0.00749031153171887NN
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Innovative programs along these lines are just beginning as in Swaziland

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.597739203601743
WordScorePoS
line0.0410992516792148NN

Sources Subbarao and Coury USAID UNAIDS and UNICEF

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.73415387760794
WordScorePoS
source0.0613562156822703NN

tion through impacts on innovation productivity and social cohesion

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.629183638060239
WordScorePoS
impact0.0160169090870187NN
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.437010888815545
WordScorePoS
impact0NN
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Label: 11, with a score of: 0.352147283092942
WordScorePoS
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But there are big challenges to equitable provisioning getting the relevant issues on the policy agenda fighting political capture of institutions so that they do not only serve the powerful and the influential and managing efficiency equity tradeoffs especially in the short term

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WordScorePoS
challenge0NN
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.433739912451136
WordScorePoS
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Label: 7, with a score of: 0.29547416957939
WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.414698734993967
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There are also good prospects for incremental change through advocacy to point out long run benefits even when there are short run costs through sound program and tax design to minimize efficiency costs and build accountability structures and through political coalitions that can thwart elite holdups

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 7, with a score of: 0.316836115056464
WordScorePoS
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.329124599933434
WordScorePoS
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The power of greater equity in human capacities to unhinge inequality traps is tremendous through directly contributing to leveling the economic political and sociocultural playing fields

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.176658299585922
WordScorePoS
power0NN
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But achieving greater equity in human capacity is not enough to break the inequality trap

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WordScorePoS
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It needs to be complemented with fairness in the returns to those capacities and in the access to complementary assets topics discussed in the next chapter

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.543751601872077
WordScorePoS
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Justice land and infrastructure chapter It takes more than building human capacities to broaden people opportunities

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.344779061981219
WordScorePoS
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.310805455955531
WordScorePoS
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People also need complementary assets access to the marketplace and security of person and property

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.500663013333071
WordScorePoS
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WordScorePoS
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This chapter starts with description of justice systems showing how critical they are in ensuring level playing field and fair returns

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It then turns to policies for expanding access to the complementary assets of land and infrastructure

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Label: 15, with a score of: 0.302784601083184
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Promoting fairness in markets is addressed in chapter

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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.313495498310657
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inaccessible because they are incompatible with local norms and customs and they are physically or economically inaccessible or because people lack the knowledge or capacity to navigate the system

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Third elite capture and the inaccessibility of the legal system may mean that policies relating to crime and personal security are inequitable and perpetuate crime related inequality traps

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Building equitable justice systems Political and economic elite interests often coincide at the expense of disempowered majority

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When power is in the hands of narrow elite the rights of most citizens are unstable

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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.48248205442405
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A century of banking in Mexico outlined in chapter illustrates how deals between the political and economic elite led to the establishment of banking monopolies and laws that maintained system of rent sharing between banks and governments

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Another striking example of elite capture comes from the transition economies and the rise of oligarchs who manipulated politicians and shaped institutions to get rich

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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.307925423508849
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Legal systems that cater to narrow interests also tend to discriminate against other groups through inequitable laws and practices

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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.303178029729481
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Ensuring equality before the law and securing both personal and property rights for broad section of the community give individuals the incentive and the opportunity to take part in economic and political life

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.359343000141613
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.400483735778844
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.351685019028508
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This requires an independent and accountable judiciary and laws and practices that protect citizen rights in nondiscriminatory way

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Society rules and the institutions that establish maintain and transform them govern market and nonmarket interactions

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.320761504234839
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They determine people endowments their rights and obligations and their ability to generate fair returns

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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.384852066109259
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Label: 15, with a score of: 0.382412463738917
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.380282235541252
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Reflecting and producing the distribution of power among groups good institutions so necessary for prosperity emerge only when the distribution of political power and enforceable rights is equitable

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.545144458475636
WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.345292336782531
WordScorePoS
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Legal institutions play key role in the distribution of power and rights

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WordScorePoS
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They also underpin the forms and functions of other institutions that deliver public services and regulate market practices

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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.300559053624764
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Justice systems can provide vehicle to mediate conflict resolve disputes and sustain social order

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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.500245361612112
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.488702643665741
WordScorePoS
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But inequitable justice systems may perpetuate inequality traps by maintaining or reproducing elite interests and discriminatory practices

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Equitable justice systems are thus crucial to sustained equitable development

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Building more equitable justice systems runs into three main challenges often interrelated and reinforcing

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First legal institutions may be open to capture by elite interests or may discriminate against certain groups

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WordScorePoS
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Second these institutions are often Combating elite capture and discrimination Enhancing judicial independence and accountability

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.346916952959002
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.325115378499998
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Label: 15, with a score of: 0.308866153974744
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In many countries rule of Justice land and infrastructure law system administered by multiple arms of government constrains political power

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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.332636370451716
WordScorePoS
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In this system an independent judiciary acts as safeguard against abuses of state and nonstate power

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Label: 11, with a score of: 0.411598466733217
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Because judges are also open to elite capture and corruption accountability mechanisms are key aspect of legitimate judicial independence

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In many developing countries shifts toward an accountable and independent judiciary require change in culture and institutional practice

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.404184252817957
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Ethiopia established an independent judiciary for the first time in

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.437270515049238
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In Vietnam telephone justice was common with party elites habitually contacting judges to direct decisions

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WordScorePoS
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Changing ingrained institutional practices in both countries has been slow process

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Poor conditions of judicial service in many countries can increase corruption

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.726842377690459
WordScorePoS
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.334653808040968
WordScorePoS
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increase0.00711043475673939NN
corruption0NN

For example low remuneration for magistrates in Kenya made them open to alternative funding for their services Kenya removed almost one third of judicial staff for corruption in

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.932629477942476
WordScorePoS
alternative0NN
service0NN
remove0VB
corruption0.322472475577062NN

Promoting judicial independence without establishing accountability mechanisms can further entrench elite interests

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.969324806107931
WordScorePoS
promote0.0100599344419752VB
establish0.048933054487825VB
accountability0.048933054487825NN
mechanism0.147846224719512NN

Institutional safeguards transparency and the existence of civic constituency are key to both accountability mechanisms and judicial independence

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.73778531029661
WordScorePoS
institutional0.036961556179878JJ
safeguard0VB
transparency0NN
key0NN
accountability0.048933054487825NN
mechanism0.147846224719512NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.565175405816708
WordScorePoS
institutional0.0828215106044499JJ
safeguard0VB
transparency0.0548233071065585NN
key0NN
accountability0NN
mechanism0.0414107553022249NN

Institutional safeguards include providing for security of tenure and improving conditions of service for judges rigorous and transparent appointment and disciplinary processes transparent mechanisms of case allocation and case management transparent and open hearings appeal rights and the publication of judicial decisions and public information about the courts

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.4727372932691
WordScorePoS
institutional0.036961556179878JJ
safeguard0VB
include0VB
provide0.00601568197638796VB
security0NN
improve0.0183291958415182VB
condition0NN
service0NN
transparent0.036961556179878JJ
process0NN
mechanism0.147846224719512NN
management0NN
rights0NNS
decision0.0211360962287062NN
public0.0390556786919513NN
information0.0219686053934784NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.353577723715943
WordScorePoS
institutional0JJ
safeguard0VB
include0VB
provide0.0112083245137075VB
security0NN
improve0VB
condition0NN
service0.022416649027415NN
transparent0JJ
process0.0558185411034276NN
mechanism0NN
management0NN
rights0.078760887431929NNS
decision0.0393804437159645NN
public0.0727679293221751NN
information0.02046578088155NN

Many countries have enshrined judicial independence in the constitution or state laws

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.902019034996082
WordScorePoS
country0NN
law0.164686343640793NN

Bolivia has established open competitions for judgeships and ethical standards for judges

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Courts in the Philippines have performance management system for judicial and nonjudicial personnel

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.542100536100582
WordScorePoS
performance0NN
management0.0687164195125178NN
system0.0315914058171786NN

Public information campaigns can enhance the independence and accountability of the courts increasing public confidence in and commitment to the system and enhancing people capacity to demand better governance and hold those in positions of power accountable

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.443857419355072
WordScorePoS
public0.0727679293221751NN
information0.02046578088155NN
enhance0.0140083044329373VB
accountability0NN
increase0.00402768349408688NN
commitment0NN
system0NN
people0NNS
capacity0NN
demand0NN
governance0NN
hold0.18234260265061NN
power0NN
accountable0JJ

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.429072199969951
WordScorePoS
public0.0285977592242194NN
information0.0241291244414115NN
enhance0VB
accountability0NN
increase0NN
commitment0NN
system0NN
people0NNS
capacity0.016515769558553NN
demand0NN
governance0.107490825192354NN
hold0NN
power0NN
accountable0.162386273072618JJ

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.531019656576193
WordScorePoS
public0.0390556786919513NN
information0.0219686053934784NN
enhance0.0601477977507998VB
accountability0.048933054487825NN
increase0.00432344066632653NN
commitment0.0739231123597559NN
system0.0211360962287062NN
people0.00432344066632653NNS
capacity0.0451108483130998NN
demand0NN
governance0NN
hold0NN
power0.036961556179878NN
accountable0JJ

In Colombia public information centers in major courts disseminate information and help people use the court

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.576614423147705
WordScorePoS
public0.0160169090870187NN
information0.0675706773907211NN
major0.0160169090870187JJ
people0.0186171553883251NNS

In Venezuela information is provided to the public through an Internet based judicial portal for the Supreme Tribunal

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.673742421201187
WordScorePoS
information0.0219686053934784NN
public0.0390556786919513NN
internet0.0739231123597559NN
base0.017987180284335NN
supreme0.048933054487825NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.430749929805857
WordScorePoS
information0.0675706773907211NN
public0.0160169090870187NN
internet0.0454743001434393NN
base0NN
supreme0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.311171757806955
WordScorePoS
information0.02046578088155NN
public0.0727679293221751NN
internet0NN
base0NN
supreme0NN

Strengthening the relationship among civil society the media and the courts has also improved public awareness and scrutiny of the judicial system

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.519700729281096
WordScorePoS
strengthen0.0120313639527759VB
civil0.0978661089756501JJ
society0.0359743605686701NN
media0NNS
improve0.0183291958415182VB
public0.0390556786919513NN
awareness0NN
system0.0211360962287062NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.432584620198955
WordScorePoS
strengthen0.0396437925143789VB
civil0JJ
society0.118536858482514NN
media0NNS
improve0VB
public0.0285977592242194NN
awareness0NN
system0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.41321886314575
WordScorePoS
strengthen0.0133391461156567VB
civil0JJ
society0NN
media0.0542519672965169NNS
improve0VB
public0.028867295332595NN
awareness0.0819583881728876NN
system0NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.31346440144891
WordScorePoS
strengthen0.0179828714372571VB
civil0JJ
society0NN
media0NNS
improve0.0273960270556257VB
public0.0583751976558017NN
awareness0NN
system0.0315914058171786NN

Bad judges have resigned because of high pressure media campaigns such as the recent media scrutiny in the Philippines

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

The media can also disseminate information such as the My Rights television show in Armenia box

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.558923746321467
WordScorePoS
media0NNS
information0.02046578088155NN
rights0.078760887431929NNS

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.511383575887104
WordScorePoS
media0.0542519672965169NNS
information0.0365348149782971NN
rights0NNS

Similar shows have been developed in other parts of Eastern Europe

Label: 3, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
develop0VB
eastern0.0407408489778079JJ

In Georgia an NGO disseminating information about the courts increased public satisfaction with the courts

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.491850784391256
WordScorePoS
information0.0675706773907211NN
increase0.0159575617614215NN
public0.0160169090870187NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.480566794338611
WordScorePoS
information0.02046578088155NN
increase0.00402768349408688NN
public0.0727679293221751NN

The existence of an independent and accountable judiciary is not enough to protect citizens against abuses of state power

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.95039167390665
WordScorePoS
accountable0.162386273072618JJ
judiciary0.107490825192354NN
protect0.0241291244414115VB
abuse0.0811931365363091NN
power0NN

Adequate laws and institutional mechanisms are also needed

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.610850339157597
WordScorePoS
adequate0JJ
law0NN
institutional0.036961556179878JJ
mechanism0.147846224719512NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.544342388496993
WordScorePoS
adequate0JJ
law0.164686343640793NN
institutional0JJ
mechanism0NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.41062839126196
WordScorePoS
adequate0JJ
law0NN
institutional0.0828215106044499JJ
mechanism0.0414107553022249NN

In Thailand for example separate administrative courts were established for the first time in to protect citizens against arbitrary uses of state power

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

The courts aim to ensure that state authorities act in accordance with state laws and regulations

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.638956853335893
WordScorePoS
aim0NN
ensure0.0220985725470694VB
accordance0.0241291244414115NN
law0.164686343640793NN
regulation0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.511053088406642
WordScorePoS
aim0NN
ensure0.00886732612541978VB
accordance0.029046330719385NN
law0.0330412182586772NN
regulation0.0977392570420122NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.302911190969268
WordScorePoS
aim0NN
ensure0.0124956749436837VB
accordance0.0409315617631NN
law0.0465610847355851NN
regulation0NN

They also aim to enhance citizen participation in public policy formulation and oversight

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.67723657364745
WordScorePoS
aim0.0249900578719309NN
enhance0.0601477977507998VB
participation0NN
public0.0390556786919513NN
policy0.0641521854453136NN
oversight0.0978661089756501NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.39631133529315
WordScorePoS
aim0NN
enhance0.0140083044329373VB
participation0.0465610847355851NN
public0.0727679293221751NN
policy0.0341506708422088NN
oversight0NN

In the first three years the courts processed almost BOX

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.754215458490058
WordScorePoS
process0.0737171311497939NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.571091222812535
WordScorePoS
process0.0558185411034276NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.324058416649089
WordScorePoS
process0.0316735178673487NN

Increasing legal literacy and public awareness My Rights on Armenian public television Many people in Armenia have no understanding of the legal system or the rights afforded them under the law

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.511091773139332
WordScorePoS
increase0NN
legal0.0811931365363091JJ
literacy0NN
public0.0285977592242194NN
awareness0NN
rights0NNS
people0NNS
system0NN
law0.164686343640793NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.447607885073206
WordScorePoS
increase0.0144029596227568NN
legal0JJ
literacy0.244520809605025NN
public0NN
awareness0NN
rights0.0352060273355634NNS
people0.00720147981137839NNS
system0NN
law0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.470363660136507
WordScorePoS
increase0.00402768349408688NN
legal0JJ
literacy0NN
public0.0727679293221751NN
awareness0NN
rights0.078760887431929NNS
people0NNS
system0NN
law0.0465610847355851NN

And distrust of the courts is widespread

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

In recent public awareness campaign the government funded television show to provide citizens with examples advice and information on their legal rights

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.467146233750514
WordScorePoS
public0.0727679293221751NN
awareness0NN
government0NN
fund0NN
provide0.0112083245137075VB
information0.02046578088155NN
legal0JJ
rights0.078760887431929NNS

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.426772121083407
WordScorePoS
public0.028867295332595NN
awareness0.0819583881728876NN
government0NN
fund0NN
provide0.0200087191734851VB
information0.0365348149782971NN
legal0JJ
rights0NNS

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.375176234689013
WordScorePoS
public0.0285977592242194NN
awareness0NN
government0NN
fund0NN
provide0.013214597504793VB
information0.0241291244414115NN
legal0.0811931365363091JJ
rights0NNS

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.358500172914728
WordScorePoS
public0.0583751976558017NN
awareness0NN
government0NN
fund0.055245183797332NN
provide0.0269743071558856VB
information0NN
legal0JJ
rights0NNS

My Rights uses mock trials to depict real life disputes in Armenian courts

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.637303986767185
WordScorePoS
rights0.078760887431929NNS
life0.0140083044329373NN

The television judge is deputy minister of justice and the parties are often those in the real dispute

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.968988570325989
WordScorePoS
justice0.214981650384708NN
party0NN

The topics such as rental and property disputes customs issues and family law matters are timely and of broad interest

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.549031262352156
WordScorePoS
property0NN
issue0NN
family0NN
law0.164686343640793NN
timely0JJ

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.496538477536175
WordScorePoS
property0.0558185411034276NN
issue0NN
family0.0465610847355851NN
law0.0465610847355851NN
timely0JJ

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.374402758890411
WordScorePoS
property0.0249430985430622NN
issue0.0249430985430622NN
family0.0624189222007589NN
law0NN
timely0JJ

A live studio audience of judges lawyers legal officials and others discusses the trials on air

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

The show airs once week on Armenia state television channel

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.738066805379848
WordScorePoS
air0.0554128417527413NN

After only five or six shows My Rights became the number one show in Armenia

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.729414410756969
WordScorePoS
rights0.078760887431929NNS

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.4810940669734
WordScorePoS
rights0.0519476926891779NNS

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.326047414159193
WordScorePoS
rights0.0352060273355634NNS

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.321925344054918
WordScorePoS
rights0.0347609334428716NNS

There have been numerous reports of viewers requesting legal documents and decisions from notaries judges and other legal officials based on what they learned from the show

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.586429462086483
WordScorePoS
report0NN
legal0JJ
document0NN
decision0NN
official0NN
base0NN
learn0.244520809605025VB

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.31309968972649
WordScorePoS
report0NN
legal0JJ
document0.0911713013253052NN
decision0.0393804437159645NN
official0NN
base0NN
learn0VB

And when the power went out in one village few minutes before My Rights was going on the air the people in the town marched on the mayor office and accused the local officials of intentionally cutting the power so that people could not watch the show

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.600883291432518
WordScorePoS
power0NN
minute0NN
rights0.0519476926891779NNS
air0NN
people0.0371911007748996NNS
local0JJ
official0NN
cut0.120266261535276NN

Source Decker and others

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.73415387760794
WordScorePoS
source0.0613562156822703NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.32879500351909
WordScorePoS
source0.0274787313211514NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.323029740864511
WordScorePoS
source0.0269969049497485NN

WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT cases most concerning corruption or other unlawful acts by public officials

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.832775966372341
WordScorePoS
world0NN
development0.0368309542451156NN
report0NN
corruption0.322472475577062NN
public0.0285977592242194NN
official0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.352331203095755
WordScorePoS
world0.00418824502414673NN
development0.0469463607292177NN
report0NN
corruption0NN
public0.0390556786919513NN
official0.0739231123597559NN

Many of the cases made front page news in Thailand because of their social impact

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.517635489020985
WordScorePoS
social0.112994637345193JJ
impact0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.474563564611751
WordScorePoS
social0.0169905820958638JJ
impact0.0866018859977851NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.464109115291202
WordScorePoS
social0.101310366625194JJ
impact0NN

Combating discriminatory norms and practices

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.495557131921508
WordScorePoS
combate0NN
discriminatory0JJ
practice0.0703006268489394NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.476211427332716
WordScorePoS
combate0NN
discriminatory0.0396106020715138JJ
practice0.02794560829783NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.463902013877605
WordScorePoS
combate0NN
discriminatory0.0658099748168827JJ
practice0NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.364678791717744
WordScorePoS
combate0.0517339898971162NN
discriminatory0JJ
practice0NN

Laws that reinforce exclusionary practices in norm based institutions perpetuate unequal power relations

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.848689024226787
WordScorePoS
law0.164686343640793NN
reinforce0.0811931365363091VB
practice0NN
base0NN
institution0.274477239401321NN
power0NN
relation0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.366657172659523
WordScorePoS
law0.0330412182586772NN
reinforce0VB
practice0.02794560829783NN
base0NN
institution0.0991236547760315NN
power0NN
relation0.064698038783335NN

Some laws may discriminate against particular groups such as laws affecting indigenous people or the laws in apartheid South Africa

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.863184337574507
WordScorePoS
law0.164686343640793NN
affect0.033031539117106VB
indigenous0JJ
people0NNS
south0RB
africa0IN

The absence of laws can also reinforce unequal power relations as for domestic violence often relegated to the nonlegal private realm

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.732794673585405
WordScorePoS
law0.164686343640793NN
reinforce0.0811931365363091VB
power0NN
relation0NN
domestic0JJ
violence0.164686343640793NN
private0JJ

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.419227426378573
WordScorePoS
law0.0465610847355851NN
reinforce0VB
power0NN
relation0NN
domestic0.0393804437159645JJ
violence0.0931221694711702NN
private0.0558185411034276JJ

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.405529125523442
WordScorePoS
law0NN
reinforce0.036961556179878VB
power0.036961556179878NN
relation0NN
domestic0.0634082886861185JJ
violence0NN
private0.0898760357768464JJ

In many countries antidiscrimination and equal opportunity laws have reduced discriminatory practices

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.630061051729011
WordScorePoS
country0NN
equal0.033663879505068JJ
opportunity0NN
law0.164686343640793NN
reduce0.0220985725470694VB
discriminatory0.0658099748168827JJ
practice0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.485586859544695
WordScorePoS
country0NN
equal0.114211783066808JJ
opportunity0.02046578088155NN
law0.0465610847355851NN
reduce0VB
discriminatory0JJ
practice0.0393804437159645NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.398255659650181
WordScorePoS
country0NN
equal0.0202620733250388JJ
opportunity0.029046330719385NN
law0.0330412182586772NN
reduce0.0310356414389692VB
discriminatory0.0396106020715138JJ
practice0.02794560829783NN

Historical disadvan BOX

Label: 15, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
historical0.0517339898971162JJ

Affirmative action in India and the United States The affirmative action program in India is based primarily on caste and gender and that in the United States primarily on race

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.595327417249826
WordScorePoS
action0.0409315617631NN
unite0VB
base0NN
primarily0RB
gender0.196902218579822NN
race0NN

Before independence in India the British government introduced affirmative action to address discrimination against untouchable castes now known as Dalits and tribals now known as Adivasis

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.710435252498507
WordScorePoS
government0NN
introduce0VB
action0.0409315617631NN
discrimination0.111637082206855NN

After independence in the policy of reserving

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.582652527000692
WordScorePoS
policy0.0848203862485078NN
reserve0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.44067746700442
WordScorePoS
policy0.0641521854453136NN
reserve0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.400763587208923
WordScorePoS
policy0NN
reserve0.0583416713841148NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.310606622931947
WordScorePoS
policy0.0452169560888236NN
reserve0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.30945270638009
WordScorePoS
policy0.0450489732120807NN
reserve0NN

percent of seats in education institutions government jobs and electoral seats was written into the constitution

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.54845798226165
WordScorePoS
seat0NN
education0.0201317944152378NN
institution0.274477239401321NN
government0NN
job0NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.483116514500511
WordScorePoS
seat0NN
education0.244244978014045NN
institution0NN
government0NN
job0.0152653111258778NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.357105640268948
WordScorePoS
seat0NN
education0.0150723186962745NN
institution0.0410992516792148NN
government0NN
job0.135650868266471NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.466610511548964
WordScorePoS
seat0.0911713013253052NN
education0.0512260062633133NN
institution0NN
government0NN
job0.0170753354211044NN

Since further percent quota has been introduced for other low castes called Other Backward Castes but with no constitutional guarantee

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.734259868751475
WordScorePoS
quota0NN
introduce0VB
guarantee0.0804764811724088NN

And since percent of the seats in local governments have been reserved for women Dalits and Adivasis Deshpande

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.851054946479767
WordScorePoS
seat0.0911713013253052NN
local0JJ
government0NN
reserve0NN
woman0.221979360474357NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.349218499112991
WordScorePoS
seat0NN
local0.0155217067874935JJ
government0NN
reserve0.0583416713841148NN
woman0.0546336178945768NN

In the United States slavery was pervasive for more than two centuries and not until were blacks granted citizenship rights

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.841964866780283
WordScorePoS
unite0.0828215106044499VB
slavery0NN
century0.219293228426234NN
citizenship0NN
rights0NNS

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.325267861449281
WordScorePoS
unite0VB
slavery0NN
century0NN
citizenship0.0815069365350084NN
rights0.0352060273355634NNS

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.321155646877608
WordScorePoS
unite0VB
slavery0.0804764811724088NN
century0NN
citizenship0NN
rights0.0347609334428716NNS

The system that replaced slavery was only marginally better with several features similar to the Indian caste system segregation denial of education restrictions to lowpaid menial jobs social and economic discrimination negative stereotyping and violence

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.459207174471026
WordScorePoS
system0NN
slavery0.0804764811724088NN
feature0NN
education0.0150723186962745NN
restriction0NN
job0.135650868266471NN
social0.0504071033101074JJ
economic0.128463821595706JJ
discrimination0NN
violence0NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.337219296139974
WordScorePoS
system0NN
slavery0NN
feature0NN
education0.244244978014045NN
restriction0NN
job0.0152653111258778NN
social0JJ
economic0JJ
discrimination0NN
violence0.0416255041156371NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.206963914038154
WordScorePoS
system0NN
slavery0NN
feature0NN
education0.0201317944152378NN
restriction0NN
job0NN
social0JJ
economic0JJ
discrimination0NN
violence0.164686343640793NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.483272112974405
WordScorePoS
system0.0519476926891779NN
slavery0NN
feature0NN
education0.0225244866060403NN
restriction0NN
job0.0225244866060403NN
social0.112994637345193JJ
economic0.0959899298575892JJ
discrimination0.0736315832425121NN
violence0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.419241611613611
WordScorePoS
system0NN
slavery0NN
feature0NN
education0.0512260062633133NN
restriction0NN
job0.0170753354211044NN
social0.0285529457667019JJ
economic0.0727679293221751JJ
discrimination0.111637082206855NN
violence0.0931221694711702NN

The Civil Rights Act of and subsequent legislation Supreme Court rulings and executive orders in the introduced affirmative action into the political judicial administrative and economic spheres of American society

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.318458173044313
WordScorePoS
civil0JJ
rights0.0347609334428716NNS
legislation0NN
supreme0NN
introduce0VB
action0NN
political0JJ
economic0.128463821595706JJ
sphere0NN
society0.0591643007226199NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.662001196457863
WordScorePoS
civil0JJ
rights0.078760887431929NNS
legislation0.0558185411034276NN
supreme0NN
introduce0VB
action0.0409315617631NN
political0.111637082206855JJ
economic0.0727679293221751JJ
sphere0.0688661930304451NN
society0.0335134328085675NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.442890062968044
WordScorePoS
civil0JJ
rights0NNS
legislation0.0396106020715138NN
supreme0NN
introduce0VB
action0.0145231653596925NN
political0.0792212041430275JJ
economic0.103276847978089JJ
sphere0.0488696285210061NN
society0.0237821918091848NN

Starting with the label equal opportunity selection procedures incorporate compensatory correction to ensure adequate representation of minorities in education and employment Deshpande

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.583465733740014
WordScorePoS
label0NN
equal0.051052537468787JJ
opportunity0NN
ensure0.0390988676729552VB
adequate0JJ
representation0NN
education0.244244978014045NN
employment0.0352060273355634NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.434777307502354
WordScorePoS
label0NN
equal0.0504071033101074JJ
opportunity0.0361300980868102NN
ensure0VB
adequate0JJ
representation0NN
education0.0150723186962745NN
employment0.173804667214358NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.484080621239221
WordScorePoS
label0NN
equal0.114211783066808JJ
opportunity0.02046578088155NN
ensure0.0124956749436837VB
adequate0JJ
representation0.0688661930304451NN
education0.0512260062633133NN
employment0.0393804437159645NN

The programs in both countries have become centerpieces of political battles over race and caste

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.720626410386633
WordScorePoS
country0NN
political0.0792212041430275JJ
race0.0488696285210061NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.62805923065369
WordScorePoS
country0NN
political0.111637082206855JJ
race0NN

Critics argue that they tend to benefit the upper echelon of minority groups and they are difficult to end

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

In India the programs are said to apply to subcastes that have not traditionally faced discrimination Sowell

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.662770901593889
WordScorePoS
face0.120405991343299NN
discrimination0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.614502723660903
WordScorePoS
face0NN
discrimination0.111637082206855NN

They may also reinforce negative stereotypes by placing minorities in positions they are not qualified for Coate and Loury

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Despite these weaknesses India program has provided formal sector employment and higher education for many Dalit and Adivasi families freeing them from subservient roles

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.641709245399898
WordScorePoS
sector0NN
employment0.0352060273355634NN
education0.244244978014045NN
family0NN
free0.0499016491051341JJ

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.41711356613632
WordScorePoS
sector0.0252035516550537NN
employment0.173804667214358NN
education0.0150723186962745NN
family0NN
free0JJ

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.378521478642459
WordScorePoS
sector0.0571058915334038NN
employment0.0393804437159645NN
education0.0512260062633133NN
family0.0465610847355851NN
free0JJ

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.356809112773234
WordScorePoS
sector0.0565629593551219NN
employment0.104016094894625NN
education0.022550656390892NN
family0NN
free0JJ

With the reservations in local government elected women leaders make decisions in line with women needs Chattopadhyay and Duflo

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.819264659557487
WordScorePoS
local0JJ
government0NN
woman0.221979360474357NN
decision0.0393804437159645NN
line0NN

Low caste representatives in state assemblies increase the allocation of quota based jobs to low caste constituents Pande

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.555101780898497
WordScorePoS
representative0NN
increase0.00711043475673939NN
quota0NN
base0NN
job0.135650868266471NN

And Dalit representatives in village government improve the targeting of benefits to Dalits Besley and others

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.645544961281344
WordScorePoS
representative0NN
government0.048933054487825NN
improve0.0183291958415182VB
target0.0898760357768464NN
benefit0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.441586594243531
WordScorePoS
representative0.107490825192354NN
government0NN
improve0VB
target0NN
benefit0NN

In the United States disparities between blacks and whites continue to be significant on all economic indicators and there is evidence of discriminatory gaps in earnings

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.743282581089487
WordScorePoS
unite0VB
disparity0.0488696285210061NN
continue0.0237821918091848VB
significant0.0405241466500776JJ
economic0.103276847978089JJ
evidence0.12939607756667NN
discriminatory0.0396106020715138JJ
gap0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.304760473185298
WordScorePoS
unite0VB
disparity0NN
continue0.0295821503613099VB
significant0JJ
economic0.128463821595706JJ
evidence0NN
discriminatory0JJ
gap0NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.303640695310491
WordScorePoS
unite0.0828215106044499VB
disparity0NN
continue0.0403047273067529VB
significant0.0343390275626203JJ
economic0JJ
evidence0NN
discriminatory0JJ
gap0NN

But affirmative action in jobs has increased black employment and enrollment in higher education Holzer and Neumark Bowen and Bok

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.596113021728704
WordScorePoS
action0NN
job0.135650868266471NN
increase0.00711043475673939NN
employment0.173804667214358NN
education0.0150723186962745NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.555635558071138
WordScorePoS
action0NN
job0.0152653111258778NN
increase0.0144029596227568NN
employment0.0352060273355634NN
education0.244244978014045NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.442613279728956
WordScorePoS
action0.0135141354781442NN
job0.0902026255635679NN
increase0.0159575617614215NN
employment0.104016094894625NN
education0.022550656390892NN

program quasi voluntary element means that litigation can dilute the program and black representation in government bodies continues to be very low

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

tage may mean however that legal equality is not enough

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.7964046200492
WordScorePoS
legal0JJ
equality0.18624433894234NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.355991961718993
WordScorePoS
legal0JJ
equality0.0832510082312742NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.347192239082343
WordScorePoS
legal0.0811931365363091JJ
equality0NN

Some countries have passed laws that discriminate in favor of certain groups creating affirmative action programs on the basis of race ethnicity and gender or for people with disabilities

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.526952324339583
WordScorePoS
country0NN
law0.0465610847355851NN
create0VB
action0.0409315617631NN
basis0NN
race0NN
ethnicity0NN
gender0.196902218579822NN
people0NNS
disability0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.305145634554783
WordScorePoS
country0NN
law0.164686343640793NN
create0VB
action0NN
basis0NN
race0NN
ethnicity0NN
gender0NN
people0NNS
disability0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.383383637982918
WordScorePoS
country0NN
law0.0330412182586772NN
create0VB
action0.0145231653596925NN
basis0NN
race0.0488696285210061NN
ethnicity0.0488696285210061NN
gender0NN
people0.00571634317201755NNS
disability0.0558912165956601NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.339507980127654
WordScorePoS
country0NN
law0NN
create0VB
action0NN
basis0NN
race0NN
ethnicity0NN
gender0.10561808200669NN
people0.00720147981137839NNS
disability0.0704120546711269NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.334328201282615
WordScorePoS
country0NN
law0NN
create0VB
action0.0109843026967392NN
basis0.048933054487825NN
race0.036961556179878NN
ethnicity0.036961556179878NN
gender0.0211360962287062NN
people0.00432344066632653NNS
disability0.0211360962287062NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.311439988904711
WordScorePoS
country0NN
law0NN
create0.0519476926891779VB
action0.0269969049497485NN
basis0NN
race0NN
ethnicity0NN
gender0.0519476926891779NN
people0.0371911007748996NNS
disability0NN

An assessment of two of the most widely implemented affirmative action programs in India and the United States suggests mixed impacts box

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.611706821713981
WordScorePoS
widely0RB
implement0.0102677744436108VB
action0.0369195714265843NN
unite0.0828215106044499VB
suggest0VB
impact0.0437569550806737NN

The mere existence of equitable laws for affirmative action does not guarantee their equitable implementation or enforcement

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.55060088337919
WordScorePoS
equitable0JJ
law0.164686343640793NN
action0NN
guarantee0NN
implementation0NN

For example in Peru and Honduras gender discrimination in judicial decisions and treatment by police and judges discourage women from using the system to resolve disputes

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.79742005378161
WordScorePoS
gender0.196902218579822NN
discrimination0.111637082206855NN
decision0.0393804437159645NN
treatment0NN
police0NNS
woman0.221979360474357NN
system0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.384121767332469
WordScorePoS
gender0.0519476926891779NN
discrimination0.0736315832425121NN
decision0.0519476926891779NN
treatment0NN
police0NNS
woman0.0450489732120807NN
system0.0519476926891779NN

Such disadvantaged groups are more likely to experience the law and order side of the law than the protection of their rights as discussed below under crime and personal security

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.811117950346542
WordScorePoS
disadvantaged0JJ
experience0NN
law0.164686343640793NN
protection0NN
rights0NNS
crime0.214981650384708NN
personal0JJ
security0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.325493804625102
WordScorePoS
disadvantaged0JJ
experience0NN
law0.0465610847355851NN
protection0.0465610847355851NN
rights0.078760887431929NNS
crime0NN
personal0JJ
security0NN

Making justice accessible People legal rights remain theoretical if the institutions charged with enforcing them are inaccessible

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.915300851272617
WordScorePoS
justice0.214981650384708NN
accessible0JJ
people0NNS
legal0.0811931365363091JJ
rights0NNS
remain0VB
institution0.274477239401321NN
enforce0.107490825192354VB

Accessibility depends on how compatible laws are with the norms and understandings that shape people lives

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.617405685024806
WordScorePoS
depend0VB
law0.164686343640793NN
people0NNS
life0NN

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.504991136658196
WordScorePoS
depend0.0651400632663124VB
law0.0543366405761884NN
people0.00705044110169491NNS
life0.0081738237776987NN

Legal institutions need to be physically and economically accessible and people need to have the knowledge and capacity to claim their rights

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.753362786931801
WordScorePoS
legal0.0811931365363091JJ
institution0.274477239401321NN
economically0RB
accessible0JJ
people0NNS
knowledge0NN
capacity0.016515769558553NN
rights0NNS

Addressing the compatibility of state and customary justice systems

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.871939946126091
WordScorePoS
address0NN
justice0.214981650384708NN
system0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.306625136665108
WordScorePoS
address0NN
justice0NN
system0.0756001353333673NN

Forms of customary or nonstate law operate in majority of countries

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.7549646328522
WordScorePoS
form0.158049144643351NN
law0.164686343640793NN
operate0VB
majority0NN
country0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.379074406479697
WordScorePoS
form0.0884167543187491NN
law0NN
operate0VB
majority0.0736315832425121NN
country0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.344109482105159
WordScorePoS
form0.100540298425703NN
law0.0465610847355851NN
operate0VB
majority0NN
country0NN

Yet they are often neglected in justice sector reform policies

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.668735156877384
WordScorePoS
neglect0NN
justice0.214981650384708NN
sector0NN
reform0NN
policy0.0201317944152378NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.518881113560493
WordScorePoS
neglect0NN
justice0NN
sector0.0571058915334038NN
reform0.0911713013253052NN
policy0.0341506708422088NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.313234060667012
WordScorePoS
neglect0NN
justice0NN
sector0.0459744293658165NN
reform0NN
policy0.0641521854453136NN

Engaging with customary systems is an important part of equitable reform strategies for two main reasons

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.436520947140139
WordScorePoS
engage0VB
system0.0756001353333673NN
equitable0.0214456704626236JJ
reform0NN
strategy0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.432518833135368
WordScorePoS
engage0VB
system0.0519476926891779NN
equitable0JJ
reform0NN
strategy0.0442083771593746NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.410096886517535
WordScorePoS
engage0VB
system0NN
equitable0JJ
reform0.0911713013253052NN
strategy0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.368656357045634
WordScorePoS
engage0.0819583881728876VB
system0NN
equitable0JJ
reform0NN
strategy0NN

First customary law is often fundamental part of community identity and belief system thus lack of recognition can be intrinsically discriminatory and serve to exclude communities from the wider state system

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.705841366118344
WordScorePoS
law0.164686343640793NN
fundamental0.0658099748168827JJ
community0NN
identity0.107490825192354NN
system0NN
lack0NN
discriminatory0.0658099748168827JJ
serve0VB

Second failure to engage with customary systems may leave inequitable and inefficient practices at the local level unchecked

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.654179336711102
WordScorePoS
engage0.0819583881728876VB
system0NN
leave0NN
inefficient0.0542519672965169JJ
practice0.0703006268489394NN
local0.0144336476662975JJ
level0.00513687014008325NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.487731056028185
WordScorePoS
engage0VB
system0NN
leave0.107490825192354NN
inefficient0JJ
practice0NN
local0JJ
level0.0610668815653026NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.352568125419337
WordScorePoS
engage0VB
system0.0756001353333673NN
leave0NN
inefficient0JJ
practice0.0252000451111224NN
local0.0155217067874935JJ
level0.00552410547653725NN

Where state and nonstate systems have developed in tandem they often complement each other and reinforce socially accepted codes and rules

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.697026326829295
WordScorePoS
system0NN
develop0VB
complement0NN
reinforce0.0811931365363091VB
socially0RB
rule0.162386273072618NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.657843794963245
WordScorePoS
system0.0211360962287062NN
develop0VB
complement0.0978661089756501NN
reinforce0.036961556179878VB
socially0RB
rule0.0739231123597559NN

But in communi Justice land and infrastructure ties where the state systems lack legitimacy and political reach customary systems often act independently from the state legal system which may be rejected ignored or not understood

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.513527505406491
WordScorePoS
justice0.214981650384708NN
land0NN
infrastructure0NN
system0NN
lack0NN
political0JJ
reach0.0658099748168827NN
legal0.0811931365363091JJ

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.405199385625346
WordScorePoS
justice0NN
land0NN
infrastructure0.192202909044225NN
system0NN
lack0.0565629593551219NN
political0.0368585655748969JJ
reach0NN
legal0JJ

Real difficulties arise when local customary systems are at odds with the rights and responsibilities articulated in state law

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.461358624433966
WordScorePoS
difficulty0NN
arise0VB
local0JJ
system0NN
rights0NNS
responsibility0NN
law0.164686343640793NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.606492539999006
WordScorePoS
difficulty0NN
arise0VB
local0JJ
system0NN
rights0.078760887431929NNS
responsibility0.0911713013253052NN
law0.0465610847355851NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.378726976546166
WordScorePoS
difficulty0NN
arise0.0440683498519077VB
local0.0155217067874935JJ
system0.0756001353333673NN
rights0NNS
responsibility0NN
law0NN

In many developing countries customary systems are the dominant form of regulation and dispute resolution

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.492341071403784
WordScorePoS
develop0VB
country0NN
system0NN
dominant0JJ
form0.158049144643351NN
regulation0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.437251225767957
WordScorePoS
develop0VB
country0NN
system0.0519476926891779NN
dominant0JJ
form0.0884167543187491NN
regulation0NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.381329521084401
WordScorePoS
develop0VB
country0NN
system0NN
dominant0.122412709674631JJ
form0NN
regulation0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.36911443276094
WordScorePoS
develop0VB
country0NN
system0.0756001353333673NN
dominant0JJ
form0.0428913409252473NN
regulation0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.31319447098475
WordScorePoS
develop0VB
country0NN
system0NN
dominant0JJ
form0.100540298425703NN
regulation0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.304468908318755
WordScorePoS
develop0VB
country0NN
system0NN
dominant0JJ
form0NN
regulation0.0977392570420122NN

In Sierra Leone about percent of the population fell under customary law as of

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.60539392869007
WordScorePoS
population0NN
fall0NN
law0.164686343640793NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.452499873100432
WordScorePoS
population0NN
fall0.123094312756122NN
law0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.437835940854247
WordScorePoS
population0.0860640399817412NN
fall0NN
law0.0330412182586772NN

Customary tenure discussed below affects percent of land transactions in Mozambique and Ghana

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.777792577332939
WordScorePoS
affect0.0397441667210336VB
land0.123873694868802NN
transaction0NN

Customary justice depends on local traditions as well as the political history of country or region

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.539118978598884
WordScorePoS
justice0.214981650384708NN
depend0VB
local0JJ
political0JJ
history0NN
country0NN
region0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.462075805980532
WordScorePoS
justice0NN
depend0VB
local0JJ
political0JJ
history0NN
country0NN
region0.184259548107002NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.396720529522416
WordScorePoS
justice0NN
depend0VB
local0JJ
political0.111637082206855JJ
history0NN
country0NN
region0.0465610847355851NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.313061375442023
WordScorePoS
justice0NN
depend0VB
local0JJ
political0JJ
history0NN
country0NN
region0.124837844401518NN

Ethiopia officially recognizes more than distinct nations or peoples and more than languages

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.548443060340277
WordScorePoS
recognize0VB
nation0.0671298309154199NN
people0.0121096729954788NNS

Customary systems can be incompatible with economic social and civil rights

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.418662776327205
WordScorePoS
system0NN
economic0.128463821595706JJ
social0.0504071033101074JJ
civil0JJ
rights0.0347609334428716NNS

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.613163179954847
WordScorePoS
system0.0519476926891779NN
economic0.0959899298575892JJ
social0.112994637345193JJ
civil0JJ
rights0.0519476926891779NNS

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.400937631348314
WordScorePoS
system0NN
economic0.103276847978089JJ
social0.101310366625194JJ
civil0JJ
rights0NNS

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.352913330650344
WordScorePoS
system0NN
economic0.0727679293221751JJ
social0.0285529457667019JJ
civil0JJ
rights0.078760887431929NNS

Many forms of customary law are seen to discriminate against marginal groups

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.84606902850148
WordScorePoS
form0.158049144643351NN
law0.164686343640793NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.385634455647217
WordScorePoS
form0.100540298425703NN
law0.0465610847355851NN

In much of Sub Saharan Africa for example customary systems systematically deny women rights to land assets or opportunities

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.648260672260564
WordScorePoS
saharan0.0335134328085675JJ
africa0IN
system0NN
woman0.221979360474357NN
rights0.078760887431929NNS
land0.024255976440725NN
asset0NN
opportunity0.02046578088155NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.385131787349277
WordScorePoS
saharan0.0442083771593746JJ
africa0IN
system0.0519476926891779NN
woman0.0450489732120807NN
rights0.0519476926891779NNS
land0.0319966432858631NN
asset0NN
opportunity0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.383913508962489
WordScorePoS
saharan0.0214456704626236JJ
africa0IN
system0.0756001353333673NN
woman0.0546336178945768NN
rights0NNS
land0.0465651203624806NN
asset0NN
opportunity0.0261926252110933NN

Customary practices are also seen as archaic and rigid not amenable to modernization efficient market relations or broader development goals

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.679098307294499
WordScorePoS
practice0.0703006268489394NN
efficient0.108503934593034JJ
market0.0169905820958638NN
relation0NN
development0.022306853314744NN
goal0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.412715139122587
WordScorePoS
practice0.0252000451111224NN
efficient0JJ
market0.0913569596328122NN
relation0NN
development0.0159922815774215NN
goal0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.40677140611274
WordScorePoS
practice0.02794560829783NN
efficient0JJ
market0.0202620733250388NN
relation0.064698038783335NN
development0.0177346522508396NN
goal0NN

They are often seen as overly localized and complex making more generalized reform initiatives difficult

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.684864485959062
WordScorePoS
reform0NN
initiative0.0924643738905717NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.675286965012811
WordScorePoS
reform0.0911713013253052NN
initiative0NN

They can lack legitimacy at the local level

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.48529960267145
WordScorePoS
lack0.0753297582301286NN
local0JJ
level0.0113874611101829NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.341751425904513
WordScorePoS
lack0NN
local0JJ
level0.0610668815653026NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.316545916829249
WordScorePoS
lack0.0565629593551219NN
local0JJ
level0NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.314029988866959
WordScorePoS
lack0NN
local0.0145856516935579JJ
level0.0415277415054218NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.303513024341969
WordScorePoS
lack0.0252035516550537NN
local0.0214106369326177JJ
level0.00761994916892276NN

For example many systems in Sub Saharan Africa have been substantially distorted by colonial rule which often used local chiefs to maintain control and established more authoritarian and ethnic based structures than previously existed

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.331165189755413
WordScorePoS
system0NN
saharan0JJ
africa0IN
substantially0RB
rule0.162386273072618NN
local0JJ
maintain0VB
control0NN
establish0VB
base0NN
structure0NN
exist0VB

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.578871060362045
WordScorePoS
system0.0211360962287062NN
saharan0JJ
africa0IN
substantially0RB
rule0.0739231123597559NN
local0.0130185595639838JJ
maintain0VB
control0NN
establish0.048933054487825VB
base0.017987180284335NN
structure0.048933054487825NN
exist0.0599173571845643VB

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.411512214270996
WordScorePoS
system0.0519476926891779NN
saharan0.0442083771593746JJ
africa0IN
substantially0RB
rule0NN
local0JJ
maintain0VB
control0.0614198493690006NN
establish0VB
base0.0442083771593746NN
structure0NN
exist0VB

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.409309526533139
WordScorePoS
system0.0756001353333673NN
saharan0.0214456704626236JJ
africa0IN
substantially0RB
rule0NN
local0.0155217067874935JJ
maintain0.0881366997038154VB
control0NN
establish0VB
base0NN
structure0NN
exist0VB

However it is wrong to presume that all customary law discriminates against marginalized groups or that western law does not

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.814801502832275
WordScorePoS
law0.164686343640793NN
marginalize0VB
western0JJ

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.400726491006271
WordScorePoS
law0.0465610847355851NN
marginalize0VB
western0.0688661930304451JJ

For example in the AmaHlubi community of KwaZulu Natal Province in South Africa women and men are considered equal with both entitled to own property

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.831495404360531
WordScorePoS
community0NN
south0RB
africa0IN
woman0.221979360474357NN
equal0.114211783066808JJ
property0.0558185411034276NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.331625764008299
WordScorePoS
community0NN
south0RB
africa0IN
woman0.0450489732120807NN
equal0.0376648791150643JJ
property0.0736315832425121NN

Furthermore there are often good reasons for people to choose to use customary systems

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.656110565947474
WordScorePoS
people0.0257736572183839NNS
system0.0756001353333673NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.576923312775681
WordScorePoS
people0.0371911007748996NNS
system0.0519476926891779NN

The state systems may lack legitimacy or be seen as mechanisms of control used by oppressive regimes

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.676590431864511
WordScorePoS
system0.0211360962287062NN
lack0NN
mechanism0.147846224719512NN
control0NN
regime0.048933054487825NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.585873243860223
WordScorePoS
system0.0519476926891779NN
lack0.0753297582301286NN
mechanism0NN
control0.0614198493690006NN
regime0NN

Or the state systems may lack capacity be inaccessible or dramatically increase transaction costs

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.464853139157867
WordScorePoS
system0NN
lack0NN
capacity0NN
increase0.00285817158600878NN
transaction0.064698038783335NN
cost0.0660824365173543NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.44272614234124
WordScorePoS
system0.0519476926891779NN
lack0.0753297582301286NN
capacity0NN
increase0NN
transaction0NN
cost0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.370158006909859
WordScorePoS
system0.0756001353333673NN
lack0NN
capacity0.0179281831452421NN
increase0.0128868286091919NN
transaction0NN
cost0NN

In rural Tanzania perception that state institutions can not supply law and order has led to the emergence of new forms of organized village defense groups called sungusungu

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.874958948830837
WordScorePoS
rural0JJ
institution0.274477239401321NN
supply0NN
law0.164686343640793NN
lead0NN
form0.158049144643351NN
organize0.107490825192354VB

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.238221157221776
WordScorePoS
rural0.148975141598503JJ
institution0NN
supply0NN
law0NN
lead0NN
form0.0428913409252473NN
organize0VB

While technically illegal the sungusungu are often informally supported by the state given their success in reducing crime

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.850777823007278
WordScorePoS
illegal0JJ
support0NN
reduce0.0220985725470694VB
crime0.214981650384708NN

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.301483380447093
WordScorePoS
illegal0.0803666323453555JJ
support0NN
reduce0.0036456034155327VB
crime0NN

Ignoring or trying to stamp out customary practices can also have serious negative implications

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.765358741157254
WordScorePoS
practice0.0703006268489394NN

Top down reform can undermine informal institutions without providing viable alternatives and the vacuum can lead to power grabbing lawlessness or even violent conflict

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.748140139447383
WordScorePoS
reform0NN
institution0.274477239401321NN
provide0.013214597504793VB
alternative0NN
lead0NN
power0NN
conflict0.0658099748168827NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.374244887646276
WordScorePoS
reform0NN
institution0NN
provide0.0295703421524739VB
alternative0NN
lead0NN
power0NN
conflict0.147263166485024NN

When neither formal nor informal mechanisms are functioning human rights abuses and serious conflict are more likely

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.550079564761992
WordScorePoS
mechanism0NN
function0NN
human0JJ
rights0.0519476926891779NNS
abuse0NN
conflict0.147263166485024NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.51030844454553
WordScorePoS
mechanism0.147846224719512NN
function0.036961556179878NN
human0JJ
rights0NNS
abuse0NN
conflict0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.405918672541392
WordScorePoS
mechanism0NN
function0NN
human0JJ
rights0NNS
abuse0.0811931365363091NN
conflict0.0658099748168827NN

For example study in rural Columbia found the incidence of vigilantism mob justice or lynching to be five and half times greater in communities in which informal mechanisms are no longer functioning effectively and the state presence remains limited

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.505082816507109
WordScorePoS
study0NN
rural0.148975141598503JJ
incidence0NN
justice0NN
time0.0182713919265625NN
community0.0182713919265625NN
mechanism0NN
function0.0440683498519077NN
effectively0RB
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limited0JJ

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.487885790380197
WordScorePoS
study0NN
rural0JJ
incidence0NN
justice0NN
time0NN
community0NN
mechanism0.147846224719512NN
function0.036961556179878NN
effectively0RB
remains0.036961556179878NNS
limited0JJ

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.47295308628574
WordScorePoS
study0NN
rural0JJ
incidence0NN
justice0.214981650384708NN
time0NN
community0NN
mechanism0NN
function0NN
effectively0RB
remains0NNS
limited0JJ

failure to engage with customary systems may mean that discriminatory practices go unchallenged

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.653548627809617
WordScorePoS
engage0.0819583881728876VB
system0NN
discriminatory0JJ
practice0.0703006268489394NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.432669419298517
WordScorePoS
engage0VB
system0.0756001353333673NN
discriminatory0JJ
practice0.0252000451111224NN

While state law officially protects women rights in many countries local norms and power structures continue to make it almost impossible for women to claim these rights

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.797200129835233
WordScorePoS
law0.0465610847355851NN
protect0VB
woman0.221979360474357NN
rights0.078760887431929NNS
country0NN
local0JJ
power0NN
structure0NN
continue0.0335134328085675VB

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.220853361387057
WordScorePoS
law0.164686343640793NN
protect0.0241291244414115VB
woman0NN
rights0NNS
country0NN
local0JJ
power0NN
structure0NN
continue0VB

Considered attention to customary systems in broader institutional reform is fairly new

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.568043896681279
WordScorePoS
attention0.08955644059472NN
system0.0315914058171786NN
institutional0JJ
reform0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.427488418524978
WordScorePoS
attention0NN
system0NN
institutional0JJ
reform0.0911713013253052NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.388337514914016
WordScorePoS
attention0NN
system0NN
institutional0.0828215106044499JJ
reform0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.354477580380498
WordScorePoS
attention0NN
system0.0756001353333673NN
institutional0JJ
reform0NN

But many governments such as South Africa have begun working toward integrating customary institutions into wider state frameworks box

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.798639418550218
WordScorePoS
government0NN
south0RB
africa0IN
integrate0VB
institution0.274477239401321NN
framework0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.330255839380298
WordScorePoS
government0NN
south0RB
africa0IN
integrate0.0295821503613099VB
institution0.0410992516792148NN
framework0.0428212738652355NN

Many countries have attempted to integrate customary land systems into formal land law systems box

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.322293573201164
WordScorePoS
country0NN
integrate0VB
land0NN
system0NN
law0.164686343640793NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.522061344511367
WordScorePoS
country0NN
integrate0.0190167691930804VB
land0.123873694868802NN
system0NN
law0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.478158369526106
WordScorePoS
country0NN
integrate0VB
land0.0465651203624806NN
system0.0756001353333673NN
law0NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.381199165380726
WordScorePoS
country0NN
integrate0.0537696560159885VB
land0.0389167984372011NN
system0.0315914058171786NN
law0NN

Local NGOs and community groups have also helped empower marginal groups to challenge discriminatory norms at the local level

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.415738443564651
WordScorePoS
local0.0194583992186006JJ
community0NN
help0NN
empower0VB
challenge0.0947742174515357NN
discriminatory0JJ
level0.00692515656684925NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.380562106054083
WordScorePoS
local0.0145856516935579JJ
community0.0343390275626203NN
help0NN
empower0VB
challenge0.0236803262479443NN
discriminatory0JJ
level0.0415277415054218NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.375117498048569
WordScorePoS
local0JJ
community0NN
help0NN
empower0VB
challenge0NN
discriminatory0.0658099748168827JJ
level0.0610668815653026NN

Establishing adequate and open legal institutions

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.907199423824301
WordScorePoS
establish0VB
adequate0JJ
legal0.0811931365363091JJ
institution0.274477239401321NN

Even when formal systems do exist they often lack adequate infrastructure or are so institutionally weak that citizens cannot claim their rights

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.545981773160269
WordScorePoS
system0NN
exist0VB
lack0.0565629593551219NN
adequate0JJ
infrastructure0.192202909044225NN
rights0NNS

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.507369262031036
WordScorePoS
system0.0519476926891779NN
exist0VB
lack0.0753297582301286NN
adequate0.0519476926891779JJ
infrastructure0NN
rights0.0519476926891779NNS

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.399262930301425
WordScorePoS
system0.0315914058171786NN
exist0.04477822029736VB
lack0.0229054731708393NN
adequate0.0631828116343571JJ
infrastructure0.0194583992186006NN
rights0NNS

Formal institutions may exist only in large cities and even then excessive delays unfair procedures or unreasonable costs may leave BOX

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.797866430179179
WordScorePoS
institution0NN
exist0.04477822029736VB
city0.607697021770652NN
excessive0JJ
cost0NN
leave0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.534209895946958
WordScorePoS
institution0.274477239401321NN
exist0VB
city0NN
excessive0JJ
cost0.0548954478802642NN
leave0.107490825192354NN

WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT State frameworks and customary institutions in South Africa The coexistence of various official state laws in South Africa began as early as the when chiefs in Cape Colony were granted authority to enforce indigenous law subject to review by colonial official

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.832616326348664
WordScorePoS
world0NN
development0.0368309542451156NN
report0NN
framework0NN
institution0.274477239401321NN
south0RB
africa0IN
official0NN
law0.164686343640793NN
enforce0.107490825192354VB
indigenous0JJ
review0NN

At the end of the apartheid era there were approximately officially recognized traditional communities and traditional leaders headmen and kings

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Since South Africa has worked toward bringing traditional systems into the state framework

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.588724454847687
WordScorePoS
south0RB
africa0IN
bring0.0731385760866977VB
traditional0JJ
system0.0315914058171786NN
framework0.0194583992186006NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.567297544797437
WordScorePoS
south0RB
africa0IN
bring0VB
traditional0.0440683498519077JJ
system0.0756001353333673NN
framework0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.397944501633515
WordScorePoS
south0RB
africa0IN
bring0VB
traditional0JJ
system0.0519476926891779NN
framework0.0319966432858631NN

Traditional institutions and laws are all officially recognized in the constitution

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.904948061624323
WordScorePoS
traditional0JJ
institution0.274477239401321NN
law0.164686343640793NN
recognize0VB

After long political process the national Traditional Leadership and Governance Framework Act was promulgated in setting out the roles and responsibilities of different levels of traditional leaders and institutions and their relationships to the different levels of government

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.684800227400491
WordScorePoS
political0JJ
process0NN
national0.0294647633960925JJ
traditional0JJ
leadership0NN
governance0.107490825192354NN
framework0NN
set0NN
responsibility0NN
level0.0610668815653026NN
institution0.274477239401321NN
government0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.480672539219289
WordScorePoS
political0.111637082206855JJ
process0.0558185411034276NN
national0.0124956749436837JJ
traditional0JJ
leadership0.0688661930304451NN
governance0NN
framework0NN
set0NN
responsibility0.0911713013253052NN
level0.0172651853471334NN
institution0NN
government0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.337521463168336
WordScorePoS
political0JJ
process0NN
national0.0134132459226336JJ
traditional0JJ
leadership0.036961556179878NN
governance0NN
framework0.0130185595639838NN
set0.0978661089756501NN
responsibility0NN
level0.0138997399903163NN
institution0.0249900578719309NN
government0.048933054487825NN

BOX

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Many celebrated the constitutional and administrative recognition of customary law but there clearly are difficulties

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.856648489882305
WordScorePoS
law0.164686343640793NN
difficulty0NN

Customary practices have been criticized as incompatible with rights in the constitution and the new South African Bill of Rights

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.757985001193801
WordScorePoS
practice0.0393804437159645NN
rights0.078760887431929NNS
south0RB
african0IN

Of traditional leaders recognized by the state in South Africa only one is female

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.886471963846403
WordScorePoS
traditional0JJ
recognize0.0558185411034276VB
south0RB
africa0IN
female0.0911713013253052NN

In an attempt to deal with this the state issued regulation in early that female participation must be at percent by the end of the year but there is no consensus on how this might be achieved

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.641153116380922
WordScorePoS
issue0NN
regulation0.0977392570420122NN
female0NN
participation0NN
consensus0.064698038783335NN
achieve0.018377882320743VB

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.580216720247176
WordScorePoS
issue0NN
regulation0NN
female0.0911713013253052NN
participation0.0465610847355851NN
consensus0NN
achieve0.0258977780207001VB

Recognizing the difficult task of effectively integrating the different systems the South African model aims at progressive alignment with the constitution

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Source Adapted from Chirayath and others

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.73415387760794
WordScorePoS
source0.0613562156822703NN

The impact of legal aid in Ecuador As in much of the rest of the world Ecuador poor face numerous barriers in using the legal system

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.466133949718476
WordScorePoS
impact0NN
legal0JJ
aid0NN
world0.00257343720272548NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
barrier0NN
system0.0519476926891779NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.405786421555195
WordScorePoS
impact0NN
legal0JJ
aid0NN
world0.0124838525528648NN
poor0.0548141757796873JJ
barrier0.0357189919948307NN
system0.0756001353333673NN

Women considering claims against their former spouses may face an added obstacle physical violence

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.78082714067044
WordScorePoS
woman0.221979360474357NN
add0VB
violence0.0931221694711702NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.40809565994408
WordScorePoS
woman0NN
add0VB
violence0.164686343640793NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.311470551205175
WordScorePoS
woman0.0452169560888236NN
add0.0804764811724088VB
violence0NN

As part of larger judicial reform effort three local NGOs Centro Ecuatoriano para la Promoción Acción de la Mujer Corporación Mujer Mujer and Fundación María Guare provide legal information and representation as well as psychological counseling and referrals to shelters

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

A survey in revealed that women use of legal aid clinics reduced the probability of severe physical violence after separation by percent

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.616548888968102
WordScorePoS
survey0NN
woman0.221979360474357NN
legal0JJ
aid0NN
reduce0VB
violence0.0931221694711702NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.524343917668332
WordScorePoS
survey0NN
woman0NN
legal0.0811931365363091JJ
aid0NN
reduce0.0220985725470694VB
violence0.164686343640793NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.388992423045886
WordScorePoS
survey0NN
woman0.0381514605760894NN
legal0JJ
aid0.123094312756122NN
reduce0.01675146888405VB
violence0.020806307400253NN

Legal aid clients also attained better legal and economic results than nonclients raising their chances of obtaining child support award by percent and their chances of receiving childsupport payment by percent

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.41853502234617
WordScorePoS
legal0JJ
aid0.0607878664258118NN
attain0VB
economic0.128463821595706JJ
result0NN
raise0NN
chance0NN
obtain0VB
child0.0452169560888236NN
support0.024730129581725NN
receive0VB

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.512933659749906
WordScorePoS
legal0JJ
aid0.123094312756122NN
attain0VB
economic0JJ
result0NN
raise0NN
chance0NN
obtain0VB
child0.10682408961305NN
support0.00625975725959118NN
receive0.0814816979556159VB

Receiving assistance from the legal aid clinics also had intergenerational impacts

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.689138434248405
WordScorePoS
receive0.0814816979556159VB
assistance0NN
legal0JJ
aid0.123094312756122NN
impact0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.369843588873929
WordScorePoS
receive0VB
assistance0NN
legal0.0811931365363091JJ
aid0NN
impact0.0285977592242194NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.34321878111074
WordScorePoS
receive0VB
assistance0.0410992516792148NN
legal0JJ
aid0.0607878664258118NN
impact0NN

Child support payments increased the probability of the child attending school by

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.64281966456687
WordScorePoS
child0.076326555629389NN
support0NN
increase0.0144029596227568NN
attend0VB
school0.208127520578185NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.401448219426265
WordScorePoS
child0.10682408961305NN
support0.00625975725959118NN
increase0.0143984997539974NN
attend0VB
school0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.37565963967444
WordScorePoS
child0.0546336178945768NN
support0.00896409157262106NN
increase0.0128868286091919NN
attend0.0583416713841148VB
school0.0297950283197006NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.301011440697716
WordScorePoS
child0.0603953832457135NN
support0NN
increase0NN
attend0VB
school0.0548954478802642NN

percent as did the lower incidence of violence

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.81023056380326
WordScorePoS
incidence0NN
violence0.164686343640793NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.458146232439154
WordScorePoS
incidence0NN
violence0.0931221694711702NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.302802200293258
WordScorePoS
incidence0.0407408489778079NN
violence0.020806307400253NN

Anecdotal evidence also suggests that the payments small but important source of family income were used to pay for food

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.624501431908558
WordScorePoS
evidence0NN
suggest0VB
source0.0130963126055467NN
family0.0297950283197006NN
income0.0643370113878709NN
pay0NN
food0.292342270824999NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.506103768100851
WordScorePoS
evidence0.12939607756667NN
suggest0VB
source0NN
family0NN
income0.166475342664294NN
pay0.02794560829783NN
food0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.292106237464185
WordScorePoS
evidence0NN
suggest0VB
source0NN
family0NN
income0NN
pay0NN
food0.186896403054502NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.317620150166342
WordScorePoS
evidence0NN
suggest0.0602029956716497VB
source0.0135141354781442NN
family0NN
income0.110649350233433NN
pay0NN
food0.0188543197850406NN

Source World Bank

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.737559496131694
WordScorePoS
source0.0130963126055467NN
world0.0124838525528648NN
bank0.0881366997038154NN

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.426402661922482
WordScorePoS
source0.0613562156822703NN
world0.00438651305628668NN
bank0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.33813808928791
WordScorePoS
source0.0109843026967392NN
world0.00418824502414673NN
bank0.036961556179878NN

them inaccessible to much of the community

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.598836439735411
WordScorePoS
community0.0343390275626203NN

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.37319979960905
WordScorePoS
community0.0214003646985842NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.353349198066173
WordScorePoS
community0.0202620733250388NN

Institutions can also be inaccessible if people do not know their rights and cannot navigate the systems charged with protecting them

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.722965483157913
WordScorePoS
institution0.274477239401321NN
people0NNS
rights0NNS
system0NN
protect0.0241291244414115VB

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.341589034862503
WordScorePoS
institution0NN
people0.0371911007748996NNS
rights0.0519476926891779NNS
system0.0519476926891779NN
protect0VB

large array of information campaigns has informed citizens about their rights discussed above

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.59710516590573
WordScorePoS
array0NN
information0.02046578088155NN
rights0.078760887431929NNS

But even if people know their rights they may have limited capacity to navigate the system

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.789979942714563
WordScorePoS
people0.0371911007748996NNS
rights0.0519476926891779NNS
limited0.120266261535276JJ
capacity0NN
system0.0519476926891779NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.360609057147405
WordScorePoS
people0.0257736572183839NNS
rights0NNS
limited0JJ
capacity0.0179281831452421NN
system0.0756001353333673NN

Access to legal services is often restricted or costly

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.617566446618242
WordScorePoS
access0.00690021170452351NN
legal0.0811931365363091JJ
service0NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.42667421639952
WordScorePoS
access0.0157161992303584NN
legal0JJ
service0.0451471467893167NN

In Honduras legal fees to obtain monthly alimony of lempiras US

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.668844901825334
WordScorePoS
legal0JJ
obtain0.0815069365350084VB

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.666269862960603
WordScorePoS
legal0.0811931365363091JJ
obtain0VB

in child support case could amount to as much as lempiras US

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.50175390332307
WordScorePoS
child0.10682408961305NN
support0.00625975725959118NN
amount0.020806307400253NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.468241324666373
WordScorePoS
child0.0450489732120807NN
support0.0184786920895884NN
amount0.0614198493690006NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.432052863401109
WordScorePoS
child0.0603953832457135NN
support0NN
amount0.0548954478802642NN

or almost two years of alimony

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Adding to the costs are requirements that parties be represented by lawyers

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.515997105310143
WordScorePoS
add0VB
cost0.0279982034978914NN
party0.0548233071065585NN
represent0VB

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.501387031309207
WordScorePoS
add0.0804764811724088VB
cost0NN
party0NN
represent0VB

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.411708814605515
WordScorePoS
add0VB
cost0.0660824365173543NN
party0NN
represent0VB

For example most Latin American countries do not permit selfrepresentation effectively denying access based on economic status

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.446974099900758
WordScorePoS
country0NN
effectively0RB
access0.00344404437204141NN
base0NN
economic0.128463821595706JJ
status0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.520244367641441
WordScorePoS
country0NN
effectively0RB
access0.00138439773401932NN
base0NN
economic0.103276847978089JJ
status0.0488696285210061NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.492506880954928
WordScorePoS
country0NN
effectively0RB
access0.00514687440545096NN
base0.0442083771593746NN
economic0.0959899298575892JJ
status0NN

Legal aid can increase people access to basic legal services and the courts box

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.406533326681264
WordScorePoS
legal0JJ
aid0.123094312756122NN
increase0.0143984997539974NN
people0.00539943740774902NNS
access0.00610236075888593NN
basic0JJ
service0.0100171139310145NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.385249553584288
WordScorePoS
legal0JJ
aid0NN
increase0NN
people0.0371911007748996NNS
access0.00514687440545096NN
basic0.0639932865717261JJ
service0.0443555132287109NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.3149907693258
WordScorePoS
legal0JJ
aid0.0607878664258118NN
increase0.00711043475673939NN
people0.0106656521351091NNS
access0.00344404437204141NN
basic0.0214106369326177JJ
service0.0197870712294258NN

So can community mediation centers lay judges and mobile courts

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

The mobile courts introduced in remote areas of Brazil in have been replicated in the Philippines and Mexico

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

In Guatemala mediation centers have been created employing mediators fluent in Spanish and local Mayan languages

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

In some situations social movements provide the support for people to use the courts and claim their formal rights as with the landless peasant movements in Brazil and Mexico

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.673997608595892
WordScorePoS
situation0.0519476926891779NN
social0.112994637345193JJ
provide0.0295703421524739VB
support0.0184786920895884NN
people0.0371911007748996NNS
rights0.0519476926891779NNS

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.389497674836342
WordScorePoS
situation0.0631828116343571NN
social0.0458109463416786JJ
provide0.0269743071558856VB
support0.0224752180723703NN
people0.0161552501392041NNS
rights0NNS

In Argentina too unemployed factory workers have occupied closed factory sites and pursued their rights through the courts and the legislative process

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.577390909546678
WordScorePoS
worker0.121575732851624NN
occupy0VB
pursue0VB
rights0.0347609334428716NNS
process0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.497035919276461
WordScorePoS
worker0NN
occupy0VB
pursue0VB
rights0.078760887431929NNS
process0.0558185411034276NN

In other cases civil society organizations have assisted groups in claiming their rights as in the right to health cases discussed in chapter

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.533223429381298
WordScorePoS
civil0JJ
society0NN
organization0.0175975629039954NN
assist0VB
rights0.0175975629039954NNS
health0.191387734041787NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.5296060293073
WordScorePoS
civil0.0978661089756501JJ
society0.0359743605686701NN
organization0.0422721924574123NN
assist0.048933054487825VB
rights0NNS
health0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.398606926628471
WordScorePoS
civil0JJ
society0.0335134328085675NN
organization0NN
assist0VB
rights0.078760887431929NNS
health0.0571058915334038NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.302840557540677
WordScorePoS
civil0JJ
society0.0591643007226199NN
organization0.0347609334428716NN
assist0VB
rights0.0347609334428716NNS
health0NN

Civil unrest and conflict may further weaken legal institutions

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.878760777984531
WordScorePoS
civil0JJ
conflict0.0658099748168827NN
legal0.0811931365363091JJ
institution0.274477239401321NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.307034704031122
WordScorePoS
civil0JJ
conflict0.147263166485024NN
legal0JJ
institution0NN

In Sierra Leone decade of civil war left the justice system in shambles courthouses were destroyed and judges lawyers and police officers were killed or forced to flee

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.806814361854667
WordScorePoS
decade0NN
civil0JJ
justice0.214981650384708NN
system0NN
police0.107490825192354NNS
force0NN

During the conflict in Liberia more than three quarters of the population left their homes

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.832317256116847
WordScorePoS
conflict0.147263166485024NN
quarter0NN
population0NN
home0.0908430554521382NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.30084298102398
WordScorePoS
conflict0NN
quarter0NN
population0.0860640399817412NN
home0NN

In Bosnia

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

million people more than half the country population fled their homes during and immediately after the war

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.620183148447737
WordScorePoS
people0.0371911007748996NNS
country0NN
population0NN
home0.0908430554521382NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.444573922048603
WordScorePoS
people0.00571634317201755NNS
country0NN
population0.0860640399817412NN
home0NN

To prevent the return of minorities many property records were destroyed or tampered with

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.76930424922038
WordScorePoS
prevent0.0548954478802642VB
return0.107490825192354NN
property0NN
record0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.348829299382697
WordScorePoS
prevent0VB
return0NN
property0.0736315832425121NN
record0NN

Reestablishing legitimate legal institutions is crucial to restoring such people personal and property rights and enhancing confidence in newly established governance structures

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.731225758938964
WordScorePoS
legitimate0JJ
legal0.0811931365363091JJ
institution0.274477239401321NN
crucial0JJ
restore0VB
people0NNS
personal0JJ
property0NN
rights0NNS
enhance0VB
newly0RB
establish0VB
governance0.107490825192354NN
structure0NN

In postwar Bosnia the Dayton Agreement established the Commission for Real Property Claims of Displaced Persons and Refugees which collected claims for properties

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

As of June it had issued about final decisions on property titles

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.586994217048053
WordScorePoS
issue0NN
final0JJ
decision0.0519476926891779NN
property0.0736315832425121NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.507179083973349
WordScorePoS
issue0NN
final0.108503934593034JJ
decision0NN
property0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.444987862393996
WordScorePoS
issue0NN
final0JJ
decision0.0393804437159645NN
property0.0558185411034276NN

Justice land and infrastructure Improving crime and personal security policies breaking crime related inequality traps The cycle of inequality crime victimization and discrimination exemplifies the processes by which inequality traps outlined in chapter are perpetuated

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.877052659267109
WordScorePoS
justice0NN
land0NN
infrastructure0NN
improve0.0121171980355011VB
crime0NN
personal0JJ
security0NN
policy0.0848203862485078NN
related0JJ
inequality0.635305170773079NN
cycle0NN
discrimination0NN
process0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.392611299064638
WordScorePoS
justice0.214981650384708NN
land0NN
infrastructure0NN
improve0VB
crime0.214981650384708NN
personal0JJ
security0NN
policy0.0201317944152378NN
related0.016515769558553JJ
inequality0NN
cycle0NN
discrimination0NN
process0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.12543493242212
WordScorePoS
justice0NN
land0NN
infrastructure0.192202909044225NN
improve0VB
crime0NN
personal0JJ
security0NN
policy0.011275328195446NN
related0.00925008066007716JJ
inequality0NN
cycle0NN
discrimination0NN
process0.0737171311497939NN

Marginal groups are not only more likely to move into criminal behavior they are also more likely to be victims of crime

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.965186604538911
WordScorePoS
move0NN
crime0.214981650384708NN

Furthermore discriminatory practices in the justice sector mean that marginal groups are more likely to experience the law and order side of the legal system black men in the United States are incarcerated on drug charges at rate

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.831138709639681
WordScorePoS
discriminatory0.0658099748168827JJ
practice0NN
justice0.214981650384708NN
sector0NN
experience0NN
law0.164686343640793NN
legal0.0811931365363091JJ
system0NN
unite0VB
drug0NN
rate0.0571955184484387NN

times that of white men bearing little relation to differences in offenses and are less likely to have access to institutions charged with protecting them

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.736665180503925
WordScorePoS
time0NN
bear0NN
relation0NN
access0.00690021170452351NN
institution0.274477239401321NN
protect0.0241291244414115VB

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.544933170341399
WordScorePoS
time0.0607862199751165NN
bear0NN
relation0.064698038783335NN
access0.00138439773401932NN
institution0.0991236547760315NN
protect0VB

At the same time given their role in shaping these processes legal institutions are also places for change that is vehicles for challenging inequality traps

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.764613267335801
WordScorePoS
time0.0607862199751165NN
process0NN
legal0JJ
institution0.0991236547760315NN
change0NN
vehicle0NN
challenge0NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.409842911130385
WordScorePoS
time0NN
process0NN
legal0JJ
institution0NN
change0.402565546215053NN
vehicle0NN
challenge0.0236803262479443NN
inequality0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.341983328623953
WordScorePoS
time0NN
process0NN
legal0.0811931365363091JJ
institution0.274477239401321NN
change0NN
vehicle0NN
challenge0NN
inequality0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.224993630833842
WordScorePoS
time0.0169905820958638NN
process0NN
legal0JJ
institution0NN
change0NN
vehicle0.217007869186068NN
challenge0NN
inequality0NN

Breaking the cycle of inequality crime and violence

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.839570758525608
WordScorePoS
cycle0NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
crime0NN
violence0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.501740203600107
WordScorePoS
cycle0NN
inequality0NN
crime0.214981650384708NN
violence0.164686343640793NN

Traditional approaches to reducing crime and violence based on increasing mechanisms of control and harsher sanctions have failed to reduce crime

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.866294085195964
WordScorePoS
traditional0JJ
approach0NN
reduce0.0220985725470694VB
crime0.214981650384708NN
violence0.164686343640793NN
base0NN
increase0NN
mechanism0NN
control0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.239831802053158
WordScorePoS
traditional0JJ
approach0NN
reduce0.00335331148065841VB
crime0NN
violence0NN
base0.017987180284335NN
increase0.00432344066632653NN
mechanism0.147846224719512NN
control0NN

By contrast promoting protective strategies and minimizing the risk of crime have more success at lower cost

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.780071628356492
WordScorePoS
promote0.0220985725470694VB
strategy0NN
minimize0VB
risk0NN
crime0.214981650384708NN
cost0.0548954478802642NN

To target the many risk factors of increased crime crime prevention programs often require support from the judicial services social services health education media police local government civil society organizations and the private sector box

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.520647104409882
WordScorePoS
target0NN
risk0NN
increase0NN
crime0.214981650384708NN
prevention0NN
require0VB
support0NN
service0NN
social0JJ
health0NN
education0.0201317944152378NN
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police0.107490825192354NNS
local0JJ
government0NN
civil0JJ
society0.118536858482514NN
organization0NN
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sector0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.329310598467691
WordScorePoS
target0NN
risk0.0703902516159815NN
increase0.0143984997539974NN
crime0NN
prevention0.0923207345670913NN
require0VB
support0.00625975725959118NN
service0.0100171139310145NN
social0JJ
health0.191387734041787NN
education0.0152605842304358NN
media0NNS
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local0JJ
government0NN
civil0JJ
society0NN
organization0.0175975629039954NN
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Label: 4, with a score of: 0.237598042732757
WordScorePoS
target0.0499016491051341NN
risk0NN
increase0.0144029596227568NN
crime0NN
prevention0NN
require0VB
support0NN
service0NN
social0JJ
health0NN
education0.244244978014045NN
media0NNS
police0NNS
local0JJ
government0NN
civil0JJ
society0NN
organization0NN
private0JJ
sector0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.411483831779816
WordScorePoS
target0.0898760357768464NN
risk0NN
increase0.00432344066632653NN
crime0NN
prevention0NN
require0.0211360962287062VB
support0.0451108483130998NN
service0NN
social0JJ
health0NN
education0NN
media0NNS
police0NNS
local0.0130185595639838JJ
government0.048933054487825NN
civil0.0978661089756501JJ
society0.0359743605686701NN
organization0.0422721924574123NN
private0.0898760357768464JJ
sector0.0459744293658165NN

Local governments and police services often coordinate such programs

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.559714718494148
WordScorePoS
local0JJ
government0NN
police0.107490825192354NNS
service0NN
coordinate0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.515050071785386
WordScorePoS
local0.0130185595639838JJ
government0.048933054487825NN
police0NNS
service0NN
coordinate0.036961556179878NN

Many more effective interventions target children and adolescents who are seen as particularly at risk of falling into criminal behavior

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.85443176480393
WordScorePoS
effective0.00914534810831654JJ
intervention0.0407408489778079NN
target0NN
child0.10682408961305NN
adolescent0.215415047323213JJ
risk0.0703902516159815NN
fall0.123094312756122NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.307700864687524
WordScorePoS
effective0JJ
intervention0NN
target0.0357189919948307NN
child0.0546336178945768NN
adolescent0.0440683498519077JJ
risk0.0252000451111224NN
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Preventative interventions include family support and parenting skills programs early childhood development programs special needs programs afterschool care antibullying programs life skills and cultural programs and community participation programs

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.910100838140212
WordScorePoS
intervention0NN
include0VB
family0NN
support0NN
skill0.407534682675042NN
childhood0.0815069365350084NN
development0.0279277626235394NN
special0JJ
care0.0416255041156371NN
life0.0125233923809486NN
cultural0.0615662203253227JJ
community0NN
participation0NN

School based interventions have targeted youth crime and have kept young people in schools in many countries

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.799406791700354
WordScorePoS
school0.208127520578185NN
base0NN
intervention0NN
target0.0499016491051341NN
youth0.124876512346911NN
crime0NN
people0.00720147981137839NNS
country0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.433985836622113
WordScorePoS
school0.0548954478802642NN
base0NN
intervention0NN
target0NN
youth0NN
crime0.214981650384708NN
people0NNS
country0NN

Tilsa Thuto is school crime prevention program imple BOX

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.732042270958717
WordScorePoS
school0.0548954478802642NN
crime0.214981650384708NN
prevention0NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.564546394609123
WordScorePoS
school0.208127520578185NN
crime0NN
prevention0NN

Bogota Colombia civic culture program Unlike most Colombian cities Bogota city previously considered unsafe and violent has seen huge reduction in crime since the early and substantial increase in citizen perception of safety

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.973401455271907
WordScorePoS
culture0.0373517915079663NN
city0.607697021770652NN
reduction0.0268848280079943NN
crime0NN
substantial0JJ
increase0.00323105002784081NN
safety0.0731385760866977NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.15432404625005
WordScorePoS
culture0NN
city0NN
reduction0NN
crime0.214981650384708NN
substantial0JJ
increase0NN
safety0NN

The city administration targeted civic culture and education urban planning and safety and the regeneration of public spaces

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.924284824513217
WordScorePoS
city0.607697021770652NN
target0NN
culture0.0373517915079663NN
education0NN
urban0.27622591898666JJ
plan0.0583751976558017NN
safety0.0731385760866977NN
public0.0583751976558017NN
space0.04477822029736NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.301765080001877
WordScorePoS
city0NN
target0.0499016491051341NN
culture0.0832510082312742NN
education0.244244978014045NN
urban0JJ
plan0NN
safety0NN
public0NN
space0NN

Individual and community behavior were changed by establishing citizen disarmament program restricting alcohol consumption and use of fireworks increasing the number of social service centers enhancing awareness through media campaigns and educational programs preventing domestic violence and child abuse strengthening the capacity of the police and the judiciary to deal with crime violence and victimization enhancing neighborhood watch programs and revitalizing urban public spaces

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.585120419389596
WordScorePoS
individual0JJ
community0NN
change0NN
establish0VB
alcohol0NN
consumption0NN
increase0NN
social0JJ
service0NN
enhance0VB
awareness0NN
media0NNS
educational0JJ
prevent0.0548954478802642VB
domestic0JJ
violence0.164686343640793NN
child0.0603953832457135NN
abuse0.0811931365363091NN
strengthen0.0396437925143789VB
capacity0.016515769558553NN
police0.107490825192354NNS
judiciary0.107490825192354NN
crime0.214981650384708NN
revitalize0VB
urban0JJ
public0.0285977592242194NN
space0NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.386430048009653
WordScorePoS
individual0JJ
community0NN
change0.0315914058171786NN
establish0VB
alcohol0NN
consumption0.08955644059472NN
increase0.00323105002784081NN
social0.0458109463416786JJ
service0.0269743071558856NN
enhance0.0112376090361851VB
awareness0NN
media0NNS
educational0JJ
prevent0VB
domestic0.0315914058171786JJ
violence0NN
child0.0273960270556257NN
abuse0NN
strengthen0.0179828714372571VB
capacity0.0112376090361851NN
police0NNS
judiciary0NN
crime0NN
revitalize0VB
urban0.27622591898666JJ
public0.0583751976558017NN
space0.04477822029736NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.320030197015546
WordScorePoS
individual0JJ
community0.0169905820958638NN
change0NN
establish0VB
alcohol0NN
consumption0.332151194779746NN
increase0.00958677785775002NN
social0.0169905820958638JJ
service0.00666957305782837NN
enhance0VB
awareness0.0819583881728876NN
media0.0542519672965169NNS
educational0JJ
prevent0VB
domestic0JJ
violence0NN
child0NN
abuse0NN
strengthen0.0133391461156567VB
capacity0.00833571598658786NN
police0NNS
judiciary0NN
crime0NN
revitalize0VB
urban0JJ
public0.028867295332595NN
space0NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.295129158070923
WordScorePoS
individual0JJ
community0.0343390275626203NN
change0.402565546215053NN
establish0VB
alcohol0NN
consumption0NN
increase0.0145316075945746NN
social0JJ
service0NN
enhance0VB
awareness0.0414107553022249NN
media0NNS
educational0JJ
prevent0VB
domestic0JJ
violence0NN
child0NN
abuse0NN
strengthen0.00673981184904291VB
capacity0.025270503924109NN
police0NNS
judiciary0NN
crime0NN
revitalize0VB
urban0JJ
public0NN
space0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.217524057328198
WordScorePoS
individual0JJ
community0NN
change0NN
establish0VB
alcohol0NN
consumption0.147812295323721NN
increase0.00711043475673939NN
social0.0504071033101074JJ
service0.0197870712294258NN
enhance0.0123650647908625VB
awareness0NN
media0NNS
educational0JJ
prevent0VB
domestic0.0695218668857431JJ
violence0NN
child0.0452169560888236NN
abuse0NN
strengthen0.00989353561471291VB
capacity0.0123650647908625NN
police0NNS
judiciary0NN
crime0NN
revitalize0VB
urban0JJ
public0NN
space0NN

Employment and educational programs were introduced to support populations most at risk

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.632522869465097
WordScorePoS
employment0.173804667214358NN
educational0JJ
introduce0VB
support0.024730129581725NN
population0.0428212738652355NN
risk0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.345320593224037
WordScorePoS
employment0.104016094894625NN
educational0JJ
introduce0VB
support0.0277502419802315NN
population0NN
risk0NN

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.329398007444188
WordScorePoS
employment0NN
educational0.0683326727248364JJ
introduce0VB
support0.0209983814716066NN
population0.0363595928905615NN
risk0NN

No longer one of the most dangerous cities in the western hemisphere Bogota has seen remarkable results

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.959726785993277
WordScorePoS
city0.607697021770652NN
western0JJ
remarkable0JJ
result0NN

The homicide rate fell from per inhabitants in to in with homicides related to intoxication falling dramatically

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.865805444806785
WordScorePoS
rate0.0433561464459019NN
fall0.123094312756122NN
related0.0125195145191824JJ

By weapons had been turned in and gun confiscations fell from in to in

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.941484610565349
WordScorePoS
fall0.123094312756122NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.337055971714806
WordScorePoS
fall0.0440683498519077NN

Arrests for homicide assault and car theft rose by percent between and with no increase in police personnel

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.785606944675585
WordScorePoS
car0NN
theft0.107490825192354NN
rise0NN
increase0NN
police0.107490825192354NNS

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.494959233402041
WordScorePoS
car0NN
theft0NN
rise0.120914181920259NN
increase0.0145316075945746NN
police0NNS

Sources Llorente and Rivas World Bank

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.737559496131694
WordScorePoS
source0.0130963126055467NN
world0.0124838525528648NN
bank0.0881366997038154NN

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.426402661922482
WordScorePoS
source0.0613562156822703NN
world0.00438651305628668NN
bank0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.33813808928791
WordScorePoS
source0.0109843026967392NN
world0.00418824502414673NN
bank0.036961556179878NN

mented in schools in Soweto South Africa in in areas known for high levels of crime unemployment and poverty

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.613027001291359
WordScorePoS
school0.0548954478802642NN
south0RB
africa0IN
level0.0610668815653026NN
crime0.214981650384708NN
unemployment0NN
poverty0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.521173215116574
WordScorePoS
school0NN
south0RB
africa0IN
level0.0113874611101829NN
crime0NN
unemployment0NN
poverty0.269969049497485NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.428413688432316
WordScorePoS
school0.208127520578185NN
south0RB
africa0IN
level0.0231525547935232NN
crime0NN
unemployment0NN
poverty0NN

The program established in partnership with the department of education community organizations and local police creates safer schools through the active participation of students teachers parents school administrators and the local community in different training modules

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.766863189024831
WordScorePoS
establish0VB
partnership0NN
education0.244244978014045NN
community0NN
organization0NN
local0JJ
police0NNS
create0VB
school0.208127520578185NN
active0JJ
participation0NN
teacher0.163013873070017NN
training0.124876512346911NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.450904476243744
WordScorePoS
establish0.048933054487825VB
partnership0.3914644359026NN
education0NN
community0NN
organization0.0422721924574123NN
local0.0130185595639838JJ
police0NNS
create0VB
school0NN
active0.048933054487825JJ
participation0NN
teacher0NN
training0NN

Both teacher and student attendance at school increased by some percent acts of violence and aggression fell by percent and the pass rate increased by an average of percent

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.678072981862178
WordScorePoS
teacher0.163013873070017NN
school0.208127520578185NN
increase0.0144029596227568NN
violence0.0416255041156371NN
fall0NN
rate0.0216847879059514NN
average0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.405120636750518
WordScorePoS
teacher0NN
school0.0548954478802642NN
increase0NN
violence0.164686343640793NN
fall0NN
rate0.0571955184484387NN
average0NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.284992705787798
WordScorePoS
teacher0NN
school0NN
increase0.0145316075945746NN
violence0NN
fall0NN
rate0NN
average0.1656430212089NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.248153858427271
WordScorePoS
teacher0NN
school0NN
increase0.00285817158600878NN
violence0NN
fall0NN
rate0.0172128079963482NN
average0.146608885563018NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.31623921523259
WordScorePoS
teacher0NN
school0NN
increase0.0143984997539974NN
violence0.020806307400253NN
fall0.123094312756122NN
rate0.0433561464459019NN
average0NN

Alternative ways of dealing with young offenders have also been effective in breaking the cycle of crime

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.888147847456945
WordScorePoS
alternative0NN
effective0.0482582488828229JJ
cycle0NN
crime0.214981650384708NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.366082558979685
WordScorePoS
alternative0NN
effective0JJ
cycle0.108503934593034NN
crime0NN

Interventions include diversion programs restorative justice alternative sentencing and reintegration projects

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.886636131814994
WordScorePoS
intervention0NN
include0VB
justice0.214981650384708NN
alternative0NN
project0NN

Diversion programs aim to move young offenders into welfare based programs as with attempts in Africa to keep street children out of prison

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.510688051937343
WordScorePoS
aim0.0277064208763707NN
move0.0409791940864438NN
welfare0.0542519672965169NN
base0.0199423462679015NN
africa0IN
child0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.509709767294694
WordScorePoS
aim0.020806307400253NN
move0NN
welfare0NN
base0.0149758277542848NN
africa0IN
child0.10682408961305NN

Restorative justice programs such as community conferencing mediate between offenders and those affected by the crime helping to reintegrate young offenders into their communities

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.868355653935466
WordScorePoS
justice0.214981650384708NN
community0NN
conference0NN
affect0.033031539117106VB
crime0.214981650384708NN
help0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.341987029496428
WordScorePoS
justice0NN
community0NN
conference0.18234260265061NN
affect0VB
crime0NN
help0NN

Noncustodial sentencing such as community service orders is used in different parts of Africa today to promote the reintegration and rehabilitation of offenders

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Increasing personal safety

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.713320282350126
WordScorePoS
increase0.00323105002784081NN
personal0JJ
safety0.0731385760866977NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.596277264079081
WordScorePoS
increase0.00958677785775002NN
personal0.0542519672965169JJ
safety0NN

Appropriate and accessible police and support services for all WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT are crucial

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.511696777168661
WordScorePoS
accessible0.110490367594664JJ
police0NNS
support0.0224752180723703NN
service0.0269743071558856NN
world0.00626002771693937NN
development0.0100241617629471NN
report0NN
crucial0JJ

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.419062981905643
WordScorePoS
accessible0JJ
police0.107490825192354NNS
support0NN
service0NN
world0NN
development0.0368309542451156NN
report0NN
crucial0JJ

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.401685173562398
WordScorePoS
accessible0JJ
police0NNS
support0.0277502419802315NN
service0.0148023490369527NN
world0.00257642711761688NN
development0.0330049940546426NN
report0NN
crucial0.0602029956716497JJ

Violence against women huge problem in many parts of the world is exacerbated by underreporting inadequate support systems for victims discriminatory practices within justice sector institutions and the lack of adequate sanctions for perpetrators

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.695942843316483
WordScorePoS
violence0.164686343640793NN
woman0NN
world0NN
inadequate0JJ
support0NN
system0NN
discriminatory0.0658099748168827JJ
practice0NN
justice0.214981650384708NN
sector0NN
institution0.274477239401321NN
lack0NN
adequate0JJ

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.403517752250311
WordScorePoS
violence0.0931221694711702NN
woman0.221979360474357NN
world0.00585260443759492NN
inadequate0JJ
support0NN
system0NN
discriminatory0JJ
practice0.0393804437159645NN
justice0NN
sector0.0571058915334038NN
institution0NN
lack0NN
adequate0JJ

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.308319762282358
WordScorePoS
violence0NN
woman0.0450489732120807NN
world0.00257343720272548NN
inadequate0.0736315832425121JJ
support0.0184786920895884NN
system0.0519476926891779NN
discriminatory0JJ
practice0NN
justice0NN
sector0NN
institution0NN
lack0.0753297582301286NN
adequate0.0519476926891779JJ

Many governments have attempted to address the problem by introducing more severe sentences for perpetrators establishing remedial programs for offenders and running gender sensitive training programs for police and the judiciary

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.427554692452002
WordScorePoS
government0NN
introduce0VB
establish0VB
gender0.196902218579822NN
sensitive0JJ
training0NN
police0NNS
judiciary0NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.634182655218313
WordScorePoS
government0NN
introduce0VB
establish0VB
gender0.10561808200669NN
sensitive0.0615662203253227JJ
training0.124876512346911NN
police0NNS
judiciary0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.466812482236178
WordScorePoS
government0NN
introduce0VB
establish0VB
gender0NN
sensitive0JJ
training0NN
police0.107490825192354NNS
judiciary0.107490825192354NN

More recently some countries including Argentina Brazil Colombia Peru and Uruguay have set up women police stations

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.764733607213305
WordScorePoS
country0NN
include0VB
set0NN
woman0.221979360474357NN
police0NNS

Other countries have set up police cells for women in regular police stations

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.624758106004623
WordScorePoS
country0NN
set0NN
police0NNS
woman0.221979360474357NN
regular0JJ

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.605063139352604
WordScorePoS
country0NN
set0NN
police0.107490825192354NNS
woman0NN
regular0JJ

These services have shown mixed results

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.691597156398616
WordScorePoS
service0.0084006124696649NN
result0.0683326727248364NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.40691126751393
WordScorePoS
service0.0451471467893167NN
result0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.399776273644751
WordScorePoS
service0.0443555132287109NN
result0NN

Women police stations have increased reporting of abuse and the likelihood that women will receive medical and social services

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.676055269029555
WordScorePoS
woman0.221979360474357NN
police0NNS
increase0.00402768349408688NN
report0NN
abuse0NN
receive0VB
social0.0285529457667019JJ
service0.022416649027415NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.37195934456462
WordScorePoS
woman0.0381514605760894NN
police0NNS
increase0.0143984997539974NN
report0.0307735781890304NN
abuse0.0615471563780609NN
receive0.0814816979556159VB
social0JJ
service0.0100171139310145NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.335277238960394
WordScorePoS
woman0.0450489732120807NN
police0NNS
increase0NN
report0NN
abuse0NN
receive0VB
social0.112994637345193JJ
service0.0443555132287109NN

But critics argue that services encourage regular police to abdicate responsibility for crimes against women and that women officers have not necessarily demonstrated better attitudes toward victims of violence

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.726421716333911
WordScorePoS
service0.022416649027415NN
encourage0VB
regular0JJ
police0NNS
responsibility0.0911713013253052NN
crime0NN
woman0.221979360474357NN
violence0.0931221694711702NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.543875353187705
WordScorePoS
service0NN
encourage0VB
regular0JJ
police0.107490825192354NNS
responsibility0NN
crime0.214981650384708NN
woman0NN
violence0.164686343640793NN

Where stations are working fairly well their efforts are often undermined by other parts of the justice system as prosecution rates remain unchanged

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.776406154191554
WordScorePoS
effort0NN
justice0.214981650384708NN
system0NN
rate0.0571955184484387NN
remain0VB

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.330730495166348
WordScorePoS
effort0NN
justice0NN
system0.0519476926891779NN
rate0.0639932865717261NN
remain0VB

The notion that the physical environment can increase personal safety has been an integral part of many recent crime prevention strategies and it has been applied to cityplanning public transport systems parks and recreational spaces low income housing and downtown areas where people feel most vulnerable to violence and crime

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.57560460321077
WordScorePoS
environment0NN
increase0NN
personal0JJ
safety0NN
integral0JJ
crime0.214981650384708NN
prevention0NN
strategy0NN
public0.0285977592242194NN
transport0NN
system0NN
space0NN
income0NN
housing0NN
people0NNS
vulnerable0JJ
violence0.164686343640793NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.548671258513701
WordScorePoS
environment0.0268848280079943NN
increase0.00323105002784081NN
personal0JJ
safety0.0731385760866977NN
integral0JJ
crime0NN
prevention0NN
strategy0NN
public0.0583751976558017NN
transport0.0747035830159326NN
system0.0315914058171786NN
space0.04477822029736NN
income0NN
housing0.219415728260093NN
people0.0161552501392041NNS
vulnerable0.0458109463416786JJ
violence0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.196278744530155
WordScorePoS
environment0NN
increase0.00285817158600878NN
personal0JJ
safety0NN
integral0JJ
crime0NN
prevention0NN
strategy0NN
public0.0172128079963482NN
transport0NN
system0NN
space0NN
income0.166475342664294NN
housing0NN
people0.00571634317201755NNS
vulnerable0.0202620733250388JJ
violence0NN

Toward greater equity in access to land Land is key asset for poor people

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.472035992200538
WordScorePoS
access0.00514687440545096NN
land0.0319966432858631NN
key0NN
asset0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
people0.0371911007748996NNS

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.613293329267708
WordScorePoS
access0.00110699520004297NN
land0.123873694868802NN
key0.0528409850971592NN
asset0NN
poor0.016202004209163JJ
people0.0159982027144574NNS

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.387567236369949
WordScorePoS
access0.00749031153171887NN
land0.0465651203624806NN
key0.0297950283197006NN
asset0NN
poor0.0548141757796873JJ
people0.0257736572183839NNS

Owning it provides means of livelihood to many facilitates access to credit markets has an insurance value determines influence in local politics permits participation in social networks and influences intrahousehold dynamics

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.623368794544009
WordScorePoS
means0.120266261535276NNS
livelihood0.0519476926891779NN
facilitate0VB
access0.00514687440545096NN
credit0NN
market0NN
insurance0NN
determine0VB
influence0NN
local0JJ
participation0.0614198493690006NN
social0.112994637345193JJ

That is why inequality in the ownership of land has such far reaching consequences for the distribution of well being and the organization of society for generations to come

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.879225590319236
WordScorePoS
inequality0.635305170773079NN
ownership0NN
land0NN
reach0NN
organization0.02794560829783NN
society0.0237821918091848NN
generation0NN

Yet landownership in many countries is highly unequal substantially more so than income or consumption

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.764845313415298
WordScorePoS
country0NN
highly0RB
substantially0RB
income0NN
consumption0.332151194779746NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.383343151062346
WordScorePoS
country0NN
highly0RB
substantially0RB
income0.166475342664294NN
consumption0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.340367709405571
WordScorePoS
country0NN
highly0RB
substantially0RB
income0NN
consumption0.147812295323721NN

Building on chapters and we argue here that there are strong equity and efficiency reasons for addressing inequalities in land distribution both rural and urban and then discuss the experience with land reform and options for broadening access to land providing security of tenure improving the functioning of land markets and implementing cost effective land redistribution

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.545786700860579
WordScorePoS
building0NN
strong0.0488696285210061JJ
efficiency0NN
address0.064698038783335NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
land0NN
rural0.0330412182586772JJ
urban0.0488696285210061JJ
experience0NN
reform0NN
broaden0VB
access0.00138439773401932NN
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improve0.0121171980355011VB
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market0.0202620733250388NN
implement0.0121171980355011VB
cost0.0660824365173543NN
effective0.0145231653596925JJ

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.413164993524131
WordScorePoS
building0.0747035830159326NN
strong0JJ
efficiency0.0537696560159885NN
address0NN
inequality0NN
land0.0389167984372011NN
rural0.0373517915079663JJ
urban0.27622591898666JJ
experience0NN
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access0.00626002771693937NN
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improve0.0273960270556257VB
function0NN
market0NN
implement0.0273960270556257VB
cost0NN
effective0JJ

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.381086887335035
WordScorePoS
building0NN
strong0JJ
efficiency0NN
address0NN
inequality0NN
land0.0465651203624806NN
rural0.148975141598503JJ
urban0JJ
experience0NN
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broaden0VB
access0.00749031153171887NN
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security0.0893850849591018NN
improve0.0218534471578307VB
function0.0440683498519077NN
market0.0913569596328122NN
implement0.0109267235789154VB
cost0NN
effective0JJ

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.227483437719744
WordScorePoS
building0NN
strong0JJ
efficiency0.134992154141495NN
address0NN
inequality0NN
land0.0325677023224526NN
rural0JJ
urban0JJ
experience0NN
reform0NN
broaden0VB
access0.0157161992303584NN
provide0VB
security0.0625160381065121NN
improve0.0229264916384433VB
function0NN
market0NN
implement0VB
cost0NN
effective0JJ

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.195440183157603
WordScorePoS
building0.149940347231585NN
strong0JJ
efficiency0NN
address0NN
inequality0NN
land0NN
rural0JJ
urban0JJ
experience0.0299586785922821NN
reform0NN
broaden0VB
access0.00314118376811005NN
provide0.00601568197638796VB
security0NN
improve0.0183291958415182VB
function0.036961556179878NN
market0.030649619577211NN
implement0.0458229896037954VB
cost0NN
effective0.0219686053934784JJ

Equity and efficiency reasons to address inequalities in land distribution Inequalities in landownership in dozens of countries can be traced to interventions over the past years to establish and support large farms at the expense of indigenous peoples and the local peasantry

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.902006879165419
WordScorePoS
efficiency0NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
land0NN
country0NN
intervention0NN
establish0VB
support0NN
farm0NN
indigenous0JJ
people0.00571634317201755NNS
local0JJ

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.299827747317002
WordScorePoS
efficiency0NN
inequality0NN
land0.0465651203624806NN
country0NN
intervention0NN
establish0VB
support0.00896409157262106NN
farm0.291708356920574NN
indigenous0.0357189919948307JJ
people0.0257736572183839NNS
local0.0155217067874935JJ

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.139354091112196
WordScorePoS
efficiency0.134992154141495NN
inequality0NN
land0.0325677023224526NN
country0NN
intervention0NN
establish0VB
support0.0188084899376888NN
farm0NN
indigenous0JJ
people0.0108156764915259NNS
local0JJ

This historical discrimination against certain groups or more generally lack of legitimacy for the prevailing pattern of landownership offers rationale for equity enhancing reforms

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.627180911110807
WordScorePoS
historical0JJ
discrimination0.111637082206855NN
lack0NN
pattern0NN
offer0NN
enhance0.0140083044329373VB
reform0.0911713013253052NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.484350138320017
WordScorePoS
historical0JJ
discrimination0.0736315832425121NN
lack0.0753297582301286NN
pattern0NN
offer0NN
enhance0.0184786920895884VB
reform0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.348675971953775
WordScorePoS
historical0JJ
discrimination0NN
lack0.0565629593551219NN
pattern0NN
offer0.0454743001434393NN
enhance0.0185001613201543VB
reform0NN

Additional motivation comes from the fact that the landless are among the poorest in developing countries

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.741777912517497
WordScorePoS
additional0.0440683498519077JJ
poorest0.0297950283197006JJS
develop0VB
country0NN

Access to land can give the poor more voice in the political arena and can lead to higher investments in children education arresting the intergenerational transmission of poverty

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.636313056743664
WordScorePoS
access0.00514687440545096NN
land0.0319966432858631NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
voice0NN
political0JJ
lead0NN
investment0.0376648791150643NN
child0.0450489732120807NN
education0.0225244866060403NN
poverty0.269969049497485NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.399043505983064
WordScorePoS
access0.00697628678506322NN
land0NN
poor0JJ
voice0NN
political0JJ
lead0.0255262687343935NN
investment0NN
child0.076326555629389NN
education0.244244978014045NN
poverty0NN

Galasso and Ravallion in their study of the Food for Education program in Bangladesh find that villages with more unequal distribution of land were worse at targeting the poor

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.637845317560909
WordScorePoS
study0NN
food0.292342270824999NN
education0NN
land0.0465651203624806NN
target0.0357189919948307NN
poor0.0548141757796873JJ

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.436894105293175
WordScorePoS
study0NN
food0NN
education0.244244978014045NN
land0NN
target0.0499016491051341NN
poor0JJ

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.364597968938818
WordScorePoS
study0NN
food0.186896403054502NN
education0.0101607690729067NN
land0.0144336476662975NN
target0NN
poor0.0339811641917276JJ

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.304753502664446
WordScorePoS
study0NN
food0NN
education0.0225244866060403NN
land0.0319966432858631NN
target0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.308958438430189
WordScorePoS
study0.0517339898971162NN
food0.016202004209163NN
education0NN
land0.123873694868802NN
target0NN
poor0.016202004209163JJ

This is consistent with the view that land inequality is associated with less power for the poor in village decision making

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.875627178531923
WordScorePoS
consistent0JJ
view0NN
land0NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
power0NN
poor0JJ
decision0.02794560829783NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.309725243999566
WordScorePoS
consistent0JJ
view0NN
land0.0319966432858631NN
inequality0NN
power0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
decision0.0519476926891779NN

Land inequality has also been found to impair the ability of communities to engage in socially optimal collective action resulting in the underprovisioning of public goods

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.882269549549905
WordScorePoS
land0NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
ability0NN
community0.0202620733250388NN
engage0VB
socially0RB
action0.0145231653596925NN
result0NN
public0.0172128079963482NN

It also contributes to social tensions that can lead to considerable upheaval as in Southern Africa

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.580899836195705
WordScorePoS
contribute0VB
social0.112994637345193JJ
lead0NN
southern0.0614198493690006JJ
africa0IN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.337421371849342
WordScorePoS
contribute0VB
social0.101310366625194JJ
lead0NN
southern0JJ
africa0IN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.335768875711842
WordScorePoS
contribute0VB
social0.0504071033101074JJ
lead0.0504071033101074NN
southern0JJ
africa0IN

Inequalities in landownership can weigh particularly heavily on women

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.931961263272363
WordScorePoS
inequality0.635305170773079NN
heavily0RB
woman0.0242343960710022NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.313667557805489
WordScorePoS
inequality0NN
heavily0RB
woman0.221979360474357NN

Land rights and control of other assets often reside with the head of household which has implications for intrafamily bargaining power and control of resources

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.546512866696822
WordScorePoS
land0.0319966432858631NN
rights0.0519476926891779NNS
control0.0614198493690006NN
asset0NN
household0NN
power0NN
resource0.0739147683583536NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.527078038405517
WordScorePoS
land0.024255976440725NN
rights0.078760887431929NNS
control0.0465610847355851NN
asset0NN
household0.0465610847355851NN
power0NN
resource0.0280166088658745NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.405963274086265
WordScorePoS
land0.123873694868802NN
rights0NNS
control0.0264204925485796NN
asset0NN
household0NN
power0NN
resource0.0317953333768269NN

Women with secure land rights including inheritance on the death of husband are more likely to engage in independent economic activity result that has positive economic Justice land and infrastructure and equity implications for the household

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.510995545006352
WordScorePoS
woman0.221979360474357NN
secure0JJ
land0.024255976440725NN
rights0.078760887431929NNS
include0VB
inheritance0.0688661930304451NN
death0NN
engage0VB
economic0.0727679293221751JJ
activity0NN
result0NN
positive0JJ
justice0NN
infrastructure0.024255976440725NN
household0.0465610847355851NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.39308038970831
WordScorePoS
woman0.0452169560888236NN
secure0.121575732851624JJ
land0NN
rights0.0347609334428716NNS
include0VB
inheritance0NN
death0NN
engage0VB
economic0.128463821595706JJ
activity0.0295821503613099NN
result0NN
positive0JJ
justice0NN
infrastructure0NN
household0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.279646112864242
WordScorePoS
woman0NN
secure0JJ
land0NN
rights0NNS
include0VB
inheritance0NN
death0NN
engage0.0454743001434393VB
economic0.0320338181740375JJ
activity0NN
result0NN
positive0.0454743001434393JJ
justice0NN
infrastructure0.192202909044225NN
household0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.210537374566172
WordScorePoS
woman0NN
secure0JJ
land0NN
rights0NNS
include0VB
inheritance0NN
death0.0464294830712827NN
engage0VB
economic0JJ
activity0NN
result0NN
positive0JJ
justice0.214981650384708NN
infrastructure0NN
household0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.200801105761759
WordScorePoS
woman0.0381514605760894NN
secure0JJ
land0NN
rights0.0175975629039954NNS
include0VB
inheritance0NN
death0.193573191943949NN
engage0VB
economic0JJ
activity0NN
result0NN
positive0JJ
justice0NN
infrastructure0NN
household0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.357441531721922
WordScorePoS
woman0.0450489732120807NN
secure0JJ
land0.0319966432858631NN
rights0.0519476926891779NNS
include0VB
inheritance0.0908430554521382NN
death0NN
engage0VB
economic0.0959899298575892JJ
activity0NN
result0NN
positive0JJ
justice0NN
infrastructure0NN
household0NN

Inheritance rights that disadvantage women are of particular concern in Africa where they are often based on customary institutions that conflict with constitutional norms and international conventions on women rights

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.673346827595561
WordScorePoS
inheritance0.0688661930304451NN
rights0.078760887431929NNS
woman0.221979360474357NN
africa0IN
base0NN
institution0NN
conflict0NN
international0.00402768349408688JJ
convention0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.480887099096597
WordScorePoS
inheritance0.0908430554521382NN
rights0.0519476926891779NNS
woman0.0450489732120807NN
africa0IN
base0.0442083771593746NN
institution0NN
conflict0.147263166485024NN
international0.00531301439641424JJ
convention0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.358734307134661
WordScorePoS
inheritance0NN
rights0NNS
woman0NN
africa0IN
base0NN
institution0.274477239401321NN
conflict0.0658099748168827NN
international0.0189945307832458JJ
convention0NN

In fact insecure inheritance rights pose an additional burden on widows who lose their husbands often through HIV AIDS

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.888621033167073
WordScorePoS
inheritance0NN
rights0.0175975629039954NNS
pose0VB
additional0JJ
burden0NN
lose0VB
hiv0.448149338755887NN
aid0.123094312756122NN

There are strong efficiency reasons to address inequalities in land distribution

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.931530396489512
WordScorePoS
strong0.0488696285210061JJ
efficiency0NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
land0NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.228139211921623
WordScorePoS
strong0JJ
efficiency0.134992154141495NN
inequality0NN
land0.0325677023224526NN

Pervasive imperfections in land and financial markets in developing countries reduce investment in land and keep countries from efficient land allocations chapter

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.427689800581625
WordScorePoS
land0.0465651203624806NN
financial0.00896409157262106JJ
market0.0913569596328122NN
develop0VB
country0NN
reduce0.00799614078871077VB
investment0.0182713919265625NN
efficient0JJ

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.306937431530992
WordScorePoS
land0.0144336476662975NN
financial0JJ
market0.0169905820958638NN
develop0VB
country0NN
reduce0.022306853314744VB
investment0NN
efficient0.108503934593034JJ

These effects together with lower human capital investment reduced social cohesion and distorted political power are consistent with positive association between more unequal land distribution and lower GDP growth figure

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.412696700371229
WordScorePoS
effect0NN
human0.0150723186962745JJ
investment0.0252035516550537NN
reduce0.0055149369084567VB
social0.0504071033101074JJ
political0JJ
power0NN
consistent0JJ
positive0JJ
land0NN
gdp0NN
growth0.208565600657229NN
figure0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.465303152451264
WordScorePoS
effect0NN
human0JJ
investment0.0202620733250388NN
reduce0.0310356414389692VB
social0.101310366625194JJ
political0.0792212041430275JJ
power0NN
consistent0JJ
positive0JJ
land0NN
gdp0NN
growth0.11178243319132NN
figure0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.443250829458402
WordScorePoS
effect0.0454743001434393NN
human0.011275328195446JJ
investment0.0377086395700813NN
reduce0VB
social0.0188543197850406JJ
political0.0368585655748969JJ
power0.0454743001434393NN
consistent0JJ
positive0.0454743001434393JJ
land0NN
gdp0NN
growth0.0260040237236563NN
figure0.0602029956716497NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.340010711613149
WordScorePoS
effect0NN
human0JJ
investment0.0376648791150643NN
reduce0.0164833460638534VB
social0.112994637345193JJ
political0JJ
power0NN
consistent0JJ
positive0JJ
land0.0319966432858631NN
gdp0NN
growth0.0519476926891779NN
figure0NN

Experience with land reform The discussion here implies that redistributing land could enhance equity and efficiency

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.479611334142262
WordScorePoS
experience0NN
land0.0325677023224526NN
reform0NN
enhance0.0188084899376888VB
efficiency0.134992154141495NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.577552933787741
WordScorePoS
experience0NN
land0.123873694868802NN
reform0NN
enhance0.0158976666884135VB
efficiency0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.336683766401947
WordScorePoS
experience0NN
land0.024255976440725NN
reform0.0911713013253052NN
enhance0.0140083044329373VB
efficiency0NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.31291373329283
WordScorePoS
experience0NN
land0.0389167984372011NN
reform0NN
enhance0.0112376090361851VB
efficiency0.0537696560159885NN

This is likely to be true but there are significant hurdles in practice

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.51923354914816
WordScorePoS
significant0JJ
practice0.0703006268489394NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.505710908485921
WordScorePoS
significant0.0405241466500776JJ
practice0.02794560829783NN

For instance the specter of land redistribution can also worsen efficiency because farmers are reluctant to invest in land that they might lose

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.645295837174416
WordScorePoS
land0.0465651203624806NN
worsen0VB
efficiency0NN
farmer0.175025014152344NN
invest0.0583416713841148VB
lose0.0440683498519077VB

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.348498601766583
WordScorePoS
land0.0325677023224526NN
worsen0VB
efficiency0.134992154141495NN
farmer0NN
invest0VB
lose0VB

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.567519773177332
WordScorePoS
land0.123873694868802NN
worsen0VB
efficiency0NN
farmer0NN
invest0VB
lose0.0781544824456958VB

Or political imperatives can override sound program design

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.748805340390093
WordScorePoS
political0.111637082206855JJ
sound0.0393804437159645NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.440636237461728
WordScorePoS
political0.0368585655748969JJ
sound0.0520080474473126NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.392810439529714
WordScorePoS
political0.0792212041430275JJ
sound0NN

Successful land reforms such as in Japan the Republic of Korea and Taiwan China are rare and often associated with exceptional events such as war or political upheaval

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.72206469660093
WordScorePoS
successful0JJ
land0.024255976440725NN
reform0.0911713013253052NN
event0NN
political0.111637082206855JJ

Indeed the history of land reforms is littered with partial successes and failures

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.624772160867322
WordScorePoS
history0NN
land0.123873694868802NN
reform0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.58217162109595
WordScorePoS
history0NN
land0.024255976440725NN
reform0.0911713013253052NN

In India abolishing the land rights of rent collecting intermediaries has been highly successful whereas the implementation of landownership ceilings and laws to protect tenants was with few exceptions half hearted

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.510657701551453
WordScorePoS
land0NN
rights0NNS
highly0RB
successful0JJ
implementation0NN
law0.164686343640793NN
protect0.0241291244414115VB

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.512083475550263
WordScorePoS
land0.123873694868802NN
rights0NNS
highly0RB
successful0JJ
implementation0.0190167691930804NN
law0NN
protect0.046452183350325VB

The absence of political leadership has been identified as the prime reason for the poor implementation of land reforms in India

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.410757292349193
WordScorePoS
political0JJ
leadership0NN
identify0VB
poor0.150659516460257JJ
implementation0NN
land0.0319966432858631NN
reform0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.665488822517683
WordScorePoS
political0.111637082206855JJ
leadership0.0688661930304451NN
identify0VB
poor0JJ
implementation0NN
land0.024255976440725NN
reform0.0911713013253052NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.357767247439091
WordScorePoS
political0JJ
leadership0NN
identify0VB
poor0.016202004209163JJ
implementation0.0190167691930804NN
land0.123873694868802NN
reform0NN

Still where tenant protection was implemented seriously primarily in West Bengal it helped improve productivity

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.564448227585371
WordScorePoS
protection0.122839698738001NN
implement0.0450489732120807VB
primarily0RB
help0NN
improve0VB
productivity0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.310552287527929
WordScorePoS
protection0NN
implement0.0109267235789154VB
primarily0RB
help0NN
improve0.0218534471578307VB
productivity0.0595900566394012NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.310103746063342
WordScorePoS
protection0NN
implement0VB
primarily0RB
help0NN
improve0VB
productivity0.0922368138456871NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.309791183279665
WordScorePoS
protection0NN
implement0.0273960270556257VB
primarily0RB
help0NN
improve0.0273960270556257VB
productivity0.0373517915079663NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.303648694599122
WordScorePoS
protection0.0660824365173543NN
implement0.0121171980355011VB
primarily0RB
help0NN
improve0.0121171980355011VB
productivity0NN

But restrictions on subleasing land by beneficiaries or their children tend to reduce the scope for productivity enhancing land trans Figure

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.537456054967077
WordScorePoS
restriction0.0583416713841148NN
land0.0465651203624806NN
child0.0546336178945768NN
reduce0.00799614078871077VB
productivity0.0595900566394012NN
enhance0.0268922747178632VB
figure0NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.484085876177588
WordScorePoS
restriction0NN
land0.123873694868802NN
child0NN
reduce0.00709051106978941VB
productivity0NN
enhance0.0158976666884135VB
figure0NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.31088167791841
WordScorePoS
restriction0NN
land0.0389167984372011NN
child0.0273960270556257NN
reduce0.0200483235258943VB
productivity0.0373517915079663NN
enhance0.0112376090361851VB
figure0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.30564741205612
WordScorePoS
restriction0NN
land0NN
child0NN
reduce0VB
productivity0.0922368138456871NN
enhance0.0185001613201543VB
figure0.0602029956716497NN

Unequal initial land distributions go together with slower economic growth Average GDP per capita growth Taiwan China Rep

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.695542324625893
WordScorePoS
land0NN
economic0.128463821595706JJ
growth0.208565600657229NN
average0NN
gdp0NN
capita0.049270765107907NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.553578534014606
WordScorePoS
land0NN
economic0.103276847978089JJ
growth0.11178243319132NN
average0.146608885563018NN
gdp0NN
capita0NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.19367685005646
WordScorePoS
land0NN
economic0JJ
growth0NN
average0.1656430212089NN
gdp0NN
capita0NN

of Korea Japan Malaysia China Thailand Vietnam Indonesia Dominican Rep

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Sri Lanka Egypt Brazil India Colombia Paraguay Mexico Costa Rica Guatemala Kenya Argentina South Africa Peru El Salvador Honduras R

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

de Venezuela Nicaragua

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Initial land distribution Gini coefficient inverted scale Source World Bank

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.663864265517789
WordScorePoS
land0.0465651203624806NN
scale0.0357189919948307NN
source0.0130963126055467NN
world0.0124838525528648NN
bank0.0881366997038154NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.501983141630136
WordScorePoS
land0.123873694868802NN
scale0NN
source0.0232260916751625NN
world0.00110699520004297NN
bank0NN

Note Land distribution is measured using the Gini coefficient

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.601587347791928
WordScorePoS
land0.123873694868802NN
measure0.0223459295604043NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.559096806802106
WordScorePoS
land0.0319966432858631NN
measure0.103895385378356NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.398941278172914
WordScorePoS
land0.0465651203624806NN
measure0.0504000902222448NN

fers

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

And the fact that both tenants and landlords have rights to the same plot of land severely undermines investment incentives

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.565652623880636
WordScorePoS
rights0NNS
land0.123873694868802NN
severely0RB
investment0NN
incentive0.0390772412228479NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.422142844058861
WordScorePoS
rights0.0519476926891779NNS
land0.0319966432858631NN
severely0RB
investment0.0376648791150643NN
incentive0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.394290435599
WordScorePoS
rights0NNS
land0NN
severely0RB
investment0.0766240489430275NN
incentive0.036961556179878NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.357603096681488
WordScorePoS
rights0.078760887431929NNS
land0.024255976440725NN
severely0RB
investment0NN
incentive0NN

In Latin America where the potential for land reform should have been highest given the high inequality of landownership reforms have generally been incomplete

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.915042119753143
WordScorePoS
potential0NN
land0NN
reform0NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN

Beneficiaries have often lacked the tools to become competitive and as result the impact on poverty has been disappointing

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.803221168266177
WordScorePoS
lack0.0753297582301286NN
tool0NN
result0NN
impact0NN
poverty0.269969049497485NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.355977603851322
WordScorePoS
lack0NN
tool0.0542519672965169NN
result0NN
impact0.0866018859977851NN
poverty0.0121782716594324NN

In Kenya and Zimbabwe postindependence reforms were quite effective but short lived for political reasons

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.783597789677108
WordScorePoS
reform0.0911713013253052NN
effective0.02046578088155JJ
live0VB
political0.111637082206855JJ

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.384831860157265
WordScorePoS
reform0NN
effective0.0145231653596925JJ
live0.0159075630937118VB
political0.0792212041430275JJ

In South Africa the government land redistribution program in the late fell way short of its targets but recently gathered steam box

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.514404397521418
WordScorePoS
south0RB
africa0IN
government0.048933054487825NN
land0NN
fall0NN
target0.0898760357768464NN

Clearly both the politics of land reform and its implementation are complex

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.680378812200397
WordScorePoS
land0.123873694868802NN
reform0NN
implementation0.0190167691930804NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.549611722920613
WordScorePoS
land0.024255976440725NN
reform0.0911713013253052NN
implementation0NN

Why the rather disappointing results from attempts at land reform

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.623170367517643
WordScorePoS
result0NN
land0.123873694868802NN
reform0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.580679047179486
WordScorePoS
result0NN
land0.024255976440725NN
reform0.0911713013253052NN

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.343760608904901
WordScorePoS
result0.0683326727248364NN
land0NN
reform0NN

First given that the motivation for land reform is often to address political grievances efficiency and poverty reduction tend to be secondary

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.529145034070218
WordScorePoS
land0.0319966432858631NN
reform0NN
political0JJ
efficiency0NN
poverty0.269969049497485NN
reduction0NN
secondary0JJ

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.29362099098135
WordScorePoS
land0.0325677023224526NN
reform0NN
political0JJ
efficiency0.134992154141495NN
poverty0NN
reduction0NN
secondary0JJ

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.518569447767416
WordScorePoS
land0.024255976440725NN
reform0.0911713013253052NN
political0.111637082206855JJ
efficiency0NN
poverty0NN
reduction0NN
secondary0.0688661930304451JJ

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.323968615673348
WordScorePoS
land0NN
reform0NN
political0.0792212041430275JJ
efficiency0NN
poverty0.05809266143877NN
reduction0.0475643836183697NN
secondary0JJ

Guided by short term political objectives bureaucrats often targeted high productivity areas rather than high potential areas resulting in costly land acquisition and limited scope for sustained productivity impacts

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.39005212622316
WordScorePoS
term0.149793392961411NN
political0JJ
objective0.0299586785922821NN
target0.0898760357768464NN
productivity0NN
potential0NN
result0NN
land0NN
limited0JJ
sustained0JJ
impact0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.636644472990968
WordScorePoS
term0NN
political0.0368585655748969JJ
objective0.0368585655748969NN
target0NN
productivity0.0922368138456871NN
potential0.0454743001434393NN
result0NN
land0NN
limited0JJ
sustained0.120405991343299JJ
impact0.0160169090870187NN

Central administration of the programs also often meant that large portion of land reform budgets was spent on the

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.530910787945294
WordScorePoS
central0.0924643738905717JJ
land0.0325677023224526NN
reform0NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.525992072917683
WordScorePoS
central0JJ
land0.123873694868802NN
reform0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.490126924588011
WordScorePoS
central0JJ
land0.024255976440725NN
reform0.0911713013253052NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.384847541072223
WordScorePoS
central0.0440683498519077JJ
land0.0465651203624806NN
reform0NN

BOX

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT Land reform in South Africa picking up steam To redress apartheid era asset inequality South Africa embarked on land reform in with program that rested on redistribution restitution and tenure

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.844891805374452
WordScorePoS
world0.00276879546803864NN
development0.0177346522508396NN
report0NN
land0NN
reform0NN
south0RB
africa0IN
asset0.0488696285210061NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN

Targets for redistribution were ambitious the government aimed to transfer million hectares of agricultural land percent of the total to about million people between and

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.630479408777279
WordScorePoS
target0.0357189919948307NN
government0NN
aim0NN
transfer0NN
hectare0NN
agricultural0.250032943963815JJ
land0.0465651203624806NN
total0.0252000451111224NN
people0.0257736572183839NNS

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.570468261532615
WordScorePoS
target0NN
government0NN
aim0NN
transfer0NN
hectare0.206935959588465NN
agricultural0JJ
land0.123873694868802NN
total0NN
people0.0159982027144574NNS

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.337345285687441
WordScorePoS
target0.0898760357768464NN
government0.048933054487825NN
aim0.0249900578719309NN
transfer0.036961556179878NN
hectare0NN
agricultural0JJ
land0NN
total0NN
people0.00432344066632653NNS

Under the program self selected groups use grants to purchase land from willing sellers and to invest in the land development

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.726613604510331
WordScorePoS
land0.123873694868802NN
invest0VB
development0.0106357666046841NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.470935347038516
WordScorePoS
land0.0465651203624806NN
invest0.0583416713841148VB
development0.0159922815774215NN

But by February only about

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

million hectares had been redistributed to households

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.925071399921536
WordScorePoS
hectare0.206935959588465NN
household0NN

Restitution proceeded at snail pace only of claims were settled between and

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

And progress on tenure in the former homelands was equally slow

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.79174622185762
WordScorePoS
progress0.0591643007226199NN
slow0.0607878664258118JJ

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.499666082072323
WordScorePoS
progress0.0449274832628543NN
slow0.0307735781890304JJ

After this sluggish start some key changes accelerated the restitution and redistribution programs

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.796652959503804
WordScorePoS
key0NN
accelerate0.120266261535276VB

The Restitution Act was amended to allow for negotiated settlements speeding the process considerably previously all claims had to be settled in court

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.793816124645118
WordScorePoS
negotiate0VB
settlement0.146277152173395NN
process0NN

By March more than claims were settled and all claims are scheduled to be resolved by March

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

The redistribution program was improved in making it more flexible and decentralized

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.649031390261021
WordScorePoS
improve0.0511916925627245VB

The grants for land purchase and farm development now follow sliding scale depending on the contribution by the beneficiaries and can be obtained by individuals as well as groups

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.770743435238024
WordScorePoS
land0.0465651203624806NN
farm0.291708356920574NN
development0.0159922815774215NN
scale0.0357189919948307NN
depend0.0357189919948307VB
contribution0NN
obtain0VB
individual0JJ

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.415567763452408
WordScorePoS
land0.123873694868802NN
farm0NN
development0.0106357666046841NN
scale0NN
depend0.0633470357346975VB
contribution0.0316735178673487NN
obtain0VB
individual0JJ

Approval authority is now delegated from the minister to the provincial directors of land affairs

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.833095789856162
WordScorePoS
land0.123873694868802NN

As result redistribution has significantly increased

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.889822781170265
WordScorePoS
result0.0683326727248364NN
significantly0RB
increase0.00905621749519576NN

For the first time since land delivery is now constrained only by the budget for it

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.757858110494993
WordScorePoS
time0.016202004209163NN
land0.123873694868802NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.350788016892998
WordScorePoS
time0.0182713919265625NN
land0.0465651203624806NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.328874530826608
WordScorePoS
time0.0607862199751165NN
land0NN

But some big challenges remain

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.612294566740377
WordScorePoS
challenge0.0947742174515357NN
remain0VB

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.542891873340107
WordScorePoS
challenge0.0347609334428716NN
remain0.049270765107907VB

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.341601022078489
WordScorePoS
challenge0.0528748274225028NN
remain0VB

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.322392623648757
WordScorePoS
challenge0NN
remain0.0499016491051341VB

Pressure is growing from civil society on government to meet the revised target of redistributing percent of agricultural land by

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.773323828694779
WordScorePoS
pressure0.0440683498519077NN
grow0.0182713919265625VB
civil0JJ
society0NN
government0NN
meet0.0881366997038154VB
target0.0357189919948307NN
agricultural0.250032943963815JJ
land0.0465651203624806NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.436721709059325
WordScorePoS
pressure0NN
grow0VB
civil0.0978661089756501JJ
society0.0359743605686701NN
government0.048933054487825NN
meet0VB
target0.0898760357768464NN
agricultural0JJ
land0NN

Restitution settlements can be complex when rural claims target highly productive capital intensive farms and the claimants refuse as is their right to accept financial compensation instead of the physical restoration of the claimed land

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.824689314193753
WordScorePoS
settlement0NN
rural0.148975141598503JJ
target0.0357189919948307NN
highly0RB
productive0.0714379839896614JJ
intensive0JJ
farm0.291708356920574NN
financial0.00896409157262106JJ
restoration0NN
land0.0465651203624806NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.319536489596786
WordScorePoS
settlement0.146277152173395NN
rural0.0373517915079663JJ
target0NN
highly0RB
productive0JJ
intensive0JJ
farm0NN
financial0.0112376090361851JJ
restoration0NN
land0.0389167984372011NN

The agricultural impact of the redistribution scheme has been stunted by an inappropriate emphasis on collective farming and lack of beneficiary power in decision making

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.921894483166031
WordScorePoS
agricultural0.250032943963815JJ
impact0NN
stunt0.11668334276823NN
farm0.291708356920574NN
lack0NN
power0NN
decision0NN

The land market continues to be biased against family farming through costly restrictions on subdividing agricultural land and regressive land tax dating from

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.856122301491874
WordScorePoS
land0.0465651203624806NN
market0.0913569596328122NN
continue0VB
family0.0297950283197006NN
farm0.291708356920574NN
restriction0.0583416713841148NN
agricultural0.250032943963815JJ
tax0NN

A new land tax based on the value of unimproved agricultural land could provide incentives for large farms to sell unused or underused parcels

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.823176021132924
WordScorePoS
land0.0465651203624806NN
tax0NN
base0NN
agricultural0.250032943963815JJ
provide0.0215170467912497VB
incentive0NN
farm0.291708356920574NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.439387927620528
WordScorePoS
land0.123873694868802NN
tax0NN
base0.0190167691930804NN
agricultural0JJ
provide0.0445201436316848VB
incentive0.0390772412228479NN
farm0NN

New legislation that transfers communal lands from state to community ownership is now in place but it still needs to be implemented

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.448046296925534
WordScorePoS
legislation0NN
transfer0NN
land0.0319966432858631NN
community0NN
ownership0.0736315832425121NN
implement0.0450489732120807VB

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.416522196916609
WordScorePoS
legislation0NN
transfer0NN
land0.123873694868802NN
community0.016202004209163NN
ownership0NN
implement0VB

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.404084903421424
WordScorePoS
legislation0.0558185411034276NN
transfer0NN
land0.024255976440725NN
community0NN
ownership0.0558185411034276NN
implement0VB

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.340313424575854
WordScorePoS
legislation0NN
transfer0.0803666323453555NN
land0.0141533244035107NN
community0NN
ownership0NN
implement0.0199268631468397VB

Sources World Bank van den Brink de Klerk and Binswanger

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.737559496131694
WordScorePoS
source0.0130963126055467NN
world0.0124838525528648NN
bank0.0881366997038154NN

wages and salaries of civil servants rather than used to benefit the poor

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.64727532966011
WordScorePoS
civil0JJ
benefit0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.486299777000752
WordScorePoS
civil0.0978661089756501JJ
benefit0NN
poor0.0153248097886055JJ

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.343763423787822
WordScorePoS
civil0JJ
benefit0.0252000451111224NN
poor0.0548141757796873JJ

The prospect of gaining access to valuable real estate instead of having to put in sweat equity to develop piece of land undermined the selftargeting properties of reform programs often politicizing beneficiary selection

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Second the relationship between farm size and productivity depends on the type of crop quality of land degree of mechanization and such associated factors as marketing and credit

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.730974785186624
WordScorePoS
farm0.291708356920574NN
size0NN
productivity0.0595900566394012NN
depend0.0357189919948307VB
type0NN
crop0.0357189919948307NN
quality0.0109267235789154NN
land0.0465651203624806NN
degree0NN
credit0NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.301436816425801
WordScorePoS
farm0NN
size0NN
productivity0NN
depend0VB
type0NN
crop0.0335649154577099NN
quality0NN
land0NN
degree0.164469921319675NN
credit0NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.392668814473802
WordScorePoS
farm0NN
size0NN
productivity0NN
depend0.0633470357346975VB
type0.0390772412228479NN
crop0.0316735178673487NN
quality0NN
land0.123873694868802NN
degree0NN
credit0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.322463959636293
WordScorePoS
farm0NN
size0.0368585655748969NN
productivity0.0922368138456871NN
depend0VB
type0NN
crop0NN
quality0.022550656390892NN
land0NN
degree0NN
credit0.0602029956716497NN

For most crops under normal availability of mechanical services production is neutral to farm size

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.841976484067037
WordScorePoS
crop0.0357189919948307NN
availability0NN
service0.0143446978608332NN
production0.0548141757796873NN
neutral0JJ
farm0.291708356920574NN
size0NN

But when management requirements are substantial labor intensive crops erratic weather conditions frequent pest incidence family farms as opposed to larger wage labor farms can be more efficient because of advantages in supervising labor

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.868013752321186
WordScorePoS
management0NN
substantial0JJ
intensive0JJ
crop0.0357189919948307NN
weather0.0357189919948307NN
condition0NN
incidence0NN
family0.0297950283197006NN
farm0.291708356920574NN
wage0NN
efficient0JJ

By contrast large farms often have better access to input and output markets financing and technical assistance

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.871562236281531
WordScorePoS
farm0.291708356920574NN
access0.00749031153171887NN
input0.0583416713841148NN
market0.0913569596328122NN
financing0NN
technical0JJ
assistance0NN

Such advantages can be countered if small farmers coordinate their efforts through cooperatives

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.892547049136266
WordScorePoS
farmer0.175025014152344NN
coordinate0NN
effort0NN

If policymakers do not properly account for all these conditions in land reform schemes efficiency can suffer

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.41800170240427
WordScorePoS
account0NN
condition0NN
land0.0325677023224526NN
reform0NN
efficiency0.134992154141495NN
suffer0VB

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.427196855664817
WordScorePoS
account0NN
condition0NN
land0.024255976440725NN
reform0.0911713013253052NN
efficiency0NN
suffer0.0558185411034276VB

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.381760226483407
WordScorePoS
account0.0577345906651901NN
condition0.0409791940864438NN
land0.0144336476662975NN
reform0NN
efficiency0.039884692535803NN
suffer0VB

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.377084666030534
WordScorePoS
account0NN
condition0.121575732851624NN
land0NN
reform0NN
efficiency0.0295821503613099NN
suffer0VB

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.343356009746662
WordScorePoS
account0.0137637438743113NN
condition0NN
land0.123873694868802NN
reform0NN
efficiency0NN
suffer0VB

Third many traditional land reform efforts failed to provide beneficiaries with secure long term rights backed by wellfunctioning and equitable legal system

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.340402938776736
WordScorePoS
traditional0JJ
land0NN
reform0NN
effort0NN
provide0.00601568197638796VB
secure0JJ
term0.149793392961411NN
rights0NNS
equitable0.017987180284335JJ
legal0JJ
system0.0211360962287062NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.452092987162976
WordScorePoS
traditional0.0390772412228479JJ
land0.123873694868802NN
reform0NN
effort0.032404008418326NN
provide0.0445201436316848VB
secure0JJ
term0NN
rights0NNS
equitable0.0190167691930804JJ
legal0JJ
system0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.442266448939513
WordScorePoS
traditional0.0440683498519077JJ
land0.0465651203624806NN
reform0NN
effort0NN
provide0.0215170467912497VB
secure0.0440683498519077JJ
term0NN
rights0NNS
equitable0.0214456704626236JJ
legal0JJ
system0.0756001353333673NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.358676064757314
WordScorePoS
traditional0JJ
land0.024255976440725NN
reform0.0911713013253052NN
effort0NN
provide0.0112083245137075VB
secure0JJ
term0NN
rights0.078760887431929NNS
equitable0JJ
legal0JJ
system0NN

Affordable channels to adjudicate land access and ownership claims must be open to everyone

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.461849472070406
WordScorePoS
affordable0JJ
land0.123873694868802NN
access0.00110699520004297NN
ownership0NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.461766012553463
WordScorePoS
affordable0.0766742036076356JJ
land0.0325677023224526NN
access0.0157161992303584NN
ownership0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.409354611953669
WordScorePoS
affordable0JJ
land0.0319966432858631NN
access0.00514687440545096NN
ownership0.0736315832425121NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.336233178652706
WordScorePoS
affordable0.0458109463416786JJ
land0.0389167984372011NN
access0.00626002771693937NN
ownership0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.324741392647853
WordScorePoS
affordable0JJ
land0.024255976440725NN
access0.00780347258345989NN
ownership0.0558185411034276NN

Without such channels disadvantaged groups cannot take full advantage of tenure security land market and distributive reforms

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.620474363957839
WordScorePoS
disadvantaged0JJ
full0JJ
security0.0893850849591018NN
land0.0465651203624806NN
market0.0913569596328122NN
reform0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.442175354269749
WordScorePoS
disadvantaged0JJ
full0.0465610847355851JJ
security0NN
land0.024255976440725NN
market0NN
reform0.0911713013253052NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.410254073438774
WordScorePoS
disadvantaged0JJ
full0JJ
security0.0264204925485796NN
land0.123873694868802NN
market0NN
reform0NN

Even with full property rights underdeveloped credit and insurance markets limit the use of land for collateral

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.475725786840486
WordScorePoS
full0.0465610847355851JJ
property0.0558185411034276NN
rights0.078760887431929NNS
credit0NN
insurance0NN
market0NN
limit0NN
land0.024255976440725NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.420471465449474
WordScorePoS
full0.0410992516792148JJ
property0NN
rights0.0347609334428716NNS
credit0NN
insurance0.0804764811724088NN
market0.0252035516550537NN
limit0NN
land0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.402175985170378
WordScorePoS
full0JJ
property0NN
rights0NNS
credit0NN
insurance0NN
market0.0913569596328122NN
limit0.0357189919948307NN
land0.0465651203624806NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.383356779291318
WordScorePoS
full0.030745604615229JJ
property0NN
rights0NNS
credit0.0602029956716497NN
insurance0NN
market0.0377086395700813NN
limit0.0368585655748969NN
land0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.36496693912401
WordScorePoS
full0JJ
property0.0736315832425121NN
rights0.0519476926891779NNS
credit0NN
insurance0NN
market0NN
limit0NN
land0.0319966432858631NN

Fourth the full productivity benefits of land reform cannot be realized without complementary inputs and training putting land in the hands of inexperienced farmers without the needed support often led to high rates of desertion

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.627102110271875
WordScorePoS
full0JJ
productivity0.0595900566394012NN
benefit0.0252000451111224NN
land0.0465651203624806NN
reform0NN
realize0VB
input0.0583416713841148NN
training0NN
put0.0583416713841148VBN
farmer0.175025014152344NN
support0.00896409157262106NN
lead0NN
rate0.0155217067874935NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.41926635435626
WordScorePoS
full0JJ
productivity0NN
benefit0.0446918591208085NN
land0.123873694868802NN
reform0NN
realize0VB
input0NN
training0NN
put0VBN
farmer0NN
support0.00794883334420673NN
lead0.016202004209163NN
rate0.0137637438743113NN

More generally broader rural development strategy is required to complement land reform because rural households get their livelihoods from several different sources

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.648367743924208
WordScorePoS
rural0.148975141598503JJ
development0.0159922815774215NN
strategy0NN
require0VB
complement0NN
land0.0465651203624806NN
reform0NN
household0.0297950283197006NN
livelihood0.0504000902222448NN
source0.0130963126055467NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.423813153590678
WordScorePoS
rural0.0264204925485796JJ
development0.0106357666046841NN
strategy0.0190167691930804NN
require0VB
complement0NN
land0.123873694868802NN
reform0NN
household0NN
livelihood0.0670377886812128NN
source0.0232260916751625NN

This has implications for the design of land reform for example determining viable farm size and highlights the importance of investments that can facilitate off farm employment such as education

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.783070915967447
WordScorePoS
land0.0465651203624806NN
reform0NN
determine0VB
farm0.291708356920574NN
size0NN
investment0.0182713919265625NN
facilitate0.0252000451111224VB
employment0.0252000451111224NN
education0NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.313216798096114
WordScorePoS
land0NN
reform0NN
determine0VB
farm0NN
size0NN
investment0NN
facilitate0VB
employment0.0352060273355634NN
education0.244244978014045NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.295171784029437
WordScorePoS
land0NN
reform0NN
determine0VB
farm0NN
size0.049270765107907NN
investment0.0252035516550537NN
facilitate0VB
employment0.173804667214358NN
education0.0150723186962745NN

Broadening access by improving the security of tenure The benefits of secure tenure for rural households are well known higher productivity greater access to credit higher propensity to invest in physical assets figure

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.718616404719271
WordScorePoS
broaden0VB
access0.00749031153171887NN
improve0.0218534471578307VB
security0.0893850849591018NN
benefit0.0252000451111224NN
secure0.0440683498519077JJ
rural0.148975141598503JJ
household0.0297950283197006NN
productivity0.0595900566394012NN
credit0NN
invest0.0583416713841148VB
asset0NN
figure0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.386050848617194
WordScorePoS
broaden0VB
access0.0128821355880844NN
improve0VB
security0NN
benefit0.0260040237236563NN
secure0JJ
rural0JJ
household0NN
productivity0.0922368138456871NN
credit0.0602029956716497NN
invest0VB
asset0NN
figure0.0602029956716497NN

and the education of children and time and effort saved in securing land rights

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.633419955377403
WordScorePoS
education0.244244978014045NN
child0.076326555629389NN
time0NN
effort0.0255262687343935NN
save0IN
secure0JJ
land0NN
rights0.0352060273355634NNS

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.35985789609132
WordScorePoS
education0.0150723186962745NN
child0.0452169560888236NN
time0NN
effort0NN
save0IN
secure0.121575732851624JJ
land0NN
rights0.0347609334428716NNS

Further benefits arise from removing the discretionary power of bureaucrats to decide on the allocation of land improved local governance was mentioned as benefit of property rights reforms introduced after in Mexico

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.56509727133015
WordScorePoS
benefit0.0393804437159645NN
arise0VB
remove0VB
power0NN
land0.024255976440725NN
improve0VB
local0JJ
governance0NN
property0.0558185411034276NN
rights0.078760887431929NNS
reform0.0911713013253052NN
introduce0VB

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.548204198530057
WordScorePoS
benefit0.0446918591208085NN
arise0.0390772412228479VB
remove0VB
power0NN
land0.123873694868802NN
improve0VB
local0.0275274877486226JJ
governance0NN
property0NN
rights0NNS
reform0NN
introduce0.0390772412228479VB

These benefits are observed also in urban contexts

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.935647315114594
WordScorePoS
benefit0NN
urban0.27622591898666JJ
context0NN

Capitalizing on natural experiment that allocated land titles to some squatters but not others in poor suburban area of Buenos Aires Galiani and Schargrodsky found significant effects of Justice land and infrastructure titling on housing investment household size and school achievement

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.42023134617807
WordScorePoS
natural0.0376648791150643JJ
land0.0319966432858631NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
significant0.0376648791150643JJ
effect0NN
justice0NN
infrastructure0NN
housing0NN
investment0.0376648791150643NN
household0NN
size0NN
school0NN
achievement0.0736315832425121NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.379640350065074
WordScorePoS
natural0.0229054731708393JJ
land0.0389167984372011NN
poor0.0229054731708393JJ
significant0JJ
effect0NN
justice0NN
infrastructure0.0194583992186006NN
housing0.219415728260093NN
investment0NN
household0NN
size0NN
school0NN
achievement0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.365591039068016
WordScorePoS
natural0JJ
land0NN
poor0JJ
significant0JJ
effect0.0454743001434393NN
justice0NN
infrastructure0.192202909044225NN
housing0NN
investment0.0377086395700813NN
household0NN
size0.0368585655748969NN
school0NN
achievement0.0368585655748969NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.317877153303193
WordScorePoS
natural0JJ
land0NN
poor0JJ
significant0.033663879505068JJ
effect0NN
justice0.214981650384708NN
infrastructure0NN
housing0NN
investment0NN
household0NN
size0NN
school0.0548954478802642NN
achievement0NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.217957338911805
WordScorePoS
natural0JJ
land0NN
poor0JJ
significant0JJ
effect0NN
justice0NN
infrastructure0NN
housing0NN
investment0NN
household0NN
size0NN
school0.208127520578185NN
achievement0NN

The quality of houses in titled parcels was higher

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.800920269958952
WordScorePoS
quality0.076326555629389NN

Titled households had fewer members even though their houses were larger and they seemed to invest more in their children education

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.76182441606064
WordScorePoS
household0NN
invest0VB
child0.076326555629389NN
education0.244244978014045NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.339287498796339
WordScorePoS
household0.0297950283197006NN
invest0.0583416713841148VB
child0.0546336178945768NN
education0NN

In India unclear land titles combined with unreliable courts were found to limit the supply of land and discourage investments

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.661427870874193
WordScorePoS
land0.123873694868802NN
limit0NN
supply0.0223459295604043NN
investment0NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.382876867995396
WordScorePoS
land0.0325677023224526NN
limit0NN
supply0.0528748274225028NN
investment0.0383371018038178NN

Southern states tend to have higher tenure security which increases the share of modern retailers

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.888625599159264
WordScorePoS
southern0JJ
security0.0625160381065121NN
increase0.0162235147372888NN
share0.0383371018038178NN
modern0.462321869452858JJ
retailer0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.304294084502652
WordScorePoS
southern0.0595900566394012JJ
security0.0893850849591018NN
increase0.0128868286091919NN
share0.0365427838531249NN
modern0JJ
retailer0NN

Evidence from massive urban squatter titling program in Peru suggests that titling resulted in more work done outside the home and substitution of adult for child labor

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.639618467915772
WordScorePoS
evidence0NN
urban0.27622591898666JJ
suggest0VB
result0NN
adult0JJ
child0.0273960270556257NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.504201228898314
WordScorePoS
evidence0NN
urban0JJ
suggest0VB
result0NN
adult0.163013873070017JJ
child0.076326555629389NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.426592368515688
WordScorePoS
evidence0.12939607756667NN
urban0.0488696285210061JJ
suggest0VB
result0NN
adult0JJ
child0.0242343960710022NN

Formal land titling is one way to provide for secure tenure but titling takes time and can be expensive

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.601779396050798
WordScorePoS
land0.123873694868802NN
provide0.0445201436316848VB
secure0JJ
time0.016202004209163NN
expensive0JJ

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.425173267376672
WordScorePoS
land0.0465651203624806NN
provide0.0215170467912497VB
secure0.0440683498519077JJ
time0.0182713919265625NN
expensive0JJ

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.396334879572339
WordScorePoS
land0NN
provide0VB
secure0.121575732851624JJ
time0NN
expensive0JJ

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.344531080052032
WordScorePoS
land0.0144336476662975NN
provide0.0200087191734851VB
secure0JJ
time0.0169905820958638NN
expensive0.0542519672965169JJ

Thailand the first country with national program completed the program this year years after its inception

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.882726093124004
WordScorePoS
country0NN
national0JJ
complete0.0815069365350084JJ

One solution is to allow alternatives to conventional private land titles especially in urban areas

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.779993457407924
WordScorePoS
solution0NN
alternative0NN
private0JJ
land0.0389167984372011NN
urban0.27622591898666JJ

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.331458786640698
WordScorePoS
solution0.0368585655748969NN
alternative0.0602029956716497NN
private0.0368585655748969JJ
land0NN
urban0JJ

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.306593381984003
WordScorePoS
solution0NN
alternative0NN
private0JJ
land0.123873694868802NN
urban0JJ

In Trinidad and Tobago law authorized three incremental levels of statutory security each requiring additional documentation and commitment from the settler and the government

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.568382474931238
WordScorePoS
law0.164686343640793NN
level0.0610668815653026NN
security0NN
require0VB
additional0JJ
commitment0NN
government0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.490585895960371
WordScorePoS
law0NN
level0.0138997399903163NN
security0NN
require0.0211360962287062VB
additional0.036961556179878JJ
commitment0.0739231123597559NN
government0.048933054487825NN

In one year an estimated percent of informal settlers on state land had applied for the lowest level

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.678477933803919
WordScorePoS
estimate0.0190167691930804NN
land0.123873694868802NN
level0.00489845440032415NN

Because many of these instruments do not require prior physical planning infrastructure servicing and surveying of settlements they can offer widespread coverage at lower costs

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.578038495822578
WordScorePoS
require0.0260040237236563VB
plan0NN
infrastructure0.192202909044225NN
survey0NN
settlement0NN
offer0.0454743001434393NN
coverage0NN
cost0NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.491292606784904
WordScorePoS
require0VB
plan0.0583751976558017NN
infrastructure0.0194583992186006NN
survey0NN
settlement0.146277152173395NN
offer0NN
coverage0NN
cost0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.362162598595223
WordScorePoS
require0VB
plan0.0344256159926965NN
infrastructure0NN
survey0.064698038783335NN
settlement0NN
offer0NN
coverage0NN
cost0.0660824365173543NN

The limitations on transfer associated with many of these instruments also check the tendency of some informal dwellers to capitalize land subsidies immediately through land sales

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.641946225371931
WordScorePoS
transfer0.0803666323453555NN
land0.0141533244035107NN
subsidy0.162850158165781NN

Several countries have taken steps to require joint titling of land in the names of husband and wife bolstering women effective right to land particularly during their husbands absences

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.577653119796458
WordScorePoS
country0NN
require0VB
land0.024255976440725NN
woman0.221979360474357NN
effective0.02046578088155JJ

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.332675623174803
WordScorePoS
country0NN
require0.104282800328615VB
land0NN
woman0.0452169560888236NN
effective0.0180650490434051JJ

Vietnam has targets for the joint titling of land as part of the Vietnam Development Goals incorporated in its Poverty Reduction Strategy

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.697975812847528
WordScorePoS
target0NN
land0.0319966432858631NN
development0.0164833460638534NN
goal0NN
poverty0.269969049497485NN
reduction0NN
strategy0.0442083771593746NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.376780081596216
WordScorePoS
target0NN
land0.123873694868802NN
development0.0106357666046841NN
goal0NN
poverty0.0232260916751625NN
reduction0.0190167691930804NN
strategy0.0190167691930804NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.319089346288405
WordScorePoS
target0.0898760357768464NN
land0NN
development0.0469463607292177NN
goal0NN
poverty0.0109843026967392NN
reduction0NN
strategy0.017987180284335NN

Attention to women land rights is particularly important when women are the main cultivators when out migration is high when control of productive activities is differentiated by gender or when high levels of adult Figure

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.725473459437865
WordScorePoS
attention0NN
woman0.221979360474357NN
land0.024255976440725NN
rights0.078760887431929NNS
migration0NN
control0.0465610847355851NN
productive0JJ
activity0NN
gender0.196902218579822NN
level0.0172651853471334NN
adult0JJ
figure0NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.403389795225182
WordScorePoS
attention0NN
woman0.0610612445035112NN
land0NN
rights0.0352060273355634NNS
migration0NN
control0NN
productive0JJ
activity0NN
gender0.10561808200669NN
level0.0231525547935232NN
adult0.163013873070017JJ
figure0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.19533476186981
WordScorePoS
attention0.0396106020715138NN
woman0.0242343960710022NN
land0NN
rights0NNS
migration0.12939607756667NN
control0NN
productive0JJ
activity0NN
gender0NN
level0NN
adult0JJ
figure0NN

Title to land increases investment and access to credit Relative increase in investment untitled land Relative increase in access to credit untitled land Titled land Titled land Untitled land Untitled land Brazil Thailand Honduras Source Feder

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

mortality and unclear regulation could undermine woman livelihoods in case of her husband death

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.818066575761351
WordScorePoS
mortality0.276962203701274NN
regulation0NN
woman0.0381514605760894NN
livelihood0NN
death0.193573191943949NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.356985625030474
WordScorePoS
mortality0NN
regulation0NN
woman0.221979360474357NN
livelihood0NN
death0NN

Despite potentially large benefits from titling there are challenges in urban and rural contexts

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.861083846618172
WordScorePoS
potentially0RB
benefit0NN
challenge0.0947742174515357NN
urban0.27622591898666JJ
rural0.0373517915079663JJ
context0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.367279862033947
WordScorePoS
potentially0RB
benefit0.0252000451111224NN
challenge0NN
urban0JJ
rural0.148975141598503JJ
context0NN

In urban areas access to credit may not increase if banks are unwilling to accept titled shanties in marginal areas as collateral

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.865118240703913
WordScorePoS
urban0.27622591898666JJ
access0.00626002771693937NN
credit0NN
increase0.00323105002784081NN
bank0NN

And where squatters land is valuable titling programs can be subverted by powerful interests who use the opportunity to relocate squatters to marginal areas for example in Phnom Penh Cambodia

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

This does not reflect problem with titling per se but suggests that when the urban poor lack voice and governance is weak titling programs can backfire

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.696656417444509
WordScorePoS
reflect0VB
suggest0VB
urban0.27622591898666JJ
poor0.0229054731708393JJ
lack0.0229054731708393NN
voice0NN
governance0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.488878434231962
WordScorePoS
reflect0VB
suggest0VB
urban0JJ
poor0.150659516460257JJ
lack0.0753297582301286NN
voice0NN
governance0NN

One way to protect squatters from predatory urban developers would be to grant them group land rights as first step toward individual titles

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.793676035905358
WordScorePoS
protect0.0328357290160445VB
urban0.27622591898666JJ
land0.0389167984372011NN
rights0NNS
individual0JJ

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.388482589137603
WordScorePoS
protect0.046452183350325VB
urban0JJ
land0.123873694868802NN
rights0NNS
individual0JJ

Some studies indicate that formal land titles in several African countries did not bring the expected benefits in higher incomes and investment

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.410131680518097
WordScorePoS
study0NN
land0NN
african0IN
country0NN
bring0VB
expect0VB
benefit0NN
income0.166475342664294NN
investment0.0202620733250388NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.483844234820057
WordScorePoS
study0.0517339898971162NN
land0.123873694868802NN
african0IN
country0NN
bring0VB
expect0VB
benefit0.0446918591208085NN
income0NN
investment0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.417500590306548
WordScorePoS
study0NN
land0.0465651203624806NN
african0IN
country0NN
bring0VB
expect0.0357189919948307VB
benefit0.0252000451111224NN
income0.0643370113878709NN
investment0.0182713919265625NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.382951564621108
WordScorePoS
study0NN
land0NN
african0IN
country0NN
bring0VB
expect0VB
benefit0.0260040237236563NN
income0.110649350233433NN
investment0.0377086395700813NN

This may reflect weaknesses in the institutions responsible for registration and recordkeeping and for the adjudication of rights and resolution of conflicts

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.830848238555358
WordScorePoS
reflect0VB
institution0.274477239401321NN
responsible0JJ
registration0.107490825192354NN
rights0NNS
conflict0.0658099748168827NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.369634008098886
WordScorePoS
reflect0VB
institution0NN
responsible0JJ
registration0NN
rights0.0519476926891779NNS
conflict0.147263166485024NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.303969720601144
WordScorePoS
reflect0VB
institution0.0991236547760315NN
responsible0.064698038783335JJ
registration0NN
rights0NNS
conflict0NN

In some cases it appears that indigenous tenure was already sufficiently secure

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.73114191574413
WordScorePoS
indigenous0JJ
secure0.121575732851624JJ

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.479831530533744
WordScorePoS
indigenous0.0357189919948307JJ
secure0.0440683498519077JJ

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.38096149599447
WordScorePoS
indigenous0.0633470357346975JJ
secure0JJ

It may thus be more appropriate and more cost effective to strengthen the security of tenure through institutions that combine legality with social legitimacy

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.737808327246217
WordScorePoS
cost0.0548954478802642NN
effective0.0482582488828229JJ
strengthen0.0396437925143789VB
security0NN
institution0.274477239401321NN
social0JJ

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.510986469931546
WordScorePoS
cost0.0660824365173543NN
effective0.0145231653596925JJ
strengthen0.00795378154685591VB
security0NN
institution0.0991236547760315NN
social0.101310366625194JJ

This Thailand Honduras BOX

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT Clarifying how customary rights fit with formal systems Customary land tenure is created maintained and protected by norm based customary systems at the local level

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.493138770192424
WordScorePoS
world0.0124838525528648NN
development0.0159922815774215NN
report0NN
rights0NNS
system0.0756001353333673NN
land0.0465651203624806NN
create0VB
maintain0.0881366997038154VB
protect0.0130963126055467VB
base0NN
local0.0155217067874935JJ
level0.00552410547653725NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.44491683932771
WordScorePoS
world0.00257343720272548NN
development0.0164833460638534NN
report0NN
rights0.0519476926891779NNS
system0.0519476926891779NN
land0.0319966432858631NN
create0.0519476926891779VB
maintain0VB
protect0VB
base0.0442083771593746NN
local0JJ
level0.0113874611101829NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.374168841820388
WordScorePoS
world0.00626002771693937NN
development0.0100241617629471NN
report0NN
rights0NNS
system0.0315914058171786NN
land0.0389167984372011NN
create0.0315914058171786VB
maintain0.055245183797332VB
protect0.0328357290160445VB
base0NN
local0.0194583992186006JJ
level0.00692515656684925NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.330406820510753
WordScorePoS
world0.00110699520004297NN
development0.0106357666046841NN
report0NN
rights0NNS
system0NN
land0.123873694868802NN
create0VB
maintain0VB
protect0.046452183350325VB
base0.0190167691930804NN
local0.0275274877486226JJ
level0.00489845440032415NN

Rights to land whether communal or individual are generally based on family lineage or membership in particular cultural grouping

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.457742795211154
WordScorePoS
rights0.078760887431929NNS
land0.024255976440725NN
individual0JJ
base0NN
family0.0465610847355851NN
cultural0JJ

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.437277560210517
WordScorePoS
rights0NNS
land0.123873694868802NN
individual0JJ
base0.0190167691930804NN
family0NN
cultural0JJ

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.392176665543663
WordScorePoS
rights0.0519476926891779NNS
land0.0319966432858631NN
individual0JJ
base0.0442083771593746NN
family0NN
cultural0JJ

Exchanges through sales or rentals are limited to members of the community

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.902646952012387
WordScorePoS
limited0.120266261535276JJ
community0NN

Customary systems are dominant in most African countries and in indigenous areas of many Latin American and Asian countries

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.623458810203728
WordScorePoS
system0NN
dominant0.122412709674631JJ
african0IN
country0NN
indigenous0JJ

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.566958209334849
WordScorePoS
system0.0756001353333673NN
dominant0JJ
african0IN
country0NN
indigenous0.0357189919948307JJ

Having evolved over long periods in response to local conditions they are often quite flexible

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.717253368019749
WordScorePoS
period0NN
response0NN
local0.0214106369326177JJ
condition0.121575732851624NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.48352519516553
WordScorePoS
period0.0409791940864438NN
response0NN
local0.0144336476662975JJ
condition0.0409791940864438NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.348171714165822
WordScorePoS
period0NN
response0.0548233071065585NN
local0.0145856516935579JJ
condition0NN

Problems arise when transfers to outsiders become widespread or internal land dispute resolution mechanisms become inadequate

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.577358260720541
WordScorePoS
arise0VB
transfer0.036961556179878NN
land0NN
mechanism0.147846224719512NN
inadequate0JJ

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.50907525963897
WordScorePoS
arise0.0390772412228479VB
transfer0NN
land0.123873694868802NN
mechanism0NN
inadequate0JJ

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.329993298196783
WordScorePoS
arise0VB
transfer0NN
land0.0319966432858631NN
mechanism0NN
inadequate0.0736315832425121JJ

There have been many efforts to make the transition from collective or customary systems to more individual landholdings

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.533210928152996
WordScorePoS
effort0NN
system0.0756001353333673NN
individual0JJ

But the transition if not properly managed can end in disaster such as in Kenya

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.736295619828567
WordScorePoS
manage0VB
disaster0.157957029085893NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.37381884716228
WordScorePoS
manage0.0297950283197006VB
disaster0.0504000902222448NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.308034462517457
WordScorePoS
manage0.0660824365173543VB
disaster0NN

Because the elimination of lineage rights and the legalization of land sales were not accepted by rural populations conflicts over land sometimes violent ensued between those claiming land under customary norms and those seeking to enforce the new rules

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.492861363747768
WordScorePoS
elimination0NN
rights0.0519476926891779NNS
land0.0319966432858631NN
rural0JJ
population0NN
conflict0.147263166485024NN
seek0.120266261535276VB
enforce0VB
rule0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.431548599435047
WordScorePoS
elimination0.0440683498519077NN
rights0NNS
land0.0465651203624806NN
rural0.148975141598503JJ
population0.0310434135749871NN
conflict0NN
seek0VB
enforce0VB
rule0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.398219758716852
WordScorePoS
elimination0NN
rights0NNS
land0NN
rural0JJ
population0NN
conflict0.0658099748168827NN
seek0VB
enforce0.107490825192354VB
rule0.162386273072618NN

Botswana has had more success

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Since the authorities have gradually strengthened individual rights starting with the right to exclude other people animals and to fence arable lands

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.714582507597136
WordScorePoS
strengthen0VB
individual0JJ
rights0NNS
people0.0159982027144574NNS
animal0.0950205536020462NN
arable0.0517339898971162JJ
land0.123873694868802NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.302000275427331
WordScorePoS
strengthen0VB
individual0JJ
rights0.0519476926891779NNS
people0.0371911007748996NNS
animal0NN
arable0JJ
land0.0319966432858631NN

Common law residential leases for commercially valuable land have been introduced as have laws allowing the allocation of land to all adult citizens whether male or female married or single Adams and Toulmin and Quan in World Bank

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.509096902499851
WordScorePoS
common0JJ
law0.164686343640793NN
residential0JJ
land0NN
introduce0VB
adult0JJ
female0NN
single0JJ
world0NN
bank0NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.254659121966138
WordScorePoS
common0JJ
law0NN
residential0JJ
land0NN
introduce0VB
adult0.163013873070017JJ
female0NN
single0JJ
world0.0017440716962658NN
bank0NN

South Africa is just starting down the road to communal land reform having recently passed legislation that will transfer state owned land to communities and create democratic transparent and secure property rights regimes in these areas

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.487249381627093
WordScorePoS
south0RB
africa0IN
road0NN
land0.024255976440725NN
reform0.0911713013253052NN
legislation0.0558185411034276NN
transfer0NN
community0NN
create0VB
democratic0JJ
transparent0JJ
secure0JJ
property0.0558185411034276NN
rights0.078760887431929NNS
regime0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.452196415703731
WordScorePoS
south0RB
africa0IN
road0NN
land0NN
reform0NN
legislation0NN
transfer0NN
community0NN
create0.0695218668857431VB
democratic0.0804764811724088JJ
transparent0JJ
secure0.121575732851624JJ
property0NN
rights0.0347609334428716NNS
regime0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.356520112298412
WordScorePoS
south0RB
africa0IN
road0NN
land0.0319966432858631NN
reform0NN
legislation0NN
transfer0NN
community0NN
create0.0519476926891779VB
democratic0JJ
transparent0JJ
secure0JJ
property0.0736315832425121NN
rights0.0519476926891779NNS
regime0NN

Mexico made hybrid transition from collective land known as the ejido sector toward more individual landholdings

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.607727846929411
WordScorePoS
land0.123873694868802NN
sector0NN
individual0JJ

Ejidos are rural communities modeled after mixture of soviet style collectives and precolonial indigenous social structures

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.616269681082527
WordScorePoS
rural0.148975141598503JJ
community0.0182713919265625NN
indigenous0.0357189919948307JJ
social0JJ
structure0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.469457606612446
WordScorePoS
rural0.0330412182586772JJ
community0.0202620733250388NN
indigenous0JJ
social0.101310366625194JJ
structure0NN

Reforms in strengthened the self governance of ejidos allowing them to choose property rights regime

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.732643327296067
WordScorePoS
reform0.0911713013253052NN
strengthen0.0112083245137075VB
governance0NN
property0.0558185411034276NN
rights0.078760887431929NNS
regime0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.454919083643826
WordScorePoS
reform0NN
strengthen0.0396437925143789VB
governance0.107490825192354NN
property0NN
rights0NNS
regime0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.388273065998427
WordScorePoS
reform0NN
strengthen0VB
governance0NN
property0.0736315832425121NN
rights0.0519476926891779NNS
regime0NN

Each ejido could choose whether land would be held under communal or individual ownership and issue property rights certificates accordingly

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.799069129424889
WordScorePoS
land0.024255976440725NN
hold0.18234260265061NN
individual0JJ
ownership0.0558185411034276NN
issue0NN
property0.0558185411034276NN
rights0.078760887431929NNS

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.465371243901825
WordScorePoS
land0.0319966432858631NN
hold0NN
individual0JJ
ownership0.0736315832425121NN
issue0NN
property0.0736315832425121NN
rights0.0519476926891779NNS

By the program had issued property certificates to more than million households and given secure land rights to more than million households that previously had no formal recognition of occupancy rights World Bank

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.596581130773332
WordScorePoS
issue0NN
property0.0558185411034276NN
household0.0465610847355851NN
secure0JJ
land0.024255976440725NN
rights0.078760887431929NNS
world0.00585260443759492NN
bank0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.44462777505263
WordScorePoS
issue0NN
property0NN
household0.0297950283197006NN
secure0.0440683498519077JJ
land0.0465651203624806NN
rights0NNS
world0.0124838525528648NN
bank0.0881366997038154NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.375947637971695
WordScorePoS
issue0NN
property0.0736315832425121NN
household0NN
secure0JJ
land0.0319966432858631NN
rights0.0519476926891779NNS
world0.00257343720272548NN
bank0NN

Clarifying how customary rights in rural and urban areas relate to the formal system of property rights protected through modern law is important for millions of people

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.567599658158432
WordScorePoS
rights0NNS
rural0JJ
urban0JJ
system0NN
property0NN
protect0VB
modern0.462321869452858JJ
law0NN
million0CD
people0.0108156764915259NNS

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.472854326114066
WordScorePoS
rights0NNS
rural0.0373517915079663JJ
urban0.27622591898666JJ
system0.0315914058171786NN
property0NN
protect0.0328357290160445VB
modern0JJ
law0NN
million0CD
people0.0161552501392041NNS

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.316042202280927
WordScorePoS
rights0NNS
rural0.148975141598503JJ
urban0JJ
system0.0756001353333673NN
property0NN
protect0.0130963126055467VB
modern0JJ
law0NN
million0CD
people0.0257736572183839NNS

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.226512556564431
WordScorePoS
rights0NNS
rural0JJ
urban0JJ
system0NN
property0NN
protect0.0241291244414115VB
modern0JJ
law0.164686343640793NN
million0CD
people0NNS

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.319905694864818
WordScorePoS
rights0.0519476926891779NNS
rural0JJ
urban0JJ
system0.0519476926891779NN
property0.0736315832425121NN
protect0VB
modern0JJ
law0NN
million0CD
people0.0371911007748996NNS

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.311790825856774
WordScorePoS
rights0.078760887431929NNS
rural0JJ
urban0JJ
system0NN
property0.0558185411034276NN
protect0VB
modern0JJ
law0.0465610847355851NN
million0CD
people0NNS

It is also important for expanding the scope for outside investment particularly in urban areas

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.883957286852204
WordScorePoS
expand0.0268848280079943VB
investment0NN
urban0.27622591898666JJ

Experience with managing the intersection between the two systems suggests the importance of effective dispute resolution mechanisms and transparent and welldefined trajectory for transition with the extension of secure landownership rights to an entire group as an effective and low cost first step World Bank

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.512276771432148
WordScorePoS
experience0.0299586785922821NN
manage0VB
system0.0211360962287062NN
suggest0VB
effective0.0219686053934784JJ
mechanism0.147846224719512NN
transparent0.036961556179878JJ
extension0NN
secure0JJ
rights0NNS
cost0NN
world0.00418824502414673NN
bank0.036961556179878NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.492225781598272
WordScorePoS
experience0NN
manage0.0297950283197006VB
system0.0756001353333673NN
suggest0VB
effective0JJ
mechanism0NN
transparent0JJ
extension0.0583416713841148NN
secure0.0440683498519077JJ
rights0NNS
cost0NN
world0.0124838525528648NN
bank0.0881366997038154NN

approach is particularly pertinent where customary tenure practices predominate

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.903405147918084
WordScorePoS
approach0.0542519672965169NN
practice0.0703006268489394NN

Recognizing customary rights and institutions in the law helps protect large populations that are governed by them and builds bridge to the formal system box

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.714910786468738
WordScorePoS
recognize0VB
rights0NNS
institution0.274477239401321NN
law0.164686343640793NN
help0NN
protect0.0241291244414115VB
population0NN
build0VB
system0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.336750830122565
WordScorePoS
recognize0VB
rights0NNS
institution0.0991236547760315NN
law0.0330412182586772NN
help0NN
protect0VB
population0.0860640399817412NN
build0VB
system0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.316949012202846
WordScorePoS
recognize0.0558185411034276VB
rights0.078760887431929NNS
institution0NN
law0.0465610847355851NN
help0NN
protect0VB
population0.024255976440725NN
build0VB
system0NN

Clearly the complexities of engaging with customary justice systems outlined earlier in the chapter need to be considered and when formalizing customary rights care should be taken not to simply codify existing inequities particularly for women

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.686431322791495
WordScorePoS
engage0VB
justice0NN
system0NN
rights0.078760887431929NNS
care0.0931221694711702NN
exist0VB
woman0.221979360474357NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.374674333316881
WordScorePoS
engage0VB
justice0.214981650384708NN
system0NN
rights0NNS
care0NN
exist0VB
woman0NN

Broadening access by improving the functioning of land markets

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.639523037394671
WordScorePoS
broaden0VB
access0.00749031153171887NN
improve0.0218534471578307VB
function0.0440683498519077NN
land0.0465651203624806NN
market0.0913569596328122NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.37820681585843
WordScorePoS
broaden0VB
access0.00110699520004297NN
improve0VB
function0NN
land0.123873694868802NN
market0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.346161233416786
WordScorePoS
broaden0.107490825192354VB
access0.00690021170452351NN
improve0VB
function0NN
land0NN
market0NN

Land markets both in sales and rentals can in theory do much to equalize land access

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.685513592596574
WordScorePoS
land0.123873694868802NN
market0NN
access0.00110699520004297NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.528836146110475
WordScorePoS
land0.0465651203624806NN
market0.0913569596328122NN
access0.00749031153171887NN

In practice however land sales purchases are generally not an avenue to expand access by the poor and may actually reduce it

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.518587243676013
WordScorePoS
practice0NN
land0.0319966432858631NN
expand0VB
access0.00514687440545096NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
reduce0.0164833460638534VB

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.376396080792252
WordScorePoS
practice0NN
land0.123873694868802NN
expand0VB
access0.00110699520004297NN
poor0.016202004209163JJ
reduce0.00709051106978941VB

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.363883245701632
WordScorePoS
practice0.0703006268489394NN
land0.0144336476662975NN
expand0VB
access0.00232174891244877NN
poor0.0339811641917276JJ
reduce0.022306853314744VB

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.360638375560576
WordScorePoS
practice0.0252000451111224NN
land0.0465651203624806NN
expand0VB
access0.00749031153171887NN
poor0.0548141757796873JJ
reduce0.00799614078871077VB

High transaction costs undeveloped credit markets and high prices for land reflecting its collateral value and any government subsidies to crops lead to thin sales markets that keep poor farmers out altogether

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.717280208383643
WordScorePoS
transaction0NN
cost0NN
undeveloped0JJ
credit0NN
market0.0913569596328122NN
price0.0583416713841148NN
land0.0465651203624806NN
reflect0VB
government0NN
subsidy0.0357189919948307NN
crop0.0357189919948307NN
lead0NN
poor0.0548141757796873JJ
farmer0.175025014152344NN

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.345705206317387
WordScorePoS
transaction0NN
cost0NN
undeveloped0JJ
credit0NN
market0.0333211986002325NN
price0NN
land0.0141533244035107NN
reflect0.0401833161726777VB
government0NN
subsidy0.162850158165781NN
crop0NN
lead0NN
poor0JJ
farmer0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.222476004205646
WordScorePoS
transaction0NN
cost0NN
undeveloped0JJ
credit0NN
market0NN
price0NN
land0.0319966432858631NN
reflect0VB
government0NN
subsidy0NN
crop0NN
lead0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
farmer0NN

This suggests that land sales markets will not contribute to greater equity in landholdings especially in settings characterized by long standing discrimination against specific groups unless the government relieves the savings constraints of the poor through subsidies as we will see in the next section

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.481268375558959
WordScorePoS
suggest0VB
land0.0141533244035107NN
market0.0333211986002325NN
contribute0.0815049608642826VB
setting0VBG
discrimination0NN
specific0JJ
government0NN
constraint0NN
poor0JJ
subsidy0.162850158165781NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.422654754617156
WordScorePoS
suggest0VB
land0.0319966432858631NN
market0NN
contribute0VB
setting0VBG
discrimination0.0736315832425121NN
specific0JJ
government0NN
constraint0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
subsidy0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.425891249412059
WordScorePoS
suggest0VB
land0.0465651203624806NN
market0.0913569596328122NN
contribute0.0297950283197006VB
setting0VBG
discrimination0NN
specific0JJ
government0NN
constraint0NN
poor0.0548141757796873JJ
subsidy0.0357189919948307NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.398268402717503
WordScorePoS
suggest0VB
land0.0144336476662975NN
market0.0169905820958638NN
contribute0.0554128417527413VB
setting0VBG
discrimination0NN
specific0.0542519672965169JJ
government0NN
constraint0NN
poor0.0339811641917276JJ
subsidy0.0664302389559493NN

Distress sales of land by the poor can occur in risky environments where small landowners do not have access to insurance

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.487622619086041
WordScorePoS
distress0NN
land0.0319966432858631NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
occur0VB
environment0NN
access0.00514687440545096NN
insurance0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.445253898287902
WordScorePoS
distress0NN
land0.0144336476662975NN
poor0.0339811641917276JJ
occur0.0409791940864438VB
environment0.079769385071606NN
access0.00232174891244877NN
insurance0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.371513687470615
WordScorePoS
distress0NN
land0NN
poor0JJ
occur0VB
environment0.0591643007226199NN
access0.00344404437204141NN
insurance0.0804764811724088NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.366574882373326
WordScorePoS
distress0NN
land0.123873694868802NN
poor0.016202004209163JJ
occur0VB
environment0NN
access0.00110699520004297NN
insurance0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.338358096922789
WordScorePoS
distress0NN
land0.0465651203624806NN
poor0.0548141757796873JJ
occur0VB
environment0.0214456704626236NN
access0.00749031153171887NN
insurance0NN

Thus they are unable to smooth consumption through mechanisms other than land sales such as safety nets

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.728118901780682
WordScorePoS
consumption0.332151194779746NN
mechanism0NN
land0.0144336476662975NN
safety0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.310601092694784
WordScorePoS
consumption0NN
mechanism0.147846224719512NN
land0NN
safety0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.310529812501955
WordScorePoS
consumption0.147812295323721NN
mechanism0NN
land0NN
safety0NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.423553933790489
WordScorePoS
consumption0.08955644059472NN
mechanism0NN
land0.0389167984372011NN
safety0.0731385760866977NN

In comparison of land transactions in Indian and Bangladeshi villages during Cain found that poor farmers who had access to safety net programs used the land market to augment their landholdings and undertook productivity enhancing investment

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.65632329339149
WordScorePoS
land0.0465651203624806NN
transaction0NN
poor0.0548141757796873JJ
farmer0.175025014152344NN
access0.00749031153171887NN
safety0NN
market0.0913569596328122NN
undertake0VB
productivity0.0595900566394012NN
enhance0.0268922747178632VB
investment0.0182713919265625NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.343938765079119
WordScorePoS
land0.0319966432858631NN
transaction0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
farmer0NN
access0.00514687440545096NN
safety0NN
market0NN
undertake0VB
productivity0NN
enhance0.0184786920895884VB
investment0.0376648791150643NN

Distress sales to obtain food and medicine predominated when safety nets were absent

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.741235894165473
WordScorePoS
distress0NN
obtain0VB
food0.292342270824999NN
medicine0NN
safety0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.473877151064969
WordScorePoS
distress0NN
obtain0VB
food0.186896403054502NN
medicine0NN
safety0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.312106500113653
WordScorePoS
distress0NN
obtain0VB
food0NN
medicine0.123094312756122NN
safety0NN

While government interventions to impose restrictions on the transferability of land can undermine investment incentives and depress off farm activity they can play role especially during periods of transition

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.837812743714147
WordScorePoS
government0NN
intervention0NN
restriction0.0583416713841148NN
land0.0465651203624806NN
investment0.0182713919265625NN
incentive0NN
farm0.291708356920574NN
activity0NN
period0.0440683498519077NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.332178315572442
WordScorePoS
government0NN
intervention0NN
restriction0NN
land0.123873694868802NN
investment0NN
incentive0.0390772412228479NN
farm0NN
activity0.0190167691930804NN
period0NN

In many Commonwealth of Independent States CIS countries the unrestricted transferability of land led to concentration of landholdings in the hands of small number of farm bosses as poorer rural households were enticed to sell their land in conditions of uncertainty and incomplete markets and information

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.806002704048754
WordScorePoS
country0NN
land0.0465651203624806NN
lead0NN
concentration0NN
farm0.291708356920574NN
rural0.148975141598503JJ
household0.0297950283197006NN
condition0NN
market0.0913569596328122NN
information0.0130963126055467NN

Initially limiting the transferability of land to lease transactions rather than outright sales would have been better

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.677986190191289
WordScorePoS
limit0NN
land0.123873694868802NN
transaction0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.450357857731553
WordScorePoS
limit0.0357189919948307NN
land0.0465651203624806NN
transaction0NN

gradual transition may be preferable in cases in which an equitable distribution of land has been the primary instrument of social protection as in China and Vietnam

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.590722554394683
WordScorePoS
equitable0JJ
land0.0319966432858631NN
primary0JJ
social0.112994637345193JJ
protection0.122839698738001NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.433162414797958
WordScorePoS
equitable0JJ
land0.024255976440725NN
primary0.0970239057629001JJ
social0.0285529457667019JJ
protection0.0465610847355851NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.369198158079381
WordScorePoS
equitable0JJ
land0NN
primary0JJ
social0.101310366625194JJ
protection0.0660824365173543NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.315156297931338
WordScorePoS
equitable0.0190167691930804JJ
land0.123873694868802NN
primary0JJ
social0JJ
protection0NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.305218856762483
WordScorePoS
equitable0.0299609328954485JJ
land0NN
primary0.108423939529757JJ
social0JJ
protection0NN

Governments in both countries rightly perceive the tensions in active land sales markets which could lead to efficiency enhancing Justice land and infrastructure consolidation but also run the risk of increasing the number of landless poor

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.386502838655197
WordScorePoS
government0NN
country0NN
active0JJ
land0.0325677023224526NN
market0NN
lead0.0383371018038178NN
efficiency0.134992154141495NN
enhance0.0188084899376888VB
justice0NN
infrastructure0.0651354046449052NN
risk0NN
increase0.0162235147372888NN
poor0JJ

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.373778057404099
WordScorePoS
government0NN
country0NN
active0JJ
land0NN
market0.0377086395700813NN
lead0.0188543197850406NN
efficiency0.0442597400933733NN
enhance0.0185001613201543VB
justice0NN
infrastructure0.192202909044225NN
risk0NN
increase0.0159575617614215NN
poor0JJ

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.32537944607439
WordScorePoS
government0NN
country0NN
active0JJ
land0.0319966432858631NN
market0NN
lead0NN
efficiency0NN
enhance0.0184786920895884VB
justice0NN
infrastructure0NN
risk0.0519476926891779NN
increase0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.245372560710294
WordScorePoS
government0NN
country0NN
active0JJ
land0NN
market0NN
lead0NN
efficiency0NN
enhance0VB
justice0.214981650384708NN
infrastructure0NN
risk0NN
increase0NN
poor0JJ

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.365011117414044
WordScorePoS
government0NN
country0NN
active0JJ
land0.0465651203624806NN
market0.0913569596328122NN
lead0NN
efficiency0NN
enhance0.0268922747178632VB
justice0NN
infrastructure0.0155217067874935NN
risk0.0252000451111224NN
increase0.0128868286091919NN
poor0.0548141757796873JJ

In China the government is considering moving on several fronts including developing safety nets and rural finance and eliminating residency based restrictions hukou on labor mobility

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.600201788766956
WordScorePoS
government0NN
move0NN
include0VB
develop0VB
safety0NN
rural0.148975141598503JJ
finance0NN
eliminate0VB
base0NN
restriction0.0583416713841148NN
mobility0NN

While land sales markets have ambiguous impacts on equity the equity case for broadening access to land rentals appears more clear cut

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.558216064733044
WordScorePoS
land0.123873694868802NN
market0NN
impact0.0137637438743113NN
broaden0VB
access0.00110699520004297NN
cut0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.408063722367495
WordScorePoS
land0.0465651203624806NN
market0.0913569596328122NN
impact0NN
broaden0VB
access0.00749031153171887NN
cut0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.402598664031193
WordScorePoS
land0.0319966432858631NN
market0NN
impact0NN
broaden0VB
access0.00514687440545096NN
cut0.120266261535276NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.303934246400738
WordScorePoS
land0NN
market0NN
impact0.0285977592242194NN
broaden0.107490825192354VB
access0.00690021170452351NN
cut0NN

When farmers do not have access to credit that would enable them to purchase land outright rental markets are an important avenue for enhancing productivity and equity by facilitating low cost transfers of land to more productive producers chapter

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.706163293259722
WordScorePoS
farmer0.175025014152344NN
access0.00749031153171887NN
credit0NN
enable0VB
land0.0465651203624806NN
market0.0913569596328122NN
enhance0.0268922747178632VB
productivity0.0595900566394012NN
facilitate0.0252000451111224VB
cost0NN
transfer0NN
productive0.0714379839896614JJ
producer0.0440683498519077NN

Rental markets also enable landholders with low agricultural skills or no desire to farm to seek employment in the nonfarm sector while still earning return on their land

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.740545791960811
WordScorePoS
market0.0913569596328122NN
enable0VB
agricultural0.250032943963815JJ
skill0NN
farm0.291708356920574NN
seek0VB
employment0.0252000451111224NN
sector0.0182713919265625NN
return0NN
land0.0465651203624806NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.453400613003759
WordScorePoS
market0NN
enable0VB
agricultural0JJ
skill0.407534682675042NN
farm0NN
seek0VB
employment0.0352060273355634NN
sector0NN
return0NN
land0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.229610135006595
WordScorePoS
market0.0252035516550537NN
enable0VB
agricultural0JJ
skill0NN
farm0NN
seek0VB
employment0.173804667214358NN
sector0.0252035516550537NN
return0NN
land0NN

Evidence from Sudan suggests that land rental markets do transfer land to smaller producers

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.338683695751302
WordScorePoS
evidence0.12939607756667NN
suggest0VB
land0NN
market0.0202620733250388NN
transfer0NN
producer0NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.560664428025604
WordScorePoS
evidence0NN
suggest0VB
land0.123873694868802NN
market0NN
transfer0NN
producer0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.517232359001273
WordScorePoS
evidence0NN
suggest0VB
land0.0465651203624806NN
market0.0913569596328122NN
transfer0NN
producer0.0440683498519077NN

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.321340434131753
WordScorePoS
evidence0NN
suggest0VB
land0.0141533244035107NN
market0.0333211986002325NN
transfer0.0803666323453555NN
producer0NN

And in Colombia rental markets have been more effective than government sponsored land reforms in bringing land to productive and poor producers

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.351914952140501
WordScorePoS
market0NN
effective0JJ
government0NN
land0.0319966432858631NN
reform0NN
bring0VB
productive0JJ
poor0.150659516460257JJ
producer0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.58169349066337
WordScorePoS
market0.0913569596328122NN
effective0JJ
government0NN
land0.0465651203624806NN
reform0NN
bring0VB
productive0.0714379839896614JJ
poor0.0548141757796873JJ
producer0.0440683498519077NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.432734802556714
WordScorePoS
market0NN
effective0JJ
government0NN
land0.123873694868802NN
reform0NN
bring0VB
productive0JJ
poor0.016202004209163JJ
producer0NN

If land rental markets have so much potential to improve equity and efficiency why is there such large variation in the incidence of rentals across countries

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.49128296431673
WordScorePoS
land0.0325677023224526NN
market0NN
potential0NN
improve0.0229264916384433VB
efficiency0.134992154141495NN
incidence0NN
country0NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.420266437562549
WordScorePoS
land0.123873694868802NN
market0NN
potential0.0390772412228479NN
improve0VB
efficiency0NN
incidence0NN
country0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.412076746638356
WordScorePoS
land0.0465651203624806NN
market0.0913569596328122NN
potential0NN
improve0.0218534471578307VB
efficiency0NN
incidence0NN
country0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.328687163881918
WordScorePoS
land0NN
market0.0377086395700813NN
potential0.0454743001434393NN
improve0VB
efficiency0.0442597400933733NN
incidence0NN
country0NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.309704490982465
WordScorePoS
land0.0389167984372011NN
market0NN
potential0NN
improve0.0273960270556257VB
efficiency0.0537696560159885NN
incidence0NN
country0NN

One reason is lack of tenure security or trust that the security will last

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.63030756535558
WordScorePoS
lack0NN
security0.0893850849591018NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.576006773932437
WordScorePoS
lack0.0383371018038178NN
security0.0625160381065121NN

Without it landlords are unwilling to rent out their land for fear that they will not be able to reclaim it

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.833095789856162
WordScorePoS
land0.123873694868802NN

Other reasons include current or past government interventions to restrict tenancy the availability of reliable conflict resolution mechanisms and imperfections in information

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.699617772956389
WordScorePoS
include0VB
current0JJ
government0.048933054487825NN
intervention0NN
availability0.048933054487825NN
reliable0.0299586785922821JJ
conflict0NN
mechanism0.147846224719512NN
information0.0219686053934784NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.352327814931926
WordScorePoS
include0VB
current0JJ
government0NN
intervention0NN
availability0NN
reliable0.149891440995783JJ
conflict0NN
mechanism0NN
information0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.346149915718569
WordScorePoS
include0VB
current0JJ
government0NN
intervention0NN
availability0NN
reliable0JJ
conflict0.147263166485024NN
mechanism0NN
information0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.332104518636262
WordScorePoS
include0VB
current0JJ
government0NN
intervention0NN
availability0NN
reliable0.0737171311497939JJ
conflict0NN
mechanism0NN
information0.0675706773907211NN

While concern about exploitation in sharecropping arrangements may be justified tenant protection and rent ceilings can backfire

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.615699827946455
WordScorePoS
exploitation0NN
protection0.122839698738001NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.578547129234264
WordScorePoS
exploitation0.0688661930304451NN
protection0.0465610847355851NN

Such restrictions on land rentals often push transactions into informality or lock poor farmers into less efficient and less equitable wage labor arrangements

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.68405406989661
WordScorePoS
restriction0.0583416713841148NN
land0.0465651203624806NN
transaction0NN
lock0NN
poor0.0548141757796873JJ
farmer0.175025014152344NN
efficient0JJ
equitable0.0214456704626236JJ
wage0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.350785002160775
WordScorePoS
restriction0NN
land0.0319966432858631NN
transaction0NN
lock0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
farmer0NN
efficient0JJ
equitable0JJ
wage0NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.305531726407639
WordScorePoS
restriction0NN
land0.123873694868802NN
transaction0NN
lock0NN
poor0.016202004209163JJ
farmer0NN
efficient0JJ
equitable0.0190167691930804JJ
wage0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.301357166872496
WordScorePoS
restriction0NN
land0.0144336476662975NN
transaction0NN
lock0NN
poor0.0339811641917276JJ
farmer0NN
efficient0.108503934593034JJ
equitable0JJ
wage0NN

Estimates indicate that new tenancy legislation in India was associated with the eviction of more than million tenants causing the rural poor to lose access to about percent of the total operated area

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.608915127615637
WordScorePoS
estimate0NN
legislation0NN
cause0NN
rural0.148975141598503JJ
poor0.0548141757796873JJ
lose0.0440683498519077VB
access0.00749031153171887NN
total0.0252000451111224NN
operate0VB

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.338169797340268
WordScorePoS
estimate0NN
legislation0NN
cause0NN
rural0JJ
poor0.150659516460257JJ
lose0VB
access0.00514687440545096NN
total0NN
operate0VB

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.374563602308829
WordScorePoS
estimate0.0190167691930804NN
legislation0NN
cause0.0316735178673487NN
rural0.0264204925485796JJ
poor0.016202004209163JJ
lose0.0781544824456958VB
access0.00110699520004297NN
total0NN
operate0VB

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.341551183767857
WordScorePoS
estimate0.0199423462679015NN
legislation0NN
cause0NN
rural0JJ
poor0.0339811641917276JJ
lose0VB
access0.00232174891244877NN
total0.0468670845659596NN
operate0.0542519672965169VB

Interventions to enhance the bargaining power of the poor including better access to financial markets off farm employment opportunities and equitable contract enforcement mechanisms are likely to be preferable

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.647664046280713
WordScorePoS
intervention0NN
enhance0.0268922747178632VB
power0NN
poor0.0548141757796873JJ
include0VB
access0.00749031153171887NN
financial0.00896409157262106JJ
market0.0913569596328122NN
farm0.291708356920574NN
employment0.0252000451111224NN
opportunity0.0261926252110933NN
equitable0.0214456704626236JJ
contract0NN
mechanism0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.430773976320088
WordScorePoS
intervention0NN
enhance0.0123650647908625VB
power0NN
poor0JJ
include0VB
access0.00344404437204141NN
financial0.0370951943725875JJ
market0.0252035516550537NN
farm0NN
employment0.173804667214358NN
opportunity0.0361300980868102NN
equitable0JJ
contract0.0804764811724088NN
mechanism0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.382352371002266
WordScorePoS
intervention0NN
enhance0.0601477977507998VB
power0.036961556179878NN
poor0.0153248097886055JJ
include0VB
access0.00314118376811005NN
financial0.0150369494376999JJ
market0.030649619577211NN
farm0NN
employment0NN
opportunity0NN
equitable0.017987180284335JJ
contract0NN
mechanism0.147846224719512NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.225327852726176
WordScorePoS
intervention0NN
enhance0.0184786920895884VB
power0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
include0VB
access0.00514687440545096NN
financial0.0184786920895884JJ
market0NN
farm0NN
employment0NN
opportunity0NN
equitable0JJ
contract0NN
mechanism0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.318797714534977
WordScorePoS
intervention0NN
enhance0.0185001613201543VB
power0.0454743001434393NN
poor0JJ
include0VB
access0.0128821355880844NN
financial0.0185001613201543JJ
market0.0377086395700813NN
farm0NN
employment0.104016094894625NN
opportunity0.0135141354781442NN
equitable0.0221298700466866JJ
contract0NN
mechanism0NN

Well functioning rental markets can be rung in the ownership ladder but they probably are not in circumstances of extreme inequality in landownership and power

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.811726402812343
WordScorePoS
function0NN
market0.0202620733250388NN
ownership0NN
circumstance0NN
extreme0JJ
inequality0.635305170773079NN
power0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.455854839735376
WordScorePoS
function0NN
market0NN
ownership0.0736315832425121NN
circumstance0NN
extreme0.294526332970048JJ
inequality0NN
power0NN

In these instances options for directly redistributive policies need to be exploited

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.635957531166171
WordScorePoS
policy0.0848203862485078NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.480993629941572
WordScorePoS
policy0.0641521854453136NN

Options for cost effective land redistribution to broaden access Improving tenure security and promoting land rental markets are good for both equity and efficiency

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.449412694855581
WordScorePoS
cost0NN
effective0JJ
land0.0325677023224526NN
broaden0VB
access0.0157161992303584NN
improve0.0229264916384433VB
security0.0625160381065121NN
promote0.00838876601975825VB
market0NN
efficiency0.134992154141495NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.451643440221606
WordScorePoS
cost0NN
effective0JJ
land0.0465651203624806NN
broaden0VB
access0.00749031153171887NN
improve0.0218534471578307VB
security0.0893850849591018NN
promote0.00799614078871077VB
market0.0913569596328122NN
efficiency0NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.414924842927333
WordScorePoS
cost0NN
effective0JJ
land0.123873694868802NN
broaden0VB
access0.00110699520004297NN
improve0VB
security0.0264204925485796NN
promote0.0106357666046841VB
market0NN
efficiency0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.347779850948549
WordScorePoS
cost0.0548954478802642NN
effective0.0482582488828229JJ
land0NN
broaden0.107490825192354VB
access0.00690021170452351NN
improve0VB
security0NN
promote0.0220985725470694VB
market0NN
efficiency0NN

Analysis and experience indicate that land redistribution is not nearly as straightforward

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.787309495396787
WordScorePoS
experience0NN
land0.123873694868802NN

It can be costly in program resources and reduced productivity and it can be an instrument of political patronage

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.470265101636014
WordScorePoS
resource0.0185001613201543NN
reduce0VB
productivity0.0922368138456871NN
political0.0368585655748969JJ

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.444960985247671
WordScorePoS
resource0.0280166088658745NN
reduce0VB
productivity0NN
political0.111637082206855JJ

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.351297515043235
WordScorePoS
resource0NN
reduce0.0310356414389692VB
productivity0NN
political0.0792212041430275JJ

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.32958602608506
WordScorePoS
resource0.0358563662904843NN
reduce0.00799614078871077VB
productivity0.0595900566394012NN
political0JJ

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.326106683921121
WordScorePoS
resource0.0449504361447405NN
reduce0.0200483235258943VB
productivity0.0373517915079663NN
political0JJ

Substantial personnel and financial resources are necessary to assess and purchase or expropriate land select beneficiaries and supply training and credit

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.45646141446981
WordScorePoS
substantial0.0499016491051341JJ
financial0JJ
resource0NN
land0NN
supply0.0352060273355634NN
training0.124876512346911NN
credit0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.430457454224485
WordScorePoS
substantial0.0736315832425121JJ
financial0.0184786920895884JJ
resource0.0739147683583536NN
land0.0319966432858631NN
supply0NN
training0NN
credit0NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.404246127476126
WordScorePoS
substantial0JJ
financial0.00794883334420673JJ
resource0.0317953333768269NN
land0.123873694868802NN
supply0.0223459295604043NN
training0NN
credit0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.346997605810121
WordScorePoS
substantial0.0332151194779746JJ
financial0JJ
resource0.0416785799329393NN
land0.0144336476662975NN
supply0.0703006268489394NN
training0NN
credit0NN

When does land redistribution make sense

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.763913510820879
WordScorePoS
land0.123873694868802NN
sense0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.398984675499904
WordScorePoS
land0NN
sense0.064698038783335NN

In some countries redistribution could be necessary political step to address historical inequities and stave off violence

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.576784460043198
WordScorePoS
country0NN
political0JJ
historical0JJ
violence0.164686343640793NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.717132652331869
WordScorePoS
country0NN
political0.111637082206855JJ
historical0JJ
violence0.0931221694711702NN

In others it could simply be tool to shift underused land to more productive uses while enhancing equity

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.526109391416426
WordScorePoS
tool0NN
land0.0465651203624806NN
productive0.0714379839896614JJ
enhance0.0268922747178632VB

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.507504286460259
WordScorePoS
tool0NN
land0.123873694868802NN
productive0JJ
enhance0.0158976666884135VB

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.402697460592167
WordScorePoS
tool0NN
land0NN
productive0.0985415302158139JJ
enhance0.0123650647908625VB

In countries where state landownership is high land redistribution could involve limited budgetary costs if bundled into one time transfer of state land to private ownership

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.490224356864187
WordScorePoS
country0NN
land0.123873694868802NN
involve0VB
limited0JJ
cost0NN
time0.016202004209163NN
transfer0NN
private0JJ
ownership0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.478972548928415
WordScorePoS
country0NN
land0.0319966432858631NN
involve0VB
limited0.120266261535276JJ
cost0NN
time0NN
transfer0NN
private0JJ
ownership0.0736315832425121NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.350536396985428
WordScorePoS
country0NN
land0.0144336476662975NN
involve0.0819583881728876VB
limited0JJ
cost0.0277064208763707NN
time0.0169905820958638NN
transfer0NN
private0JJ
ownership0.0332151194779746NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.32639282272617
WordScorePoS
country0NN
land0NN
involve0.0488696285210061VB
limited0JJ
cost0.0660824365173543NN
time0.0607862199751165NN
transfer0NN
private0JJ
ownership0NN

Conversely in countries with strong traditions of tenure security just the threat of redistribution could undermine investment

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.563364802708042
WordScorePoS
country0NN
strong0.0488696285210061JJ
security0NN
threat0.064698038783335NN
investment0.0202620733250388NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.453186784758817
WordScorePoS
country0NN
strong0JJ
security0.0893850849591018NN
threat0NN
investment0.0182713919265625NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.424547705172765
WordScorePoS
country0NN
strong0JJ
security0.0625160381065121NN
threat0NN
investment0.0383371018038178NN

The feasibility of land redistribution also depends on the instrument

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.81705655969232
WordScorePoS
land0.123873694868802NN
depend0.0633470357346975VB

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.359098981951866
WordScorePoS
land0.0465651203624806NN
depend0.0357189919948307VB

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.346047055403619
WordScorePoS
land0.0141533244035107NN
depend0.0651400632663124VB

Expropriation is likely to be the most disruptive

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Divesting state lands and recuperating illegal settlements may be two cost effective alternatives

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.571981640091086
WordScorePoS
land0.0389167984372011NN
illegal0JJ
settlement0.146277152173395NN
cost0NN
effective0JJ
alternative0NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.503282873834575
WordScorePoS
land0.123873694868802NN
illegal0.0390772412228479JJ
settlement0NN
cost0NN
effective0JJ
alternative0NN

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.328812804758988
WordScorePoS
land0.0141533244035107NN
illegal0.0803666323453555JJ
settlement0NN
cost0NN
effective0.0119417512090511JJ
alternative0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.31859583135127
WordScorePoS
land0NN
illegal0JJ
settlement0NN
cost0.0548954478802642NN
effective0.0482582488828229JJ
alternative0NN

For example the mayor of Brasilia Brazil identified lands with uncertain titles and negotiated the surrender of part of those lands

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.794310140866346
WordScorePoS
identify0VB
land0.123873694868802NN
negotiate0VB

In exchange official titles were granted to the remaining areas

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.655658103758542
WordScorePoS
official0.0488696285210061NN
remain0.0396106020715138VB

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.547786633795513
WordScorePoS
official0.0739231123597559NN
remain0VB

Expropriating with compensation and assisting land purchases and rentals for example through community driven land reform are also feasible alternatives

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.685758924996164
WordScorePoS
assist0VB
land0.123873694868802NN
community0.016202004209163NN
drive0NN
reform0NN
feasible0JJ
alternative0NN

Subsidizing land purchases can be costly however because land is often overpriced relative to its income generation BOX

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.35743713146093
WordScorePoS
land0NN
relative0JJ
income0.166475342664294NN
generation0NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.531935329866333
WordScorePoS
land0.123873694868802NN
relative0JJ
income0NN
generation0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.432848444635388
WordScorePoS
land0NN
relative0JJ
income0.110649350233433NN
generation0.0909486002868787NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.338095972613475
WordScorePoS
land0.0465651203624806NN
relative0JJ
income0.0643370113878709NN
generation0NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.324150469192656
WordScorePoS
land0.0389167984372011NN
relative0.0731385760866977JJ
income0NN
generation0NN

WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT potential from productive use reflecting its speculative insurance and status value

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.622038110533529
WordScorePoS
world0.00172202218602071NN
development0.0055149369084567NN
report0NN
potential0NN
productive0.0985415302158139JJ
reflect0VB
insurance0.0804764811724088NN
status0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.363723911619565
WordScorePoS
world0.00464349782489754NN
development0.022306853314744NN
report0.0409791940864438NN
potential0NN
productive0JJ
reflect0.0409791940864438VB
insurance0NN
status0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.333684460016753
WordScorePoS
world0.0124838525528648NN
development0.0159922815774215NN
report0NN
potential0NN
productive0.0714379839896614JJ
reflect0VB
insurance0NN
status0NN

Also subsidies are difficult to justify if the current pattern of landownership is not considered legitimate

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.681390671559491
WordScorePoS
subsidy0.162850158165781NN
current0.0325700316331562JJ
pattern0NN
legitimate0JJ

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.633215528986288
WordScorePoS
subsidy0.0664302389559493NN
current0.0332151194779746JJ
pattern0.0819583881728876NN
legitimate0JJ

Market or community driven land reforms are potential option

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.557498035582502
WordScorePoS
market0NN
community0.016202004209163NN
drive0NN
land0.123873694868802NN
reform0NN
potential0.0390772412228479NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.486051491094897
WordScorePoS
market0.0913569596328122NN
community0.0182713919265625NN
drive0NN
land0.0465651203624806NN
reform0NN
potential0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.359192991748547
WordScorePoS
market0NN
community0NN
drive0NN
land0.024255976440725NN
reform0.0911713013253052NN
potential0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.317525191778345
WordScorePoS
market0.0377086395700813NN
community0.0188543197850406NN
drive0NN
land0NN
reform0NN
potential0.0454743001434393NN

The reforms tend to be decentralized and transparent allowing community members to obtain resources for land access

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.487585932511959
WordScorePoS
reform0NN
transparent0JJ
community0.016202004209163NN
obtain0VB
resource0.0317953333768269NN
land0.123873694868802NN
access0.00110699520004297NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.426332093635326
WordScorePoS
reform0.0911713013253052NN
transparent0JJ
community0NN
obtain0VB
resource0.0280166088658745NN
land0.024255976440725NN
access0.00780347258345989NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.313048187107096
WordScorePoS
reform0NN
transparent0JJ
community0NN
obtain0VB
resource0.0739147683583536NN
land0.0319966432858631NN
access0.00514687440545096NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.304943942000349
WordScorePoS
reform0NN
transparent0JJ
community0.0182713919265625NN
obtain0VB
resource0.0358563662904843NN
land0.0465651203624806NN
access0.00749031153171887NN

They can be flexible allowing for land rental or purchase according to the willing buyer willingseller principle

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.681612329561242
WordScorePoS
land0.123873694868802NN
principle0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.537808150088286
WordScorePoS
land0NN
principle0.0977392570420122NN

Community driven land reforms often give beneficiaries full property rights and involve coordination between local government and NGOs to provide access to training technology and credit

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.49391508118871
WordScorePoS
community0NN
drive0NN
land0.024255976440725NN
reform0.0911713013253052NN
full0.0465610847355851JJ
property0.0558185411034276NN
rights0.078760887431929NNS
involve0VB
coordination0NN
local0JJ
government0NN
provide0.0112083245137075VB
access0.00780347258345989NN
training0NN
technology0.0409315617631NN
credit0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.386277470857328
WordScorePoS
community0NN
drive0NN
land0NN
reform0NN
full0JJ
property0NN
rights0NNS
involve0VB
coordination0.0978661089756501NN
local0.0130185595639838JJ
government0.048933054487825NN
provide0.00601568197638796VB
access0.00314118376811005NN
training0NN
technology0.109843026967392NN
credit0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.335154400375982
WordScorePoS
community0.0188543197850406NN
drive0NN
land0NN
reform0NN
full0.030745604615229JJ
property0NN
rights0NNS
involve0VB
coordination0NN
local0JJ
government0NN
provide0.00740117451847634VB
access0.0128821355880844NN
training0.030745604615229NN
technology0.0810848128688654NN
credit0.0602029956716497NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.303807211359014
WordScorePoS
community0NN
drive0NN
land0.0319966432858631NN
reform0NN
full0JJ
property0.0736315832425121NN
rights0.0519476926891779NNS
involve0VB
coordination0NN
local0JJ
government0NN
provide0.0295703421524739VB
access0.00514687440545096NN
training0NN
technology0.0269969049497485NN
credit0NN

A community driven approach has been tried in several countries including Brazil Columbia Guatemala Honduras India Malawi and South Africa

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

But the programs are relatively new so rigorous impact evaluations are not yet available

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.7540481934975
WordScorePoS
impact0.0866018859977851NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.380994623285423
WordScorePoS
impact0.0437569550806737NN

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.369701718692048
WordScorePoS
impact0.042459973210532NN

land tax possibly combined with an output tax can be an important complement

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.615144314149132
WordScorePoS
land0NN
tax0.036961556179878NN
complement0.0978661089756501NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.581474156527314
WordScorePoS
land0NN
tax0.0811931365363091NN
complement0NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.443567986855313
WordScorePoS
land0.123873694868802NN
tax0NN
complement0NN

It can generate revenues to purchase land to redistribute or encourage redistribution by disproportionately taxing large landholders or owners of unused or underused land both rural and urban box

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.635054144701312
WordScorePoS
generate0VB
revenue0NN
land0.0389167984372011NN
encourage0VB
tax0NN
rural0.0373517915079663JJ
urban0.27622591898666JJ

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.464309056230892
WordScorePoS
generate0.0440683498519077VB
revenue0NN
land0.0465651203624806NN
encourage0VB
tax0NN
rural0.148975141598503JJ
urban0JJ

Regardless of the instrument common lessons can be drawn from previous attempts at land redistribution

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.65057552456545
WordScorePoS
common0JJ
previous0JJ
land0.123873694868802NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.494531797499347
WordScorePoS
common0.055245183797332JJ
previous0JJ
land0.0389167984372011NN

uting land does little

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.833095789856162
WordScorePoS
land0.123873694868802NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.313167422423422
WordScorePoS
land0.0465651203624806NN

Beneficiaries must be provided with package of assistance to ensure self sufficiency and maximize productivity

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.505134152204677
WordScorePoS
assistance0NN
ensure0.00412562425683033VB
productivity0.0922368138456871NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.430886475311887
WordScorePoS
assistance0.0410992516792148NN
ensure0VB
productivity0.0410992516792148NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.41787137284146
WordScorePoS
assistance0.0373517915079663NN
ensure0.00501208088147356VB
productivity0.0373517915079663NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.3962043830417
WordScorePoS
assistance0NN
ensure0.0159922815774215VB
productivity0.0595900566394012NN

The right package will vary by country but could include training and credit

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.774632387277759
WordScorePoS
country0NN
include0VB
training0.124876512346911NN
credit0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.564171196294129
WordScorePoS
country0NN
include0VB
training0.030745604615229NN
credit0.0602029956716497NN

Technical assistance such as help elaborating farm plans and crop budgets or instruction on new technologies can be success factor for subsistence farmers and those who lack commercial farming expertise

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.877561562201485
WordScorePoS
technical0JJ
assistance0NN
farm0.291708356920574NN
plan0NN
crop0.0357189919948307NN
technology0.0130963126055467NN
farmer0.175025014152344NN
lack0NN
commercial0JJ
expertise0NN

Credit can allow beneficiaries to make productivity enhancing investments for example in irrigation fencing tools or draft animals

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.65226796020057
WordScorePoS
credit0.0602029956716497NN
productivity0.0922368138456871NN
enhance0.0185001613201543VB
investment0.0377086395700813NN
irrigation0.0454743001434393NN
tool0NN
animal0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.360557225084406
WordScorePoS
credit0NN
productivity0.0595900566394012NN
enhance0.0268922747178632VB
investment0.0182713919265625NN
irrigation0NN
tool0NN
animal0.0357189919948307NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.351058050068806
WordScorePoS
credit0NN
productivity0NN
enhance0.0601477977507998VB
investment0.0766240489430275NN
irrigation0NN
tool0NN
animal0NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.339044325471447
WordScorePoS
credit0NN
productivity0NN
enhance0.0188084899376888VB
investment0.0383371018038178NN
irrigation0NN
tool0NN
animal0.0749457204978913NN

Beneficiary selection and targeting

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.825847373096909
WordScorePoS
target0.0898760357768464NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.458533194866339
WordScorePoS
target0.0499016491051341NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.328212470138784
WordScorePoS
target0.0357189919948307NN

When beneficiary selection is politicized redistributed land will not always go to the most needy and capable farmers

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.843317490235184
WordScorePoS
land0.0465651203624806NN
farmer0.175025014152344NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.471432781480296
WordScorePoS
land0.123873694868802NN
farmer0NN

The solution is to have transparent rules that allow communities to understand exactly how and why each beneficiary was chosen

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.814829768287531
WordScorePoS
solution0NN
transparent0.0811931365363091JJ
rule0.162386273072618NN
community0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.370935001927512
WordScorePoS
solution0NN
transparent0.036961556179878JJ
rule0.0739231123597559NN
community0NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.339436927673018
WordScorePoS
solution0.0671298309154199NN
transparent0JJ
rule0NN
community0.0343390275626203NN

Self targeting where potential beneficiaries seek out land for sale at low cost and then apply for grants and or loans can also be effective

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.503428135701798
WordScorePoS
target0NN
potential0.0390772412228479NN
seek0VB
land0.123873694868802NN
cost0NN
effective0JJ

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.470408039064799
WordScorePoS
target0NN
potential0NN
seek0.120266261535276VB
land0.0319966432858631NN
cost0NN
effective0JJ

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.345537991637832
WordScorePoS
target0.0898760357768464NN
potential0NN
seek0VB
land0NN
cost0NN
effective0.0219686053934784JJ

Tenure security

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.760515634457084
WordScorePoS
security0.0893850849591018NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.531905567982301
WordScorePoS
security0.0625160381065121NN

Those who gain access to redistributed land should be given clear ownership rights

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.518129559567324
WordScorePoS
gain0NN
access0.00780347258345989NN
land0.024255976440725NN
ownership0.0558185411034276NN
rights0.078760887431929NNS

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.505953296290815
WordScorePoS
gain0NN
access0.00514687440545096NN
land0.0319966432858631NN
ownership0.0736315832425121NN
rights0.0519476926891779NNS

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.388601932803182
WordScorePoS
gain0NN
access0.00110699520004297NN
land0.123873694868802NN
ownership0NN
rights0NNS

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.361924376899798
WordScorePoS
gain0.0664302389559493NN
access0.00232174891244877NN
land0.0144336476662975NN
ownership0.0332151194779746NN
rights0NNS

In some instances it may be enough to have less than full ownership such as certificate of control or long term lease to reduce uncertainty encourage investment and promote the benefits discussed above

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.515542306559339
WordScorePoS
full0JJ
ownership0NN
control0NN
term0.149793392961411NN
reduce0.00335331148065841VB
encourage0.0211360962287062VB
investment0.0766240489430275NN
promote0.0100599344419752VB
benefit0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.390047183478137
WordScorePoS
full0JJ
ownership0.0736315832425121NN
control0.0614198493690006NN
term0NN
reduce0.0164833460638534VB
encourage0VB
investment0.0376648791150643NN
promote0.0082416730319267VB
benefit0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.384372850978136
WordScorePoS
full0.0465610847355851JJ
ownership0.0558185411034276NN
control0.0465610847355851NN
term0NN
reduce0VB
encourage0VB
investment0NN
promote0.00624783747184187VB
benefit0.0393804437159645NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.333691752587807
WordScorePoS
full0.0410992516792148JJ
ownership0NN
control0NN
term0NN
reduce0.0055149369084567VB
encourage0.0695218668857431VB
investment0.0252035516550537NN
promote0.0275746845422835VB
benefit0NN

Complementary investments training and credit

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.596763235374491
WordScorePoS
investment0.0377086395700813NN
training0.030745604615229NN
credit0.0602029956716497NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.579226723760574
WordScorePoS
investment0NN
training0.124876512346911NN
credit0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.355412687273352
WordScorePoS
investment0.0766240489430275NN
training0NN
credit0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.307538662232665
WordScorePoS
investment0.0252035516550537NN
training0.0410992516792148NN
credit0NN

Evidence from Latin America and Africa indicates that simply redistrib Providing infrastructure equitably Land and output tax combinations Taxes on land can be an effective nondistortionary tool for collecting local revenue and facilitating land redistribution

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.295319311311907
WordScorePoS
evidence0NN
africa0IN
provide0.00740117451847634VB
infrastructure0.192202909044225NN
land0NN
tax0NN
effective0JJ
tool0NN
local0JJ
revenue0NN
facilitate0.0260040237236563VB

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.224969794360404
WordScorePoS
evidence0.12939607756667NN
africa0IN
provide0VB
infrastructure0NN
land0NN
tax0NN
effective0.0145231653596925JJ
tool0NN
local0JJ
revenue0NN
facilitate0.02794560829783VB

They can also encourage productive land usage by taxing underused land at higher rates

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.584117994097152
WordScorePoS
encourage0VB
productive0JJ
land0.123873694868802NN
tax0NN
rate0.0137637438743113NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.402253502912876
WordScorePoS
encourage0VB
productive0.0714379839896614JJ
land0.0465651203624806NN
tax0NN
rate0.0155217067874935NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.375390726353542
WordScorePoS
encourage0.0695218668857431VB
productive0.0985415302158139JJ
land0NN
tax0NN
rate0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.309108459127611
WordScorePoS
encourage0VB
productive0JJ
land0NN
tax0.0811931365363091NN
rate0.0571955184484387NN

This can be attractive when large unproductive plots of land often held for speculative reasons create artificially high land prices and limit land access for poor farmers

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.601265561265425
WordScorePoS
land0.0465651203624806NN
hold0NN
create0VB
price0.0583416713841148NN
limit0.0357189919948307NN
access0.00749031153171887NN
poor0.0548141757796873JJ
farmer0.175025014152344NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.387680802429385
WordScorePoS
land0.0319966432858631NN
hold0NN
create0.0519476926891779VB
price0NN
limit0NN
access0.00514687440545096NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
farmer0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.33556780629574
WordScorePoS
land0.024255976440725NN
hold0.18234260265061NN
create0VB
price0NN
limit0NN
access0.00780347258345989NN
poor0JJ
farmer0NN

But administering tax on land requires data on the size value ownership status productive capacity and output of each plot

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.559946074078379
WordScorePoS
tax0NN
land0NN
require0.104282800328615VB
datum0NN
size0.049270765107907NN
ownership0NN
status0NN
productive0.0985415302158139JJ
capacity0.0123650647908625NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.453303172069357
WordScorePoS
tax0.036961556179878NN
land0NN
require0.0211360962287062VB
datum0.0739231123597559NN
size0NN
ownership0NN
status0.036961556179878NN
productive0JJ
capacity0.0451108483130998NN

Because it is hard for the government to measure the actual degree of land use especially for large landholders there is strong incentive for tax evasion

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.55214155063335
WordScorePoS
government0NN
measure0.0710409787438328NN
actual0JJ
degree0.164469921319675NN
land0NN
strong0JJ
incentive0NN
tax0NN
evasion0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.442358528545448
WordScorePoS
government0NN
measure0NN
actual0JJ
degree0NN
land0NN
strong0JJ
incentive0NN
tax0.0811931365363091NN
evasion0.107490825192354NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.434417679610733
WordScorePoS
government0NN
measure0.0223459295604043NN
actual0JJ
degree0NN
land0.123873694868802NN
strong0JJ
incentive0.0390772412228479NN
tax0NN
evasion0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.318590924688158
WordScorePoS
government0NN
measure0.103895385378356NN
actual0JJ
degree0NN
land0.0319966432858631NN
strong0JJ
incentive0NN
tax0NN
evasion0NN

One way to limit evasion by large landholders is to use mix of land taxes and value added tax VAT

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.729319006244866
WordScorePoS
limit0NN
evasion0.107490825192354NN
mix0NN
land0NN
tax0.0811931365363091NN
add0VB

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.418820866208355
WordScorePoS
limit0NN
evasion0NN
mix0.122412709674631NN
land0.0325677023224526NN
tax0NN
add0VB

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.334757712389855
WordScorePoS
limit0NN
evasion0NN
mix0NN
land0.123873694868802NN
tax0NN
add0VB

A VAT can have much lower rates of evasion and facilitate accurate reporting of cultivation levels

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.787014885825674
WordScorePoS
rate0.0571955184484387NN
evasion0.107490825192354NN
facilitate0VB
report0NN
level0.0610668815653026NN

Knowledge of true cultivation levels would then limit the scope for overreporting the degree of land use to evade higher tax rates for underused land

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.453342478522896
WordScorePoS
knowledge0NN
level0.0415277415054218NN
limit0.0335649154577099NN
degree0.164469921319675NN
land0NN
tax0NN
rate0NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.504147115953792
WordScorePoS
knowledge0NN
level0.00489845440032415NN
limit0NN
degree0NN
land0.123873694868802NN
tax0NN
rate0.0137637438743113NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.396424582938748
WordScorePoS
knowledge0.0595900566394012NN
level0.00552410547653725NN
limit0.0357189919948307NN
degree0NN
land0.0465651203624806NN
tax0NN
rate0.0155217067874935NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.37744487449943
WordScorePoS
knowledge0NN
level0.0610668815653026NN
limit0NN
degree0NN
land0NN
tax0.0811931365363091NN
rate0.0571955184484387NN

In the absence of insurance markets mix of VAT and land taxes can also reduce the risk facing smallholders because tax burdens would be correlated with output fluctuations

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.537650098741004
WordScorePoS
insurance0NN
market0.0913569596328122NN
mix0NN
land0.0465651203624806NN
tax0NN
reduce0.00799614078871077VB
risk0.0252000451111224NN
face0NN
smallholder0.0583416713841148NN
burden0.0440683498519077NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.321120186921937
WordScorePoS
insurance0NN
market0NN
mix0.122412709674631NN
land0.0325677023224526NN
tax0NN
reduce0.00838876601975825VB
risk0NN
face0NN
smallholder0NN
burden0NN

Sources Assunção and Moreira World Bank

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.737559496131694
WordScorePoS
source0.0130963126055467NN
world0.0124838525528648NN
bank0.0881366997038154NN

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.426402661922482
WordScorePoS
source0.0613562156822703NN
world0.00438651305628668NN
bank0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.33813808928791
WordScorePoS
source0.0109843026967392NN
world0.00418824502414673NN
bank0.036961556179878NN

Infrastructure in most developing countries is characterized by low and unequal provision about people of every in the developing world were without access to safe water in of lived without adequate sanitation and of lived without their wastewater being treated with many families suffering from inadequate access especially in rural areas

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.861323720960425
WordScorePoS
infrastructure0.0181797964452808NN
develop0VB
country0NN
provision0NN
people0.024149913320522NNS
world0.00438651305628668NN
access0.00731085509381114NN
safe0.0428007293971684JJ
water0.556409482163189NN
live0.0252018374089947VB
adequate0.0295155485671997JJ
sanitation0.334686906581616NN
wastewater0.204998018174509NN
family0.0348974218717993NN
suffer0.041835863322702VB
inadequate0.0836717266454039JJ
rural0JJ

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.240507800428059
WordScorePoS
infrastructure0.192202909044225NN
develop0VB
country0NN
provision0NN
people0.0186171553883251NNS
world0.00257642711761688NN
access0.0128821355880844NN
safe0JJ
water0.0377086395700813NN
live0.00740117451847634VB
adequate0JJ
sanitation0.0737171311497939NN
wastewater0NN
family0NN
suffer0VB
inadequate0.0368585655748969JJ
rural0JJ

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.197435758659828
WordScorePoS
infrastructure0.0155217067874935NN
develop0VB
country0NN
provision0NN
people0.0257736572183839NNS
world0.0124838525528648NN
access0.00749031153171887NN
safe0.0182713919265625JJ
water0NN
live0.0143446978608332VB
adequate0JJ
sanitation0NN
wastewater0NN
family0.0297950283197006NN
suffer0.0357189919948307VB
inadequate0JJ
rural0.148975141598503JJ

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.155736266296949
WordScorePoS
infrastructure0.028867295332595NN
develop0VB
country0NN
provision0NN
people0.0119834723221875NNS
world0.00464349782489754NN
access0.00232174891244877NN
safe0JJ
water0.186896403054502NN
live0VB
adequate0.0234335422829798JJ
sanitation0NN
wastewater0NN
family0NN
suffer0VB
inadequate0JJ
rural0JJ

Economic opportunities are strongly shaped by access to infrastructure

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.607339871107615
WordScorePoS
economic0.0320338181740375JJ
opportunity0.0135141354781442NN
access0.0128821355880844NN
infrastructure0.192202909044225NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.40719361029324
WordScorePoS
economic0.128463821595706JJ
opportunity0.0361300980868102NN
access0.00344404437204141NN
infrastructure0NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.32909577557062
WordScorePoS
economic0JJ
opportunity0.0549574626423028NN
access0.0157161992303584NN
infrastructure0.0651354046449052NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.324003394572326
WordScorePoS
economic0.103276847978089JJ
opportunity0.029046330719385NN
access0.00138439773401932NN
infrastructure0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.303613377715609
WordScorePoS
economic0.0727679293221751JJ
opportunity0.02046578088155NN
access0.00780347258345989NN
infrastructure0.024255976440725NN

Much infrastructure is traditionally government provided and so is driven by the political process

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.784650762416467
WordScorePoS
infrastructure0.192202909044225NN
government0NN
drive0NN
political0.0368585655748969JJ
process0.0737171311497939NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.496820614279188
WordScorePoS
infrastructure0.024255976440725NN
government0NN
drive0NN
political0.111637082206855JJ
process0.0558185411034276NN

Financing constraints and technical design challenges are very real but perhaps easier to overcome

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.735327565729687
WordScorePoS
financing0NN
constraint0NN
technical0.0373517915079663JJ
challenge0.0947742174515357NN
overcome0.0731385760866977VBN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.447350144790929
WordScorePoS
financing0NN
constraint0NN
technical0.124876512346911JJ
challenge0NN
overcome0VBN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.325808822990194
WordScorePoS
financing0NN
constraint0.0602029956716497NN
technical0.030745604615229JJ
challenge0NN
overcome0VBN

When more equal voice Justice land and infrastructure or the political interests of the governing regime make for more broadly accountable policies infrastructure is provided in ways that are supportive of the economic interests of poorer groups for example in East Asia intensification of irrigation and transport see focus on Indonesia

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.537945747655783
WordScorePoS
equal0JJ
voice0NN
justice0NN
land0NN
infrastructure0.192202909044225NN
political0.0368585655748969JJ
regime0NN
accountable0JJ
policy0.011275328195446NN
economic0.0320338181740375JJ
asia0IN
irrigation0.0454743001434393NN
transport0.030745604615229NN
focus0.030745604615229NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.405821138647028
WordScorePoS
equal0.033663879505068JJ
voice0NN
justice0.214981650384708NN
land0NN
infrastructure0NN
political0JJ
regime0NN
accountable0.162386273072618JJ
policy0.0201317944152378NN
economic0JJ
asia0IN
irrigation0NN
transport0NN
focus0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.249600255658843
WordScorePoS
equal0.0504071033101074JJ
voice0NN
justice0NN
land0NN
infrastructure0NN
political0JJ
regime0NN
accountable0JJ
policy0.0452169560888236NN
economic0.128463821595706JJ
asia0IN
irrigation0NN
transport0NN
focus0.0410992516792148NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.381699282277589
WordScorePoS
equal0.114211783066808JJ
voice0NN
justice0NN
land0.024255976440725NN
infrastructure0.024255976440725NN
political0.111637082206855JJ
regime0NN
accountable0JJ
policy0.0341506708422088NN
economic0.0727679293221751JJ
asia0IN
irrigation0NN
transport0NN
focus0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.377569933449126
WordScorePoS
equal0.0202620733250388JJ
voice0.064698038783335NN
justice0NN
land0NN
infrastructure0NN
political0.0792212041430275JJ
regime0NN
accountable0.0488696285210061JJ
policy0.0848203862485078NN
economic0.103276847978089JJ
asia0IN
irrigation0NN
transport0NN
focus0NN

In more unequal societies those without influence receive less and lower quality access to public services this often means the poor

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.620963613660296
WordScorePoS
society0NN
influence0NN
receive0VB
quality0NN
access0.00514687440545096NN
public0NN
service0.0443555132287109NN
means0.120266261535276NNS
poor0.150659516460257JJ

This inequitable access also applies to remote regions and excluded groups and sometimes it has gender dimension

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.796748083593908
WordScorePoS
access0.00514687440545096NN
region0.184259548107002NN
gender0.0519476926891779NN
dimension0.181686110904276NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.473232354310731
WordScorePoS
access0.00780347258345989NN
region0.0465610847355851NN
gender0.196902218579822NN
dimension0NN

Even worse some infrastructure services utilities especially often become instruments of patronage and riddled with problems of inefficient provision and corrupt practices

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.605898917512382
WordScorePoS
infrastructure0.192202909044225NN
service0.0148023490369527NN
inefficient0JJ
provision0NN
practice0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.468577624330636
WordScorePoS
infrastructure0.028867295332595NN
service0.00666957305782837NN
inefficient0.0542519672965169JJ
provision0NN
practice0.0703006268489394NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.415254452450888
WordScorePoS
infrastructure0.024255976440725NN
service0.022416649027415NN
inefficient0JJ
provision0.0558185411034276NN
practice0.0393804437159645NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.322794112351943
WordScorePoS
infrastructure0.0651354046449052NN
service0.0451471467893167NN
inefficient0JJ
provision0NN
practice0NN

As in the case for land more equal access to infrastructure would be good for equity and will often be good for growth

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.536851070883204
WordScorePoS
land0NN
equal0.0504071033101074JJ
access0.00344404437204141NN
infrastructure0NN
growth0.208565600657229NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.472761036029062
WordScorePoS
land0NN
equal0JJ
access0.0128821355880844NN
infrastructure0.192202909044225NN
growth0.0260040237236563NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.348863840034247
WordScorePoS
land0.024255976440725NN
equal0.114211783066808JJ
access0.00780347258345989NN
infrastructure0.024255976440725NN
growth0NN

This requires addressing difficult financing issues constraints that limit the poor ability to access infrastructure and major accountability issues through institutional designs that support more equitable response to needs

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.536524177824605
WordScorePoS
require0.0260040237236563VB
address0NN
financing0NN
issue0NN
constraint0.0602029956716497NN
limit0.0368585655748969NN
poor0JJ
ability0NN
access0.0128821355880844NN
infrastructure0.192202909044225NN
major0.0160169090870187JJ
accountability0NN
institutional0JJ
support0.0277502419802315NN
equitable0.0221298700466866JJ
response0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.237301657983924
WordScorePoS
require0VB
address0NN
financing0NN
issue0NN
constraint0NN
limit0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
ability0NN
access0.00514687440545096NN
infrastructure0NN
major0JJ
accountability0NN
institutional0JJ
support0.0184786920895884NN
equitable0JJ
response0NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.428720189204525
WordScorePoS
require0.0473606524958885VB
address0NN
financing0NN
issue0.0335649154577099NN
constraint0NN
limit0.0335649154577099NN
poor0JJ
ability0NN
access0NN
infrastructure0NN
major0.0291713033871158JJ
accountability0NN
institutional0.0828215106044499JJ
support0NN
equitable0JJ
response0.0548233071065585NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.40641857136479
WordScorePoS
require0.0211360962287062VB
address0NN
financing0.036961556179878NN
issue0.0299586785922821NN
constraint0NN
limit0NN
poor0.0153248097886055JJ
ability0NN
access0.00314118376811005NN
infrastructure0.0130185595639838NN
major0JJ
accountability0.048933054487825NN
institutional0.036961556179878JJ
support0.0451108483130998NN
equitable0.017987180284335JJ
response0NN

More equitable access to infrastructure is good for growth and equity There is solid evidence that infrastructure investments broaden opportunities for people and communities by integrating them into regional and national systems of production and commerce and by improving their access to public services

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.505527048511411
WordScorePoS
equitable0.0221298700466866JJ
access0.0128821355880844NN
infrastructure0.192202909044225NN
growth0.0260040237236563NN
evidence0NN
investment0.0377086395700813NN
broaden0VB
opportunity0.0135141354781442NN
people0.0186171553883251NNS
community0.0188543197850406NN
integrate0VB
regional0.0260040237236563JJ
national0.00412562425683033JJ
system0NN
production0.0188543197850406NN
commerce0NN
improve0VB
public0.0160169090870187NN
service0.0148023490369527NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.328911659122189
WordScorePoS
equitable0JJ
access0.00344404437204141NN
infrastructure0NN
growth0.208565600657229NN
evidence0NN
investment0.0252035516550537NN
broaden0VB
opportunity0.0361300980868102NN
people0.0106656521351091NNS
community0NN
integrate0.0295821503613099VB
regional0JJ
national0.0055149369084567JJ
system0NN
production0.0504071033101074NN
commerce0NN
improve0.0150723186962745VB
public0NN
service0.0197870712294258NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.294690000302341
WordScorePoS
equitable0JJ
access0.00138439773401932NN
infrastructure0NN
growth0.11178243319132NN
evidence0.12939607756667NN
investment0.0202620733250388NN
broaden0VB
opportunity0.029046330719385NN
people0.00571634317201755NNS
community0.0202620733250388NN
integrate0VB
regional0JJ
national0.00886732612541978JJ
system0NN
production0NN
commerce0NN
improve0.0121171980355011VB
public0.0172128079963482NN
service0.00795378154685591NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.316041277890393
WordScorePoS
equitable0JJ
access0.00626002771693937NN
infrastructure0.0194583992186006NN
growth0NN
evidence0NN
investment0NN
broaden0VB
opportunity0.0164178645080222NN
people0.0161552501392041NNS
community0NN
integrate0.0537696560159885VB
regional0.0315914058171786JJ
national0.00501208088147356JJ
system0.0315914058171786NN
production0NN
commerce0.0731385760866977NN
improve0.0273960270556257VB
public0.0583751976558017NN
service0.0269743071558856NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.304048963085015
WordScorePoS
equitable0.0214456704626236JJ
access0.00749031153171887NN
infrastructure0.0155217067874935NN
growth0.0252000451111224NN
evidence0NN
investment0.0182713919265625NN
broaden0VB
opportunity0.0261926252110933NN
people0.0257736572183839NNS
community0.0182713919265625NN
integrate0VB
regional0.0252000451111224JJ
national0.00399807039435538JJ
system0.0756001353333673NN
production0.0548141757796873NN
commerce0NN
improve0.0218534471578307VB
public0NN
service0.0143446978608332NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.300205739574244
WordScorePoS
equitable0JJ
access0.0157161992303584NN
infrastructure0.0651354046449052NN
growth0NN
evidence0NN
investment0.0383371018038178NN
broaden0VB
opportunity0.0549574626423028NN
people0.0108156764915259NNS
community0NN
integrate0VB
regional0JJ
national0JJ
system0NN
production0.0383371018038178NN
commerce0NN
improve0.0229264916384433VB
public0NN
service0.0451471467893167NN

Location strongly influences household market participation in Vietnam

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.518205560302965
WordScorePoS
location0NN
influence0.0542519672965169NN
household0.0554128417527413NN
market0.0169905820958638NN
participation0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.495688602207344
WordScorePoS
location0NN
influence0NN
household0.0297950283197006NN
market0.0913569596328122NN
participation0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.381005700358566
WordScorePoS
location0NN
influence0NN
household0.0465610847355851NN
market0NN
participation0.0465610847355851NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.325609386473152
WordScorePoS
location0.048933054487825NN
influence0NN
household0NN
market0.030649619577211NN
participation0NN

And households with the same characteristics and endowments yield different returns in different geographic settings in parts of rural China

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.641881710866563
WordScorePoS
household0.0297950283197006NN
characteristic0JJ
yield0NN
return0NN
geographic0JJ
setting0VBG
rural0.148975141598503JJ

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.385950266806236
WordScorePoS
household0NN
characteristic0JJ
yield0NN
return0.107490825192354NN
geographic0JJ
setting0VBG
rural0JJ

Leipziger and others based on sample of countries find that percent improvement in country infrastructure index is associated with percent reduction in child mortality

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.739835819256202
WordScorePoS
base0.0149758277542848NN
country0NN
improvement0NN
infrastructure0NN
reduction0.0149758277542848NN
child0.10682408961305NN
mortality0.276962203701274NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.425008422065617
WordScorePoS
base0NN
country0NN
improvement0.0454743001434393NN
infrastructure0.192202909044225NN
reduction0NN
child0NN
mortality0NN

percent reduction in infant mortality and

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.918436184151569
WordScorePoS
reduction0.0149758277542848NN
infant0NN
mortality0.276962203701274NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.303381117184785
WordScorePoS
reduction0.0475643836183697NN
infant0NN
mortality0.0488696285210061NN

percent reduction in maternal mortality controlling for incomes and the availability of health services

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.825131303694499
WordScorePoS
reduction0.0149758277542848NN
maternal0.184641469134183JJ
mortality0.276962203701274NN
control0.020806307400253NN
income0NN
availability0NN
health0.191387734041787NN
service0.0100171139310145NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.425390998766597
WordScorePoS
reduction0.0475643836183697NN
maternal0.0488696285210061JJ
mortality0.0488696285210061NN
control0NN
income0.166475342664294NN
availability0NN
health0.0405241466500776NN
service0.00795378154685591NN

Microevidence from rural India lends support to these cross country findings the prevalence and duration of diarrhea among children under five are significantly lower for families with piped water

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.808618647059575
WordScorePoS
rural0JJ
support0.0209983814716066NN
country0NN
prevalence0NN
child0.0255958462813622NN
significantly0RB
family0.0348974218717993NN
water0.556409482163189NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.307231288601112
WordScorePoS
rural0.148975141598503JJ
support0.00896409157262106NN
country0NN
prevalence0NN
child0.0546336178945768NN
significantly0RB
family0.0297950283197006NN
water0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.247480877670015
WordScorePoS
rural0JJ
support0.00833571598658786NN
country0NN
prevalence0NN
child0NN
significantly0RB
family0NN
water0.186896403054502NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.322637082332662
WordScorePoS
rural0JJ
support0.00625975725959118NN
country0NN
prevalence0.0407408489778079NN
child0.10682408961305NN
significantly0RB
family0.0624189222007589NN
water0.0382775468083574NN

Investments in basic water and energy infrastructure can improve gender equity

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.584818447457889
WordScorePoS
investment0NN
basic0.0181797964452808JJ
water0.556409482163189NN
energy0.0153390539205676NN
infrastructure0.0181797964452808NN
improve0.0511916925627245VB
gender0NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.550859708687836
WordScorePoS
investment0.0383371018038178NN
basic0JJ
water0NN
energy0.494617163780726NN
infrastructure0.0651354046449052NN
improve0.0229264916384433VB
gender0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.327959193270496
WordScorePoS
investment0.0377086395700813NN
basic0.0480507272610562JJ
water0.0377086395700813NN
energy0.0540565419125769NN
infrastructure0.192202909044225NN
improve0VB
gender0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.323019216358749
WordScorePoS
investment0NN
basic0.0144336476662975JJ
water0.186896403054502NN
energy0.133960988253756NN
infrastructure0.028867295332595NN
improve0VB
gender0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.196173862072309
WordScorePoS
investment0NN
basic0JJ
water0NN
energy0NN
infrastructure0.024255976440725NN
improve0VB
gender0.196902218579822NN

Around the world the burden of gathering and transporting fuelwood and water traditionally falls on women and girls

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.62900937285191
WordScorePoS
world0.00585260443759492NN
burden0NN
transport0NN
water0NN
fall0NN
woman0.221979360474357NN
girl0.393804437159645NN

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.610262697436649
WordScorePoS
world0.00438651305628668NN
burden0NN
transport0NN
water0.556409482163189NN
fall0NN
woman0.0127979231406811NN
girl0.0295155485671997NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.221846711177318
WordScorePoS
world0.00464349782489754NN
burden0NN
transport0.0277064208763707NN
water0.186896403054502NN
fall0NN
woman0NN
girl0NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.206044589453813
WordScorePoS
world0.0017440716962658NN
burden0NN
transport0NN
water0NN
fall0NN
woman0.0610612445035112NN
girl0.140824109342254NN

In Ghana Tanzania and Zambia women account for two thirds of all household time devoted to water and fuel collection while children mostly girls account for between and percent of time spent on these activities

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.603315431120702
WordScorePoS
woman0.221979360474357NN
account0NN
third0.0558185411034276JJ
household0.0465610847355851NN
time0NN
water0NN
fuel0.0558185411034276NN
collection0NN
child0.0170753354211044NN
girl0.393804437159645NN
activity0NN

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.542193227447433
WordScorePoS
woman0.0127979231406811NN
account0.0181797964452808NN
third0JJ
household0NN
time0NN
water0.556409482163189NN
fuel0NN
collection0NN
child0.0255958462813622NN
girl0.0295155485671997NN
activity0.0502364757923669NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.339324756246875
WordScorePoS
woman0NN
account0.0577345906651901NN
third0JJ
household0.0554128417527413NN
time0.0169905820958638NN
water0.186896403054502NN
fuel0.0332151194779746NN
collection0NN
child0NN
girl0NN
activity0.0199423462679015NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.212183792638582
WordScorePoS
woman0.0610612445035112NN
account0NN
third0JJ
household0NN
time0NN
water0NN
fuel0NN
collection0NN
child0.076326555629389NN
girl0.140824109342254NN
activity0NN

In rural Morocco having wells or piped water increases the probability that both girls and boys will enroll in school with larger impacts for girls who are responsible for collecting water

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.641292178705521
WordScorePoS
rural0JJ
water0.556409482163189NN
increase0.00905621749519576NN
girl0.0295155485671997NN
boy0NN
school0NN
impact0.0181797964452808NN
responsible0JJ

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.583676951229523
WordScorePoS
rural0JJ
water0NN
increase0.00402768349408688NN
girl0.393804437159645NN
boy0.206598579091335NN
school0.0931221694711702NN
impact0NN
responsible0JJ

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.368423645332221
WordScorePoS
rural0JJ
water0NN
increase0.0144029596227568NN
girl0.140824109342254NN
boy0.184698660975968NN
school0.208127520578185NN
impact0NN
responsible0JJ

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.251354299751939
WordScorePoS
rural0JJ
water0.186896403054502NN
increase0.00958677785775002NN
girl0NN
boy0NN
school0NN
impact0.0866018859977851NN
responsible0JJ

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.129456359305505
WordScorePoS
rural0.148975141598503JJ
water0NN
increase0.0128868286091919NN
girl0.0252000451111224NN
boy0NN
school0.0297950283197006NN
impact0NN
responsible0JJ

Studies in Pakistan show that poor access to firewood and water in rural areas means that women work longer hours and have less time for income generating activities with impacts on the intrahousehold balance of power

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.64194034080216
WordScorePoS
study0NN
poor0.0642010940957526JJ
access0.00731085509381114NN
water0.556409482163189NN
rural0JJ
means0NNS
woman0.0127979231406811NN
time0NN
income0NN
generate0VB
activity0.0502364757923669NN
impact0.0181797964452808NN
power0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.355389503610941
WordScorePoS
study0NN
poor0.0548141757796873JJ
access0.00749031153171887NN
water0NN
rural0.148975141598503JJ
means0NNS
woman0.0546336178945768NN
time0.0182713919265625NN
income0.0643370113878709NN
generate0.0440683498519077VB
activity0NN
impact0NN
power0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.330712571255327
WordScorePoS
study0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
access0.00514687440545096NN
water0NN
rural0JJ
means0.120266261535276NNS
woman0.0450489732120807NN
time0NN
income0.0442083771593746NN
generate0VB
activity0NN
impact0NN
power0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.313878780762913
WordScorePoS
study0NN
poor0.0339811641917276JJ
access0.00232174891244877NN
water0.186896403054502NN
rural0JJ
means0NNS
woman0NN
time0.0169905820958638NN
income0NN
generate0VB
activity0.0199423462679015NN
impact0.0866018859977851NN
power0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.2588286164012
WordScorePoS
study0NN
poor0JJ
access0.00138439773401932NN
water0NN
rural0.0330412182586772JJ
means0NNS
woman0.0242343960710022NN
time0.0607862199751165NN
income0.166475342664294NN
generate0VB
activity0NN
impact0NN
power0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.208009391438401
WordScorePoS
study0NN
poor0JJ
access0.00780347258345989NN
water0NN
rural0JJ
means0NNS
woman0.221979360474357NN
time0NN
income0NN
generate0VB
activity0NN
impact0NN
power0NN

Women and children are also more subject to health risks from indoor air pollution given the disproportionate amount of time spent inside the home

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.652872939213514
WordScorePoS
woman0.0381514605760894NN
child0.10682408961305NN
health0.191387734041787NN
risk0.0703902516159815NN
air0.020806307400253NN
pollution0.0175975629039954NN
amount0.020806307400253NN
time0.0127591822694525NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.403898027192411
WordScorePoS
woman0.221979360474357NN
child0.0170753354211044NN
health0.0571058915334038NN
risk0NN
air0NN
pollution0NN
amount0NN
time0NN

Electricity in the home can reduce the need to burn polluting fuels for light and cooking

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.875029371456644
WordScorePoS
electricity0.0625160381065121NN
reduce0.00838876601975825VB
pollute0VB
fuel0.0749457204978913NN
cooking0.122412709674631NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.358064056186008
WordScorePoS
electricity0NN
reduce0.022306853314744VB
pollute0.0542519672965169VB
fuel0.0332151194779746NN
cooking0NN

And improvements in electricity and gas distribution can eliminate time spent collecting traditional fuels

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.753186138179943
WordScorePoS
improvement0.0924643738905717NN
electricity0.0625160381065121NN
gas0.0749457204978913NN
eliminate0VB
time0NN
traditional0JJ
fuel0.0749457204978913NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.33247857767762
WordScorePoS
improvement0NN
electricity0NN
gas0NN
eliminate0.078760887431929VB
time0NN
traditional0JJ
fuel0.0558185411034276NN

Improving rural transport infrastructure can reduce transactions costs expand access to markets and improve rural incomes

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.572870028389271
WordScorePoS
improve0.0218534471578307VB
rural0.148975141598503JJ
transport0NN
infrastructure0.0155217067874935NN
reduce0.00799614078871077VB
transaction0NN
cost0NN
expand0VB
access0.00749031153171887NN
market0.0913569596328122NN
income0.0643370113878709NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.477343268037939
WordScorePoS
improve0.0121171980355011VB
rural0.0330412182586772JJ
transport0NN
infrastructure0NN
reduce0.0310356414389692VB
transaction0.064698038783335NN
cost0.0660824365173543NN
expand0VB
access0.00138439773401932NN
market0.0202620733250388NN
income0.166475342664294NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.416553949891692
WordScorePoS
improve0VB
rural0JJ
transport0.030745604615229NN
infrastructure0.192202909044225NN
reduce0VB
transaction0NN
cost0NN
expand0VB
access0.0128821355880844NN
market0.0377086395700813NN
income0.110649350233433NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.300173617776865
WordScorePoS
improve0.0273960270556257VB
rural0.0373517915079663JJ
transport0.0747035830159326NN
infrastructure0.0194583992186006NN
reduce0.0200483235258943VB
transaction0NN
cost0NN
expand0.0268848280079943VB
access0.00626002771693937NN
market0NN
income0NN

It is estimated that nearly twothirds of African farmers are effectively insulated from national and world markets because of poor market access

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.812139485585109
WordScorePoS
estimate0NN
african0IN
farmer0.175025014152344NN
effectively0RB
national0.00399807039435538JJ
world0.0124838525528648NN
market0.0913569596328122NN
poor0.0548141757796873JJ
access0.00749031153171887NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.32532655971697
WordScorePoS
estimate0NN
african0IN
farmer0NN
effectively0RB
national0.0164833460638534JJ
world0.00257343720272548NN
market0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
access0.00514687440545096NN

In contrast substantial investments in Indonesian roads over the last three decades have allowed poor households to successfully enter the market economy

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.48330073069343
WordScorePoS
substantial0.0736315832425121JJ
investment0.0376648791150643NN
road0NN
decade0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
household0NN
enter0VB
market0NN
economy0NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.384172187893763
WordScorePoS
substantial0JJ
investment0NN
road0NN
decade0.124232265906675NN
poor0JJ
household0NN
enter0VB
market0NN
economy0.0839946104936743NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.358362321034358
WordScorePoS
substantial0JJ
investment0.0182713919265625NN
road0NN
decade0NN
poor0.0548141757796873JJ
household0.0297950283197006NN
enter0VB
market0.0913569596328122NN
economy0NN

And many of the roads were built as labor intensive public works making jobs available to unskilled labor

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.615465633940231
WordScorePoS
road0NN
build0VB
intensive0.0804764811724088JJ
public0NN
job0.135650868266471NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.494997588095084
WordScorePoS
road0.0368585655748969NN
build0.030745604615229VB
intensive0JJ
public0.0160169090870187NN
job0.0902026255635679NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.332757702993067
WordScorePoS
road0.04477822029736NN
build0VB
intensive0JJ
public0.0583751976558017NN
job0.0136980135278128NN

Similarly investments in rural infrastructure roads bridges culverts and marketplaces in Bangladesh have deepened the vibrancy of the rural economy for both agriculture and nonagriculture

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.747379805529595
WordScorePoS
investment0.0182713919265625NN
rural0.148975141598503JJ
infrastructure0.0155217067874935NN
road0NN
economy0NN
agriculture0.148975141598503NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.414751224080649
WordScorePoS
investment0.0377086395700813NN
rural0JJ
infrastructure0.192202909044225NN
road0.0368585655748969NN
economy0NN
agriculture0NN

Investing in rural roads is an example of how expanding access to infrastructure can benefit equity and efficiency in the long run especially in areas with large numbers of poor people and agroclimatic potential

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.52890143368758
WordScorePoS
invest0VB
rural0JJ
road0.0368585655748969NN
expand0VB
access0.0128821355880844NN
infrastructure0.192202909044225NN
benefit0.0260040237236563NN
efficiency0.0442597400933733NN
poor0JJ
people0.0186171553883251NNS
potential0.0454743001434393NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.472424029869023
WordScorePoS
invest0.0583416713841148VB
rural0.148975141598503JJ
road0NN
expand0VB
access0.00749031153171887NN
infrastructure0.0155217067874935NN
benefit0.0252000451111224NN
efficiency0NN
poor0.0548141757796873JJ
people0.0257736572183839NNS
potential0NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.381823353867762
WordScorePoS
invest0VB
rural0JJ
road0NN
expand0.0449973847138318VB
access0.0157161992303584NN
infrastructure0.0651354046449052NN
benefit0NN
efficiency0.134992154141495NN
poor0JJ
people0.0108156764915259NNS
potential0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.271264861884545
WordScorePoS
invest0VB
rural0JJ
road0NN
expand0VB
access0.00514687440545096NN
infrastructure0NN
benefit0NN
efficiency0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
people0.0371911007748996NNS
potential0NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.319848825483184
WordScorePoS
invest0VB
rural0.0373517915079663JJ
road0.04477822029736NN
expand0.0268848280079943VB
access0.00626002771693937NN
infrastructure0.0194583992186006NN
benefit0NN
efficiency0.0537696560159885NN
poor0.0229054731708393JJ
people0.0161552501392041NNS
potential0NN

BOX

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT Lagging infrastructure in Africa Infrastructure development in Africa is abysmal lagging behind the rest of the world in terms of quantity quality cost and equality of access

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.609648866259006
WordScorePoS
world0.00257642711761688NN
development0.0330049940546426NN
report0NN
infrastructure0.192202909044225NN
africa0IN
term0NN
quality0.022550656390892NN
cost0NN
equality0NN
access0.0128821355880844NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.360580169738114
WordScorePoS
world0.00418824502414673NN
development0.0469463607292177NN
report0NN
infrastructure0.0130185595639838NN
africa0IN
term0.149793392961411NN
quality0.00916459792075908NN
cost0NN
equality0NN
access0.00314118376811005NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.346736857864313
WordScorePoS
world0.00585260443759492NN
development0.0124956749436837NN
report0NN
infrastructure0.024255976440725NN
africa0IN
term0NN
quality0NN
cost0NN
equality0.18624433894234NN
access0.00780347258345989NN

Only percent of roads are paved the average waiting time for telephone connection is three and half years transport costs are the highest of any region and fewer than one in five Africans has access to electricity

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.562105570153976
WordScorePoS
road0NN
average0.146608885563018NN
time0.0607862199751165NN
transport0NN
cost0.0660824365173543NN
region0NN
african0IN
access0.00138439773401932NN
electricity0NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.396005394935657
WordScorePoS
road0NN
average0.1656430212089NN
time0NN
transport0NN
cost0.0279982034978914NN
region0NN
african0IN
access0NN
electricity0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.387345025647131
WordScorePoS
road0NN
average0NN
time0NN
transport0NN
cost0NN
region0.184259548107002NN
african0IN
access0.00514687440545096NN
electricity0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.344881800669041
WordScorePoS
road0.0249430985430622NN
average0NN
time0.0127591822694525NN
transport0NN
cost0NN
region0.124837844401518NN
african0IN
access0.00610236075888593NN
electricity0NN

What can explain this tremendous underdevelopment

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Difficult geography and complex history

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.717662758988433
WordScorePoS
history0.0414107553022249NN

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.696390812949963
WordScorePoS
history0.0401833161726777NN

Distance from major markets the Sahara Desert shortage of natural ports and vast tracts of landlocked areas all increase transport costs

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.463890403621642
WordScorePoS
major0JJ
market0.0202620733250388NN
shortage0NN
natural0JJ
vast0JJ
landlocked0.0977392570420122JJ
increase0.00285817158600878NN
transport0NN
cost0.0660824365173543NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.403450585278418
WordScorePoS
major0JJ
market0.0913569596328122NN
shortage0NN
natural0JJ
vast0.0583416713841148JJ
landlocked0JJ
increase0.0128868286091919NN
transport0NN
cost0NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.387320623587635
WordScorePoS
major0JJ
market0NN
shortage0.055245183797332NN
natural0.0229054731708393JJ
vast0JJ
landlocked0JJ
increase0.00323105002784081NN
transport0.0747035830159326NN
cost0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.362053636299876
WordScorePoS
major0.0160169090870187JJ
market0.0377086395700813NN
shortage0NN
natural0JJ
vast0JJ
landlocked0.0454743001434393JJ
increase0.0159575617614215NN
transport0.030745604615229NN
cost0NN

Infrastructure development during colonial times focused on building transportation from resource sites to port

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.53736056580343
WordScorePoS
infrastructure0.192202909044225NN
development0.0330049940546426NN
time0.0188543197850406NN
focus0.030745604615229NN
building0NN
transportation0NN
resource0.0185001613201543NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.453432833528032
WordScorePoS
infrastructure0.0130185595639838NN
development0.0469463607292177NN
time0NN
focus0NN
building0.149940347231585NN
transportation0NN
resource0.0375923735942499NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.423696426410432
WordScorePoS
infrastructure0.0194583992186006NN
development0.0100241617629471NN
time0NN
focus0.0373517915079663NN
building0.0747035830159326NN
transportation0.04477822029736NN
resource0.0449504361447405NN

And the postcolonial division of Africa into many small states drives up transport and energy costs with cumbersome border crossings little regional cooperation on water and power projects and incompatible rail systems among other factors

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.610961165686335
WordScorePoS
africa0IN
drive0NN
transport0NN
energy0.0153390539205676NN
cost0NN
border0NN
regional0JJ
cooperation0.0255958462813622NN
water0.556409482163189NN
power0NN
project0.041835863322702NN
system0NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.494694692368349
WordScorePoS
africa0IN
drive0NN
transport0NN
energy0.494617163780726NN
cost0NN
border0NN
regional0JJ
cooperation0.0229264916384433NN
water0NN
power0NN
project0NN
system0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.442580115665269
WordScorePoS
africa0IN
drive0NN
transport0.0277064208763707NN
energy0.133960988253756NN
cost0.0277064208763707NN
border0NN
regional0JJ
cooperation0.0203215381458133NN
water0.186896403054502NN
power0NN
project0.0664302389559493NN
system0NN

Financing constraints

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.781292606840796
WordScorePoS
financing0NN
constraint0.0602029956716497NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.479673648437204
WordScorePoS
financing0.036961556179878NN
constraint0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.39936831808602
WordScorePoS
financing0.0307735781890304NN
constraint0NN

Lack of investment has led to deterioration in infrastructure especially road transport

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.748366394262568
WordScorePoS
lack0.0565629593551219NN
investment0.0377086395700813NN
lead0.0188543197850406NN
infrastructure0.192202909044225NN
road0.0368585655748969NN
transport0.030745604615229NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.361501247103831
WordScorePoS
lack0.0383371018038178NN
investment0.0383371018038178NN
lead0.0383371018038178NN
infrastructure0.0651354046449052NN
road0NN
transport0NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.32477647572135
WordScorePoS
lack0.0229054731708393NN
investment0NN
lead0NN
infrastructure0.0194583992186006NN
road0.04477822029736NN
transport0.0747035830159326NN

For instance in nine East African countries maintenance spending could cover only percent of current networks

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Lack of disposable income means low demand for infrastructure and small and scattered populations make economies of scale difficult and require higher investments

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.615881884582572
WordScorePoS
lack0.0565629593551219NN
income0.110649350233433NN
means0NNS
demand0.030745604615229NN
infrastructure0.192202909044225NN
population0NN
economy0NN
scale0.0368585655748969NN
require0.0260040237236563VB
investment0.0377086395700813NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.342373142523812
WordScorePoS
lack0NN
income0.166475342664294NN
means0NNS
demand0NN
infrastructure0NN
population0.0860640399817412NN
economy0NN
scale0NN
require0VB
investment0.0202620733250388NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.351043150009223
WordScorePoS
lack0.0252035516550537NN
income0NN
means0NNS
demand0NN
infrastructure0NN
population0.0428212738652355NN
economy0.0821985033584295NN
scale0NN
require0.104282800328615VB
investment0.0252035516550537NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.348231381879579
WordScorePoS
lack0.0753297582301286NN
income0.0442083771593746NN
means0.120266261535276NNS
demand0NN
infrastructure0NN
population0NN
economy0NN
scale0NN
require0VB
investment0.0376648791150643NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.312907089693234
WordScorePoS
lack0.0383371018038178NN
income0.0449973847138318NN
means0NNS
demand0NN
infrastructure0.0651354046449052NN
population0NN
economy0.0625160381065121NN
scale0NN
require0VB
investment0.0383371018038178NN

Widespread subsidies that go to the relatively wealthy the poor generally do not have connections to networked utilities undermine governments ability to expand access

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.487142175612364
WordScorePoS
subsidy0.162850158165781NN
poor0JJ
government0NN
ability0NN
expand0VB
access0.00113832851892715NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.462836542705343
WordScorePoS
subsidy0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
government0NN
ability0NN
expand0VB
access0.00514687440545096NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.426910122652685
WordScorePoS
subsidy0.0664302389559493NN
poor0.0339811641917276JJ
government0NN
ability0.0409791940864438NN
expand0VB
access0.00232174891244877NN

Bad policies and poor accountability

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.648927654398753
WordScorePoS
bad0JJ
policy0.0450489732120807NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
accountability0NN

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.439453733333227
WordScorePoS
bad0.0683326727248364JJ
policy0NN
poor0.0642010940957526JJ
accountability0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.425780366026383
WordScorePoS
bad0JJ
policy0.0641521854453136NN
poor0.0153248097886055JJ
accountability0.048933054487825NN

Licensing competition barriers and corruption also impede affordable infrastructure provision

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.728766749856821
WordScorePoS
barrier0NN
corruption0.322472475577062NN
affordable0JJ
infrastructure0NN
provision0.0658099748168827NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.536088072525336
WordScorePoS
barrier0.0368585655748969NN
corruption0NN
affordable0.0565629593551219JJ
infrastructure0.192202909044225NN
provision0NN

Despite the difficult geographic and structural factors there are opportunities to improve Africa infrastructure

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.67507988768712
WordScorePoS
geographic0JJ
opportunity0.0135141354781442NN
improve0VB
africa0IN
infrastructure0.192202909044225NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.469331517885549
WordScorePoS
geographic0JJ
opportunity0.0549574626423028NN
improve0.0229264916384433VB
africa0IN
infrastructure0.0651354046449052NN

One necessary step is to boost investment especially in rehabilitation and maintenance

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.712629944062538
WordScorePoS
investment0.0766240489430275NN

Higher public investment will be needed

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.643122184392388
WordScorePoS
public0.0390556786919513NN
investment0.0766240489430275NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.404553767683987
WordScorePoS
public0.0727679293221751NN
investment0NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.324537284088355
WordScorePoS
public0.0583751976558017NN
investment0NN

Private participation can help finance some investments and increase efficiency but it is unlikely to solve Africa infrastructure problem

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.613194762457086
WordScorePoS
private0.0368585655748969JJ
participation0NN
finance0NN
investment0.0377086395700813NN
increase0.0159575617614215NN
efficiency0.0442597400933733NN
africa0IN
infrastructure0.192202909044225NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.477613044134902
WordScorePoS
private0JJ
participation0NN
finance0NN
investment0.0383371018038178NN
increase0.0162235147372888NN
efficiency0.134992154141495NN
africa0IN
infrastructure0.0651354046449052NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.414069868224501
WordScorePoS
private0.0898760357768464JJ
participation0NN
finance0.036961556179878NN
investment0.0766240489430275NN
increase0.00432344066632653NN
efficiency0NN
africa0IN
infrastructure0.0130185595639838NN

A sound institutional and policy environment is required to attract fresh investment and use it effectively

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.497069120916309
WordScorePoS
sound0.0234335422829798NN
institutional0JJ
policy0.0203215381458133NN
environment0.079769385071606NN
require0.0468670845659596VB
attract0VB
fresh0.0996453584339239JJ
investment0NN
effectively0RB

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.495055583237933
WordScorePoS
sound0.0211360962287062NN
institutional0.036961556179878JJ
policy0.0641521854453136NN
environment0NN
require0.0211360962287062VB
attract0.048933054487825VB
fresh0JJ
investment0.0766240489430275NN
effectively0RB

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.430490659073975
WordScorePoS
sound0NN
institutional0JJ
policy0.0452169560888236NN
environment0.0591643007226199NN
require0.104282800328615VB
attract0VB
fresh0JJ
investment0.0252035516550537NN
effectively0RB

Macroeconomic stability freedom to repatriate capital competitive taxes contract enforcement low corruption and adherence to transparent rules are all important to private investors especially given the long payback periods of many infrastructure investments

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.81225802471124
WordScorePoS
macroeconomic0JJ
stability0NN
freedom0.107490825192354NN
tax0.0811931365363091NN
contract0NN
corruption0.322472475577062NN
transparent0.0811931365363091JJ
rule0.162386273072618NN
private0JJ
period0NN
infrastructure0NN
investment0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.287101993219381
WordScorePoS
macroeconomic0JJ
stability0NN
freedom0NN
tax0NN
contract0NN
corruption0NN
transparent0JJ
rule0NN
private0.0368585655748969JJ
period0NN
infrastructure0.192202909044225NN
investment0.0377086395700813NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.457639948640635
WordScorePoS
macroeconomic0.048933054487825JJ
stability0.048933054487825NN
freedom0NN
tax0.036961556179878NN
contract0NN
corruption0NN
transparent0.036961556179878JJ
rule0.0739231123597559NN
private0.0898760357768464JJ
period0NN
infrastructure0.0130185595639838NN
investment0.0766240489430275NN

In contexts in which policies are sensible but foreign private investment is hard to attract foreign aid can provide both financing for pub Is privatization the answer

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.770011686134162
WordScorePoS
context0.036961556179878NN
policy0.0641521854453136NN
foreign0.036961556179878JJ
private0.0898760357768464JJ
investment0.0766240489430275NN
attract0.048933054487825VB
aid0NN
provide0.00601568197638796VB
financing0.036961556179878NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.360309354173854
WordScorePoS
context0NN
policy0.0848203862485078NN
foreign0.0488696285210061JJ
private0JJ
investment0.0202620733250388NN
attract0VB
aid0NN
provide0VB
financing0NN

What accounts for the failure of infrastructure services to serve poor people especially in Africa box

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.536771667371881
WordScorePoS
account0.0160169090870187NN
infrastructure0.192202909044225NN
service0.0148023490369527NN
serve0VB
poor0JJ
people0.0186171553883251NNS
africa0IN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.515817005710683
WordScorePoS
account0NN
infrastructure0NN
service0.0443555132287109NN
serve0VB
poor0.150659516460257JJ
people0.0371911007748996NNS
africa0IN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.309295649344178
WordScorePoS
account0.0577345906651901NN
infrastructure0.028867295332595NN
service0.00666957305782837NN
serve0VB
poor0.0339811641917276JJ
people0.0119834723221875NNS
africa0IN

Beyond the important role played by historical and geographic contexts there are major financing constraints and governance challenges

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.488325751468635
WordScorePoS
historical0JJ
geographic0JJ
context0NN
major0.0285977592242194JJ
financing0NN
constraint0NN
governance0.107490825192354NN
challenge0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.440843956571384
WordScorePoS
historical0JJ
geographic0.048933054487825JJ
context0.036961556179878NN
major0JJ
financing0.036961556179878NN
constraint0NN
governance0NN
challenge0NN

In most developing countries the public sector is fiscally strapped public investment in infrastructure in Latin America dropped from percent of GDP in to less than percent in and public spending requires taxes which can exert drag on efficiency and can mean forgone investments in other areas

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.552135638338214
WordScorePoS
develop0VB
country0NN
public0.0160169090870187NN
sector0.0565629593551219NN
investment0.0377086395700813NN
infrastructure0.192202909044225NN
gdp0NN
spending0.0602029956716497NN
require0.0260040237236563VB
tax0NN
exert0VB
efficiency0.0442597400933733NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.304022130365241
WordScorePoS
develop0VB
country0NN
public0NN
sector0NN
investment0.0383371018038178NN
infrastructure0.0651354046449052NN
gdp0NN
spending0NN
require0VB
tax0NN
exert0VB
efficiency0.134992154141495NN

Local financial markets are generally not sufficiently developed to intermediate private savings into long term risky infrastructure investments and in any case private savings are often not large

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.695578286141385
WordScorePoS
local0.0130185595639838JJ
financial0.0150369494376999JJ
market0.030649619577211NN
develop0VB
private0.0898760357768464JJ
term0.149793392961411NN
infrastructure0.0130185595639838NN
investment0.0766240489430275NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.523747015534962
WordScorePoS
local0JJ
financial0.0185001613201543JJ
market0.0377086395700813NN
develop0VB
private0.0368585655748969JJ
term0NN
infrastructure0.192202909044225NN
investment0.0377086395700813NN

Foreign private capital is interested generally in large markets and even then only when risks including policy and exchange rate risks are acceptable

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.456254445835814
WordScorePoS
foreign0.036961556179878JJ
private0.0898760357768464JJ
market0.030649619577211NN
risk0NN
include0VB
policy0.0641521854453136NN
rate0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.438341507038759
WordScorePoS
foreign0JJ
private0JJ
market0NN
risk0.0519476926891779NN
include0VB
policy0.0450489732120807NN
rate0.0639932865717261NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.379053391237585
WordScorePoS
foreign0JJ
private0JJ
market0NN
risk0.0703902516159815NN
include0VB
policy0NN
rate0.0433561464459019NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.352350466013091
WordScorePoS
foreign0.0488696285210061JJ
private0JJ
market0.0202620733250388NN
risk0NN
include0VB
policy0.0848203862485078NN
rate0.0172128079963482NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.323765237280497
WordScorePoS
foreign0JJ
private0JJ
market0.0913569596328122NN
risk0.0252000451111224NN
include0VB
policy0NN
rate0.0155217067874935NN

Stateowned infrastructure companies in many countries especially when political inequal lic provision and guarantees to help foster private participation

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.609193484828466
WordScorePoS
infrastructure0.192202909044225NN
company0NN
country0NN
political0.0368585655748969JJ
provision0NN
guarantee0NN
foster0.0454743001434393JJ
private0.0368585655748969JJ
participation0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.575342693706331
WordScorePoS
infrastructure0.024255976440725NN
company0NN
country0NN
political0.111637082206855JJ
provision0.0558185411034276NN
guarantee0NN
foster0JJ
private0.0558185411034276JJ
participation0.0465610847355851NN

Prudent oversight regulation and contract design can also ensure that public and private financing are equitably and efficiently used

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.779433620743513
WordScorePoS
oversight0.0978661089756501NN
regulation0.036961556179878NN
contract0NN
ensure0.00335331148065841VB
public0.0390556786919513NN
private0.0898760357768464JJ
financing0.036961556179878NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.361635910864984
WordScorePoS
oversight0NN
regulation0NN
contract0NN
ensure0.0124956749436837VB
public0.0727679293221751NN
private0.0558185411034276JJ
financing0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.317386287180812
WordScorePoS
oversight0NN
regulation0.0977392570420122NN
contract0NN
ensure0.00886732612541978VB
public0.0172128079963482NN
private0JJ
financing0NN

Increasing cross border and regional cooperation is one way to make African infrastructure more affordable

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.710205862360366
WordScorePoS
increase0.0159575617614215NN
border0NN
regional0.0260040237236563JJ
cooperation0NN
african0IN
infrastructure0.192202909044225NN
affordable0.0565629593551219JJ

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.442058627220541
WordScorePoS
increase0.0162235147372888NN
border0NN
regional0JJ
cooperation0.0229264916384433NN
african0IN
infrastructure0.0651354046449052NN
affordable0.0766742036076356JJ

Streamlined border crossings and improved road and rail links would reduce transport costs

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.601429866325947
WordScorePoS
border0NN
improve0.0273960270556257VB
road0.04477822029736NN
reduce0.0200483235258943VB
transport0.0747035830159326NN
cost0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.393571384141756
WordScorePoS
border0NN
improve0.0121171980355011VB
road0NN
reduce0.0310356414389692VB
transport0NN
cost0.0660824365173543NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.348934088777612
WordScorePoS
border0.0548233071065585NN
improve0.0102677744436108VB
road0NN
reduce0.00375696197697663VB
transport0NN
cost0.0279982034978914NN

Trade in power and water resources could significantly cut costs as well

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.799437693821399
WordScorePoS
trade0NN
power0NN
water0.556409482163189NN
resource0.0104991907358033NN
significantly0RB
cut0NN
cost0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.361400388225672
WordScorePoS
trade0NN
power0NN
water0.186896403054502NN
resource0.0416785799329393NN
significantly0RB
cut0NN
cost0.0277064208763707NN

For example it is estimated that South Africa could save million year in operating costs by exchanging electricity with its neighbors Masters Sparrow and Bowen

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Seeking innovative ways to broaden access is also needed

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.729518440602458
WordScorePoS
seek0.120266261535276VB
broaden0VB
access0.00514687440545096NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.665403749216102
WordScorePoS
seek0VB
broaden0.107490825192354VB
access0.00690021170452351NN

Mozambique has tested promising approach the government set up utility companies using diesel generators in rural areas and then sold them to private investors below cost for continuing commercial operation

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.341546398708793
WordScorePoS
approach0NN
government0NN
set0NN
company0NN
rural0.148975141598503JJ
private0JJ
cost0NN
continue0VB
commercial0JJ

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.606762444144028
WordScorePoS
approach0.0542519672965169NN
government0NN
set0NN
company0.108503934593034NN
rural0JJ
private0JJ
cost0.0277064208763707NN
continue0.0199423462679015VB
commercial0.0542519672965169JJ

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.542611076565208
WordScorePoS
approach0NN
government0.048933054487825NN
set0.0978661089756501NN
company0NN
rural0JJ
private0.0898760357768464JJ
cost0NN
continue0VB
commercial0JJ

Grants from government NGOs or donors for community driven infrastructure projects are another possibility

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.710628864098828
WordScorePoS
government0NN
community0.0188543197850406NN
drive0NN
infrastructure0.192202909044225NN
project0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.378073648747654
WordScorePoS
government0NN
community0.0169905820958638NN
drive0NN
infrastructure0.028867295332595NN
project0.0664302389559493NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.368062161761369
WordScorePoS
government0NN
community0.0343390275626203NN
drive0.0414107553022249NN
infrastructure0NN
project0.0335649154577099NN

Regardless of the approach community and user involvement in infrastructure construction maintenance and management is one of the most effective ways to expand access in rural areas

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.493752551021777
WordScorePoS
approach0NN
community0.0188543197850406NN
user0NN
infrastructure0.192202909044225NN
management0NN
effective0JJ
expand0VB
access0.0128821355880844NN
rural0JJ

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.41949143497499
WordScorePoS
approach0NN
community0.0182713919265625NN
user0NN
infrastructure0.0155217067874935NN
management0NN
effective0JJ
expand0VB
access0.00749031153171887NN
rural0.148975141598503JJ

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.349846670762585
WordScorePoS
approach0NN
community0NN
user0NN
infrastructure0.0194583992186006NN
management0.0687164195125178NN
effective0JJ
expand0.0268848280079943VB
access0.00626002771693937NN
rural0.0373517915079663JJ

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.300769573698234
WordScorePoS
approach0.0542519672965169NN
community0.0169905820958638NN
user0NN
infrastructure0.028867295332595NN
management0.0339811641917276NN
effective0JJ
expand0VB
access0.00232174891244877NN
rural0JJ

Source World Bank

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.737559496131694
WordScorePoS
source0.0130963126055467NN
world0.0124838525528648NN
bank0.0881366997038154NN

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.426402661922482
WordScorePoS
source0.0613562156822703NN
world0.00438651305628668NN
bank0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.33813808928791
WordScorePoS
source0.0109843026967392NN
world0.00418824502414673NN
bank0.036961556179878NN

ities are large are often inefficient and become instruments of patronage

Label: 12, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
inefficient0.0542519672965169JJ

The were characterized by massive policy redirection toward private participation in infrastructure reflecting the disappointment with ineffective state operated utilities the promise of private funding and the greater flexibility offered by technological change and regulatory innovation

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.608674851660984
WordScorePoS
policy0.011275328195446NN
private0.0368585655748969JJ
participation0NN
infrastructure0.192202909044225NN
reflect0VB
operate0VB
flexibility0NN
offer0.0454743001434393NN
technological0.104016094894625JJ
change0NN
innovation0.122982418460916NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.509595620730278
WordScorePoS
policy0.0102677744436108NN
private0JJ
participation0NN
infrastructure0NN
reflect0VB
operate0VB
flexibility0NN
offer0NN
technological0.0473606524958885JJ
change0.402565546215053NN
innovation0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.339848845087609
WordScorePoS
policy0.0641521854453136NN
private0.0898760357768464JJ
participation0NN
infrastructure0.0130185595639838NN
reflect0VB
operate0VB
flexibility0NN
offer0NN
technological0JJ
change0NN
innovation0.0499801157438617NN

But the privatization wave bypassed many developing countries Sub Saharan Africa received only percent of total private infrastructure investment in developing countries between and and even where private capital became the dominant source of investment as in Latin America in the mid when private investment was

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.536506356974642
WordScorePoS
develop0VB
country0NN
saharan0.0221298700466866JJ
africa0IN
receive0VB
total0.0260040237236563NN
private0.0368585655748969JJ
infrastructure0.192202909044225NN
investment0.0377086395700813NN
dominant0JJ
source0.0135141354781442NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.43018353795026
WordScorePoS
develop0VB
country0NN
saharan0JJ
africa0IN
receive0VB
total0.0528748274225028NN
private0JJ
infrastructure0.0651354046449052NN
investment0.0383371018038178NN
dominant0.122412709674631JJ
source0.0274787313211514NN

percent of GDP the results for equity were mixed

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.789068536870063
WordScorePoS
gdp0NN
result0.0683326727248364NN

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.614305171817508
WordScorePoS
gdp0.0531983120572613NN
result0NN

There were many cases of privatization in which access for the poor improved especially when competition reduced political capture but evidence suggests that private operators also focused on wealthier segments of the population box

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.590599081809772
WordScorePoS
access0.00138439773401932NN
poor0JJ
improve0.0121171980355011VB
reduce0.0310356414389692VB
political0.0792212041430275JJ
capture0NN
evidence0.12939607756667NN
suggest0VB
private0JJ
focus0NN
wealthier0JJR
population0.0860640399817412NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.299966372022305
WordScorePoS
access0.00514687440545096NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
improve0VB
reduce0.0164833460638534VB
political0JJ
capture0NN
evidence0NN
suggest0VB
private0JJ
focus0NN
wealthier0JJR
population0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.347367251691876
WordScorePoS
access0.00780347258345989NN
poor0JJ
improve0VB
reduce0VB
political0.111637082206855JJ
capture0NN
evidence0NN
suggest0VB
private0.0558185411034276JJ
focus0NN
wealthier0JJR
population0.024255976440725NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.309121079878885
WordScorePoS
access0.0128821355880844NN
poor0JJ
improve0VB
reduce0VB
political0.0368585655748969JJ
capture0NN
evidence0NN
suggest0.0602029956716497VB
private0.0368585655748969JJ
focus0.030745604615229NN
wealthier0JJR
population0NN

Justice land and infrastructure BOX

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.617354237628727
WordScorePoS
justice0.214981650384708NN
land0NN
infrastructure0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.551941433934872
WordScorePoS
justice0NN
land0NN
infrastructure0.192202909044225NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.355723152748772
WordScorePoS
justice0NN
land0.123873694868802NN
infrastructure0NN

The distributional impact of infrastructure privatization in Latin America mixed bag Private participation in infrastructure increased dramatically in Latin America during the late s

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.799069642560305
WordScorePoS
impact0.0160169090870187NN
infrastructure0.192202909044225NN
private0.0368585655748969JJ
participation0NN
increase0.0159575617614215NN

It went from billion in to peak of billion in dropping back to billion by World Bank

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.918499615257701
WordScorePoS
world0.0124838525528648NN
bank0.0881366997038154NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.375629786620639
WordScorePoS
world0.00418824502414673NN
bank0.036961556179878NN

The distributional impact of private investment depends on how efficiency gains are allocated between public and private interests

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.310837567475675
WordScorePoS
impact0NN
private0JJ
investment0.0383371018038178NN
depend0VB
efficiency0.134992154141495NN
gain0NN
public0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.529808434900004
WordScorePoS
impact0NN
private0.0898760357768464JJ
investment0.0766240489430275NN
depend0VB
efficiency0NN
gain0NN
public0.0390556786919513NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.397733399121802
WordScorePoS
impact0.0866018859977851NN
private0JJ
investment0NN
depend0VB
efficiency0.039884692535803NN
gain0.0664302389559493NN
public0.028867295332595NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.336643801257555
WordScorePoS
impact0.0160169090870187NN
private0.0368585655748969JJ
investment0.0377086395700813NN
depend0VB
efficiency0.0442597400933733NN
gain0NN
public0.0160169090870187NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.330700116961746
WordScorePoS
impact0NN
private0.0558185411034276JJ
investment0NN
depend0VB
efficiency0NN
gain0NN
public0.0727679293221751NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.316311218059774
WordScorePoS
impact0.0194583992186006NN
private0JJ
investment0NN
depend0VB
efficiency0.0537696560159885NN
gain0.04477822029736NN
public0.0583751976558017NN

In the best cases privatization can solve patronage problems and lead to greater efficiency and equity

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.770240773310861
WordScorePoS
lead0.0383371018038178NN
efficiency0.134992154141495NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.35545634964169
WordScorePoS
lead0.0504071033101074NN
efficiency0.0295821503613099NN

In worse cases efficiency gains can be shared between government and private operators or go primarily to the private sector and lead to the consolidation of private monopoly power as in Mexican telecommunications

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.299238902357189
WordScorePoS
efficiency0.134992154141495NN
gain0NN
share0.0383371018038178NN
government0NN
private0JJ
primarily0RB
sector0NN
lead0.0383371018038178NN
power0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.675933877721889
WordScorePoS
efficiency0NN
gain0NN
share0.0766240489430275NN
government0.048933054487825NN
private0.0898760357768464JJ
primarily0RB
sector0.0459744293658165NN
lead0NN
power0.036961556179878NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.443113126527093
WordScorePoS
efficiency0.0442597400933733NN
gain0NN
share0.0377086395700813NN
government0NN
private0.0368585655748969JJ
primarily0RB
sector0.0565629593551219NN
lead0.0188543197850406NN
power0.0454743001434393NN

The outcome depends on the market and accountability structure including the effectiveness of regulation

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.552935456892924
WordScorePoS
outcome0NN
depend0VB
market0.030649619577211NN
accountability0.048933054487825NN
structure0.048933054487825NN
include0VB
regulation0.036961556179878NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.504702387216022
WordScorePoS
outcome0.0330412182586772NN
depend0VB
market0.0202620733250388NN
accountability0NN
structure0NN
include0VB
regulation0.0977392570420122NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.424619001253362
WordScorePoS
outcome0NN
depend0.0357189919948307VB
market0.0913569596328122NN
accountability0NN
structure0NN
include0VB
regulation0NN

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.329004206857526
WordScorePoS
outcome0NN
depend0.0651400632663124VB
market0.0333211986002325NN
accountability0NN
structure0NN
include0VB
regulation0NN

Evidence from Latin America shows that privatizations fall into each of these categories yielding mixed results for affordable access by the poor

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.421788951364233
WordScorePoS
evidence0NN
fall0NN
yield0NN
result0NN
affordable0JJ
access0.00514687440545096NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.354040416631809
WordScorePoS
evidence0.12939607756667NN
fall0NN
yield0NN
result0NN
affordable0JJ
access0.00138439773401932NN
poor0JJ

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.436511964870879
WordScorePoS
evidence0NN
fall0NN
yield0NN
result0.0683326727248364NN
affordable0.0214003646985842JJ
access0.00731085509381114NN
poor0.0642010940957526JJ

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.418834511847998
WordScorePoS
evidence0NN
fall0.123094312756122NN
yield0NN
result0NN
affordable0.025518364538905JJ
access0.00610236075888593NN
poor0JJ

Research from Argentina Bolivia Mexico and Nicaragua shows that utility privatization increased access and enhanced service quality for poor consumers in some cases McKenzie and Mookherjee

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.678746319668963
WordScorePoS
research0NN
increase0.00958677785775002NN
access0.00232174891244877NN
enhance0VB
service0.00666957305782837NN
quality0.0203215381458133NN
poor0.0339811641917276JJ
consumer0.325511803779102NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.372500638254149
WordScorePoS
research0NN
increase0NN
access0.00514687440545096NN
enhance0.0184786920895884VB
service0.0443555132287109NN
quality0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
consumer0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.321505744567605
WordScorePoS
research0.104016094894625NN
increase0.0159575617614215NN
access0.0128821355880844NN
enhance0.0185001613201543VB
service0.0148023490369527NN
quality0.022550656390892NN
poor0JJ
consumer0NN

In Chile access to power services increased greatly for low income groups during the first years of private operation Estache Gómez Lobo and Leipziger

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.449446854407476
WordScorePoS
access0.00138439773401932NN
power0NN
service0.00795378154685591NN
increase0.00285817158600878NN
income0.166475342664294NN
private0JJ

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.595225960433671
WordScorePoS
access0.0128821355880844NN
power0.0454743001434393NN
service0.0148023490369527NN
increase0.0159575617614215NN
income0.110649350233433NN
private0.0368585655748969JJ

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.383082451073708
WordScorePoS
access0.00314118376811005NN
power0.036961556179878NN
service0NN
increase0.00432344066632653NN
income0.017987180284335NN
private0.0898760357768464JJ

In Colombia private utilities have connected more of the poorest consumers than their public counterparts World Bank

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.789345830359587
WordScorePoS
private0JJ
poorest0JJS
consumer0.325511803779102NN
public0.028867295332595NN
world0.00464349782489754NN
bank0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.373940627590333
WordScorePoS
private0.0898760357768464JJ
poorest0JJS
consumer0NN
public0.0390556786919513NN
world0.00418824502414673NN
bank0.036961556179878NN

Other research shows that child mortality caused by waterborne diseases fell by to percent in the Argentine locales where water services were privatized with the strongest benefit more than percent decline in mortality occurring in the poorest neighborhoods Galiani Gertler and Schargrodsky

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.784514308677306
WordScorePoS
research0.0175975629039954NN
child0.10682408961305NN
mortality0.276962203701274NN
cause0NN
disease0.215415047323213NN
fall0.123094312756122NN
water0.0382775468083574NN
service0.0100171139310145NN
benefit0NN
decline0.0351951258079907NN
occur0.0307735781890304VB
poorest0JJS

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.505291689414015
WordScorePoS
research0NN
child0.0255958462813622NN
mortality0NN
cause0NN
disease0.103230094596636NN
fall0NN
water0.556409482163189NN
service0.0084006124696649NN
benefit0NN
decline0NN
occur0VB
poorest0.0348974218717993JJS

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.178927265648269
WordScorePoS
research0NN
child0NN
mortality0NN
cause0NN
disease0NN
fall0NN
water0.186896403054502NN
service0.00666957305782837NN
benefit0NN
decline0.0234335422829798NN
occur0.0409791940864438VB
poorest0JJS

Despite the increases in access there are two reasons why privatization may have had adverse effects on the poor through higher tariffs and connection costs

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.51542900933943
WordScorePoS
increase0NN
access0.00514687440545096NN
adverse0JJ
effect0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
cost0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.463226462472271
WordScorePoS
increase0.00958677785775002NN
access0.00232174891244877NN
adverse0.0664302389559493JJ
effect0NN
poor0.0339811641917276JJ
cost0.0277064208763707NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.394527407006405
WordScorePoS
increase0.0128868286091919NN
access0.00749031153171887NN
adverse0JJ
effect0.0440683498519077NN
poor0.0548141757796873JJ
cost0NN

First privatization can reduce the scope for cross regional subsidies

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.727084605871949
WordScorePoS
reduce0.0036456034155327VB
regional0JJ
subsidy0.162850158165781NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.387513610839574
WordScorePoS
reduce0.022306853314744VB
regional0JJ
subsidy0.0664302389559493NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.300951594696694
WordScorePoS
reduce0.00799614078871077VB
regional0.0252000451111224JJ
subsidy0.0357189919948307NN

One study Campos and others showed that the fiscal cost of utilities increased few years after privatization

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.787420033939236
WordScorePoS
study0NN
fiscal0.064698038783335JJ
cost0.0660824365173543NN
increase0.00285817158600878NN

This was the result of cream skimming as observed in Argentina

Label: 6, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
result0.0683326727248364NN

In some of the provinces of Argentina the water concessions were for the large cities only leaving the responsibility for the small cities and rural areas to the governments

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.892661218943448
WordScorePoS
water0.0458109463416786NN
city0.607697021770652NN
leave0NN
responsibility0NN
rural0.0373517915079663JJ
government0NN

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.382490141129956
WordScorePoS
water0.556409482163189NN
city0NN
leave0NN
responsibility0NN
rural0JJ
government0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.16299675787464
WordScorePoS
water0NN
city0.0440683498519077NN
leave0NN
responsibility0NN
rural0.148975141598503JJ
government0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.128477378392397
WordScorePoS
water0.186896403054502NN
city0NN
leave0NN
responsibility0NN
rural0JJ
government0NN

Because the big cities were cross subsidizing the other regions under public provision privatization reduced this source of funding and increased the net fiscal costs once the transaction payoffs from privatization had disappeared

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.806513785823831
WordScorePoS
city0.607697021770652NN
region0NN
public0.0583751976558017NN
provision0NN
reduce0.0200483235258943VB
source0NN
increase0.00323105002784081NN
fiscal0JJ
cost0NN
transaction0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.266446454090947
WordScorePoS
city0NN
region0.184259548107002NN
public0NN
provision0NN
reduce0.0164833460638534VB
source0.0269969049497485NN
increase0NN
fiscal0JJ
cost0NN
transaction0NN

Second connection costs and tariffs were adjusted to cost recovery levels following privatization leading in many instances to higher prices

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.790398058793248
WordScorePoS
cost0.0548954478802642NN
recovery0.107490825192354NN
level0.0610668815653026NN
lead0NN
price0NN

In the early public utilities in developing countries subsidized an average of percent of gas and percent of water costs World Bank

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.740093360723818
WordScorePoS
public0NN
develop0VB
country0NN
average0NN
gas0NN
water0.556409482163189NN
cost0NN
world0.00438651305628668NN
bank0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.371274994629878
WordScorePoS
public0.028867295332595NN
develop0VB
country0NN
average0NN
gas0.0332151194779746NN
water0.186896403054502NN
cost0.0277064208763707NN
world0.00464349782489754NN
bank0NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.348789112120587
WordScorePoS
public0NN
develop0VB
country0NN
average0.1656430212089NN
gas0.0671298309154199NN
water0NN
cost0.0279982034978914NN
world0.00351929966767313NN
bank0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.307062976347523
WordScorePoS
public0.0172128079963482NN
develop0VB
country0NN
average0.146608885563018NN
gas0NN
water0NN
cost0.0660824365173543NN
world0.00276879546803864NN
bank0NN

So when subsidies were cut services often became too expensive for poor consumers

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.783518093247374
WordScorePoS
subsidy0.0664302389559493NN
cut0NN
service0.00666957305782837NN
expensive0.0542519672965169JJ
poor0.0339811641917276JJ
consumer0.325511803779102NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.507407335739303
WordScorePoS
subsidy0NN
cut0.120266261535276NN
service0.0443555132287109NN
expensive0JJ
poor0.150659516460257JJ
consumer0NN

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.262087752047588
WordScorePoS
subsidy0.162850158165781NN
cut0NN
service0NN
expensive0JJ
poor0JJ
consumer0NN

For the water concession in Buenos Aires the initial connection charge was set so high that many users could not afford it Estache Foster and Wodon which was an issue at the center of one of the first major adjustments to the contract Ugaz and Price

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.84881326514378
WordScorePoS
water0.556409482163189NN
set0NN
user0NN
foster0JJ
issue0NN
major0JJ
contract0NN
price0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.285114023405144
WordScorePoS
water0.186896403054502NN
set0NN
user0NN
foster0JJ
issue0NN
major0JJ
contract0NN
price0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.326033013556279
WordScorePoS
water0NN
set0.0978661089756501NN
user0.048933054487825NN
foster0.036961556179878JJ
issue0.0299586785922821NN
major0JJ
contract0NN
price0NN

The telecommunications sector in Argentina also saw price increases following privatization largely to rebalance local and long distance charges

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.567710163167092
WordScorePoS
sector0.0182713919265625NN
price0.0583416713841148NN
increase0.0128868286091919NN
local0.0155217067874935JJ

But price increases are not the norm competition can drive them down

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.664926346989126
WordScorePoS
price0.0583416713841148NN
increase0.0128868286091919NN
drive0NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.52222847605108
WordScorePoS
price0NN
increase0.0145316075945746NN
drive0.0414107553022249NN

In In the end experience suggests that privatization alone is not the answer

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.760257329132548
WordScorePoS
experience0NN
suggest0.0602029956716497VB

Whether infrastructure services are provided by private operators or public utilities seems less important for equity and efficiency than specific measures to improve access for the poor the structure of incentives facing providers and provider accountability to the general public

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.484317277171299
WordScorePoS
infrastructure0.192202909044225NN
service0.0148023490369527NN
private0.0368585655748969JJ
public0.0160169090870187NN
efficiency0.0442597400933733NN
specific0JJ
measure0NN
improve0VB
access0.0128821355880844NN
poor0JJ
structure0NN
incentive0NN
face0.120405991343299NN
provider0NN
accountability0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.324758313106751
WordScorePoS
infrastructure0NN
service0.0443555132287109NN
private0JJ
public0NN
efficiency0NN
specific0JJ
measure0.103895385378356NN
improve0VB
access0.00514687440545096NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
structure0NN
incentive0NN
face0NN
provider0NN
accountability0NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.3032472429484
WordScorePoS
infrastructure0.0651354046449052NN
service0.0451471467893167NN
private0JJ
public0NN
efficiency0.134992154141495NN
specific0JJ
measure0NN
improve0.0229264916384433VB
access0.0157161992303584NN
poor0JJ
structure0NN
incentive0NN
face0NN
provider0NN
accountability0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.481165800430392
WordScorePoS
infrastructure0.0130185595639838NN
service0NN
private0.0898760357768464JJ
public0.0390556786919513NN
efficiency0NN
specific0JJ
measure0NN
improve0.0183291958415182VB
access0.00314118376811005NN
poor0.0153248097886055JJ
structure0.048933054487825NN
incentive0.036961556179878NN
face0NN
provider0.048933054487825NN
accountability0.048933054487825NN

Expanding access and making services affordable Whether expanding general access benefits the poor depends on initial levels of coverage

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.530155153382732
WordScorePoS
expand0VB
access0.00514687440545096NN
service0.0443555132287109NN
affordable0JJ
benefit0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
depend0VB
level0.0113874611101829NN
coverage0.0908430554521382NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.419326757888303
WordScorePoS
expand0.0449973847138318VB
access0.0157161992303584NN
service0.0451471467893167NN
affordable0.0766742036076356JJ
benefit0NN
poor0JJ
depend0VB
level0NN
coverage0NN

In many African countries overall access rates improved over the last decade but the bottom percent of the population registered no gains at all figure

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.489782356965289
WordScorePoS
african0IN
country0NN
access0.00138439773401932NN
rate0.0172128079963482NN
improve0.0121171980355011VB
decade0NN
bottom0.064698038783335NN
population0.0860640399817412NN
gain0NN
figure0NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.413299949546453
WordScorePoS
african0IN
country0NN
access0.00626002771693937NN
rate0NN
improve0.0273960270556257VB
decade0.055245183797332NN
bottom0NN
population0.0194583992186006NN
gain0.04477822029736NN
figure0NN

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.368930836624431
WordScorePoS
african0IN
country0NN
access0.00731085509381114NN
rate0NN
improve0.0511916925627245VB
decade0NN
bottom0NN
population0.0363595928905615NN
gain0.041835863322702NN
figure0NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.362998807646916
WordScorePoS
african0IN
country0NN
access0NN
rate0NN
improve0.0102677744436108VB
decade0.124232265906675NN
bottom0NN
population0NN
gain0NN
figure0NN

This is not Chile the liberalization of the telecommunications market in reduced call prices by more than percent

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.83581860594369
WordScorePoS
market0.0913569596328122NN
reduce0.00799614078871077VB
price0.0583416713841148NN

In Argentina thanks to the entry of new operators in the generation sector residential electricity customers enjoyed percent drop in tariffs in the five years after privatization World Bank

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.571789745166602
WordScorePoS
generation0.0909486002868787NN
sector0.0565629593551219NN
residential0JJ
electricity0.030745604615229NN
world0.00257642711761688NN
bank0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.49909880571151
WordScorePoS
generation0.0819583881728876NN
sector0.0169905820958638NN
residential0.0542519672965169JJ
electricity0NN
world0.00464349782489754NN
bank0NN

Ultimately price changes depend on initial conditions quality improvements and regulatory and institutional frameworks that determine profits

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.569992421620262
WordScorePoS
ultimately0RB
price0NN
depend0VB
condition0.121575732851624NN
quality0.030144637392549NN
improvement0NN
institutional0JJ
framework0.0428212738652355NN
determine0VB

Episodes of privatization can be opportunities to strengthen accountability

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.475058949450461
WordScorePoS
opportunity0NN
strengthen0.0120313639527759VB
accountability0.048933054487825NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.428250365297145
WordScorePoS
opportunity0.0549574626423028NN
strengthen0VB
accountability0NN

They can generate public discussion about the current state of service delivery the options for reform the terms of the contract and the tradeoffs under consideration

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.532278086344838
WordScorePoS
generate0VB
public0.0390556786919513NN
current0JJ
service0NN
reform0NN
term0.149793392961411NN
contract0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.525250932631186
WordScorePoS
generate0VB
public0.0727679293221751NN
current0JJ
service0.022416649027415NN
reform0.0911713013253052NN
term0NN
contract0NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.338486183827431
WordScorePoS
generate0VB
public0NN
current0JJ
service0.0451471467893167NN
reform0NN
term0.0749457204978913NN
contract0NN

Such occasions can be powerful in overcoming collective action problems and mobilizing consumers to express their interests

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.886939927025099
WordScorePoS
overcome0VBN
action0.0121782716594324NN
mobilize0VB
consumer0.325511803779102NN

But there is also the danger that in the absence of the voice of consumers the process of privatization may be captured by narrow interests with political connections and better information

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.758897114713224
WordScorePoS
voice0NN
consumer0.325511803779102NN
process0NN
capture0NN
political0JJ
information0.0365348149782971NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.393907867234087
WordScorePoS
voice0NN
consumer0NN
process0.0558185411034276NN
capture0NN
political0.111637082206855JJ
information0.02046578088155NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.373418124375304
WordScorePoS
voice0NN
consumer0NN
process0.0737171311497939NN
capture0NN
political0.0368585655748969JJ
information0.0675706773907211NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.301673576136101
WordScorePoS
voice0.064698038783335NN
consumer0NN
process0NN
capture0NN
political0.0792212041430275JJ
information0NN

Indeed that might be one reason why the public perception of privatization in Latin America is so negative

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.640633878746864
WordScorePoS
public0.0727679293221751NN

There is evidence that privatization has been associated with increased power for conglomerates and their foreign partners and with higher profits in noncompetitive sectors

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.682082014253399
WordScorePoS
evidence0.12939607756667NN
increase0.00285817158600878NN
power0NN
foreign0.0488696285210061JJ
sector0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.467795295521726
WordScorePoS
evidence0NN
increase0.00432344066632653NN
power0.036961556179878NN
foreign0.036961556179878JJ
sector0.0459744293658165NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.444348621452752
WordScorePoS
evidence0NN
increase0.0159575617614215NN
power0.0454743001434393NN
foreign0JJ
sector0.0565629593551219NN

Accusations of corruption during the privatization process concentrated gains by few actors whether made legally or illegally contrasted with worker layoffs and unrealistic customer expectations regarding service levels driven by politicians overselling the promise of privatization are also probably to blame for privatization negative public image De Ferranti and others

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.736360709211973
WordScorePoS
corruption0.322472475577062NN
process0NN
gain0NN
actor0NN
worker0NN
service0NN
level0.0610668815653026NN
drive0NN
public0.0285977592242194NN

surprising

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Given the low initial coverage in many of these countries the expansion favored wealthier households

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.564101047508504
WordScorePoS
coverage0.0908430554521382NN
country0NN
expansion0NN
wealthier0JJR
household0NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.454162920637601
WordScorePoS
coverage0NN
country0NN
expansion0.0731385760866977NN
wealthier0JJR
household0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.444077569562139
WordScorePoS
coverage0.0307735781890304NN
country0NN
expansion0NN
wealthier0.0407408489778079JJR
household0NN

This does not mean however that expanding access when overall levels of service provision are low is bad for equity

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.483135769595403
WordScorePoS
expand0VB
access0.00690021170452351NN
level0.0610668815653026NN
service0NN
provision0.0658099748168827NN
bad0JJ

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.417606625787485
WordScorePoS
expand0.0251182378961834VB
access0.00731085509381114NN
level0.00647010760354177NN
service0.0084006124696649NN
provision0NN
bad0.0683326727248364JJ

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.382315940574467
WordScorePoS
expand0.0449973847138318VB
access0.0157161992303584NN
level0NN
service0.0451471467893167NN
provision0NN
bad0JJ

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.373081760941112
WordScorePoS
expand0VB
access0.00780347258345989NN
level0.0172651853471334NN
service0.022416649027415NN
provision0.0558185411034276NN
bad0JJ

On the contrary better to expand access in this case than to focus on upgrading quality which would benefit only the few who already have access

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.45736384120618
WordScorePoS
expand0VB
access0.0128821355880844NN
focus0.030745604615229NN
upgrade0.0520080474473126NN
quality0.022550656390892NN
benefit0.0260040237236563NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.452627759677037
WordScorePoS
expand0.0299609328954485VB
access0.00697628678506322NN
focus0NN
upgrade0.0352060273355634NN
quality0.076326555629389NN
benefit0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.414858734543737
WordScorePoS
expand0.0295821503613099VB
access0.00344404437204141NN
focus0.0410992516792148NN
upgrade0.0347609334428716NN
quality0.030144637392549NN
benefit0NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.376509029110135
WordScorePoS
expand0.0449973847138318VB
access0.0157161992303584NN
focus0NN
upgrade0.0528748274225028NN
quality0NN
benefit0NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.35537368897717
WordScorePoS
expand0.0268848280079943VB
access0.00626002771693937NN
focus0.0373517915079663NN
upgrade0.0315914058171786NN
quality0.0136980135278128NN
benefit0NN

To expand access to the poor policymakers can set service obligations or create incentives for providers

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.579733294184126
WordScorePoS
expand0VB
access0.00514687440545096NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
set0NN
service0.0443555132287109NN
obligation0NN
create0.0519476926891779VB
incentive0NN
provider0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.465026163665389
WordScorePoS
expand0VB
access0.00314118376811005NN
poor0.0153248097886055JJ
set0.0978661089756501NN
service0NN
obligation0NN
create0VB
incentive0.036961556179878NN
provider0.048933054487825NN

One way is to specify universal service obligations which is common in the telecommunications sector

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.405585240250261
WordScorePoS
universal0.0549574626423028JJ
service0.0451471467893167NN
obligation0NN
common0JJ
sector0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.405114086201249
WordScorePoS
universal0.02046578088155JJ
service0.022416649027415NN
obligation0NN
common0JJ
sector0.0571058915334038NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.399640493475228
WordScorePoS
universal0.0164178645080222JJ
service0.0269743071558856NN
obligation0NN
common0.055245183797332JJ
sector0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.364057643228737
WordScorePoS
universal0.0182906962166331JJ
service0.0100171139310145NN
obligation0NN
common0.0615471563780609JJ
sector0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.343898745820762
WordScorePoS
universal0.0135141354781442JJ
service0.0148023490369527NN
obligation0NN
common0JJ
sector0.0565629593551219NN

While this is worthy social objective it may not be practical in the short run when starting from low access rates

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.628332324697882
WordScorePoS
social0.112994637345193JJ
objective0NN
access0.00514687440545096NN
rate0.0639932865717261NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.425120051785564
WordScorePoS
social0JJ
objective0.0749457204978913NN
access0.0157161992303584NN
rate0.0325677023224526NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.413659577307672
WordScorePoS
social0.101310366625194JJ
objective0NN
access0.00138439773401932NN
rate0.0172128079963482NN

That is why service obligations should include details on WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT Figure

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.524770697336772
WordScorePoS
service0.0148023490369527NN
obligation0NN
include0VB
world0.00257642711761688NN
development0.0330049940546426NN
report0NN
figure0.0602029956716497NN

Poor families did not benefit from an expansion of access in Africa Access to electricity for st and nd quintile average Access to electricity for th and th quintile average nd period nd period Nigeria Côte Ivoire Ghana Cameroon ° ° Senegal Zimbabwe Namibia Zambia Benin Mali Nigeria Madagascar Tanzania Madagascar Rwanda Kenya Niger Malawi Uganda Burkina Faso st period st period Source Diallo and Wodon

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.596451311913856
WordScorePoS
poor0JJ
family0NN
benefit0NN
expansion0NN
access0NN
africa0IN
electricity0NN
st0IN
quintile0NN
average0.1656430212089NN
period0NN
°0.109646614213117NN
source0.0123065238088614NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.452215643808696
WordScorePoS
poor0JJ
family0NN
benefit0NN
expansion0NN
access0.00138439773401932NN
africa0IN
electricity0NN
st0IN
quintile0.064698038783335NN
average0.146608885563018NN
period0NN
°0NN
source0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.204611640030997
WordScorePoS
poor0.150659516460257JJ
family0NN
benefit0NN
expansion0NN
access0.00514687440545096NN
africa0IN
electricity0NN
st0IN
quintile0NN
average0NN
period0NN
°0NN
source0.0269969049497485NN

Note First and last observation dates vary for each country

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

The first observation is in the early to mid and the last in the late or early s

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

The average time between observations is seven years

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.772212530278541
WordScorePoS
average0.146608885563018NN
time0.0607862199751165NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.616753303790897
WordScorePoS
average0.1656430212089NN
time0NN

time frames and ways to finance the obligation when customers are unable to pay

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.571883515083097
WordScorePoS
time0.016202004209163NN
finance0.0390772412228479NN
obligation0.0517339898971162NN
pay0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.474186858255566
WordScorePoS
time0.0607862199751165NN
finance0NN
obligation0NN
pay0.02794560829783NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.420901704514451
WordScorePoS
time0NN
finance0NN
obligation0NN
pay0.078760887431929NN

Defining connection targets is another way to promote access

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.695875433593236
WordScorePoS
target0.0898760357768464NN
promote0.0100599344419752VB
access0.00314118376811005NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.45940010989691
WordScorePoS
target0.0499016491051341NN
promote0.0111711050494158VB
access0.00697628678506322NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.345688733021613
WordScorePoS
target0.0357189919948307NN
promote0.00799614078871077VB
access0.00749031153171887NN

Targets are easy to monitor and can be enforced by financial penalties

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.700030165566036
WordScorePoS
target0.0898760357768464NN
monitor0.0599173571845643NN
enforce0VB
financial0.0150369494376999JJ

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.526652773944769
WordScorePoS
target0NN
monitor0NN
enforce0.107490825192354VB
financial0.016515769558553JJ

Of course connection targets can be met only if customers are able and willing to take up the service and this depends on their ability to overcome impediments including title requirements and income and liquidity constraints given the lumpiness of connection charges

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.407966665440294
WordScorePoS
target0NN
meet0VB
service0.00795378154685591NN
depend0VB
ability0NN
overcome0VBN
include0VB
income0.166475342664294NN
constraint0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.557250210296251
WordScorePoS
target0.0357189919948307NN
meet0.0881366997038154VB
service0.0143446978608332NN
depend0.0357189919948307VB
ability0NN
overcome0VBN
include0VB
income0.0643370113878709NN
constraint0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.434221791580811
WordScorePoS
target0NN
meet0VB
service0.0148023490369527NN
depend0VB
ability0NN
overcome0VBN
include0VB
income0.110649350233433NN
constraint0.0602029956716497NN

In many countries new connections are subsidized to meet access objectives and keep providers solvent

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.569193548068816
WordScorePoS
country0NN
meet0.0881366997038154VB
access0.00749031153171887NN
objective0NN
provider0NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.539640203098567
WordScorePoS
country0NN
meet0VB
access0.0157161992303584NN
objective0.0749457204978913NN
provider0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.488278430915975
WordScorePoS
country0NN
meet0VB
access0.00314118376811005NN
objective0.0299586785922821NN
provider0.048933054487825NN

New connections can be subsidized from charges to existing users particularly if the group of existing users is much larger and wealthier than potential new users

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

The water and sanitation concessionaire in Buenos Aires adopted this type of cross subsidy after renegotiating an initial contract that charged onerous connection fees to the poor

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.900367391522555
WordScorePoS
water0.556409482163189NN
sanitation0.334686906581616NN
adopt0VB
type0NN
subsidy0NN
contract0NN
poor0.0642010940957526JJ

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.286801076144104
WordScorePoS
water0.186896403054502NN
sanitation0NN
adopt0.0169905820958638VB
type0NN
subsidy0.0664302389559493NN
contract0NN
poor0.0339811641917276JJ

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.184891403940123
WordScorePoS
water0.0333211986002325NN
sanitation0NN
adopt0VB
type0NN
subsidy0.162850158165781NN
contract0NN
poor0JJ

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.141996517608339
WordScorePoS
water0NN
sanitation0NN
adopt0VB
type0NN
subsidy0NN
contract0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ

Government financing for connection subsidies is also an option as is offering credit to consumers for connection purchases

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.891321068396288
WordScorePoS
government0NN
financing0NN
subsidy0.0664302389559493NN
credit0NN
consumer0.325511803779102NN

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.370339900134035
WordScorePoS
government0NN
financing0NN
subsidy0.162850158165781NN
credit0NN
consumer0NN

In Colombia the law requires that connection charges for poor customers be spread over at least three years

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.557489485183696
WordScorePoS
law0.164686343640793NN
require0VB
poor0JJ
spread0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.510006442626787
WordScorePoS
law0NN
require0VB
poor0.150659516460257JJ
spread0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.353013877067541
WordScorePoS
law0NN
require0.104282800328615VB
poor0JJ
spread0NN

complement to connection subsidies are consumption subsidies either through means tested transfers financed out of general tax revenues or through lifeline tariffs

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.637124441250719
WordScorePoS
complement0NN
subsidy0.0664302389559493NN
consumption0.332151194779746NN
means0NNS
transfer0NN
finance0NN
tax0NN
revenue0NN

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.5563627602908
WordScorePoS
complement0NN
subsidy0.162850158165781NN
consumption0NN
means0NNS
transfer0.0803666323453555NN
finance0NN
tax0NN
revenue0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.202521423866623
WordScorePoS
complement0NN
subsidy0NN
consumption0.147812295323721NN
means0NNS
transfer0NN
finance0NN
tax0NN
revenue0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.420103674715952
WordScorePoS
complement0.0978661089756501NN
subsidy0NN
consumption0NN
means0NNS
transfer0.036961556179878NN
finance0.036961556179878NN
tax0.036961556179878NN
revenue0.0978661089756501NN

Subsidized lifeline tariffs require transfer from those with high levels of consumption to those with low levels

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.725361599269046
WordScorePoS
require0.0468670845659596VB
transfer0NN
level0.00513687014008325NN
consumption0.332151194779746NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.49812102227952
WordScorePoS
require0.104282800328615VB
transfer0NN
level0.00761994916892276NN
consumption0.147812295323721NN

When considering lifeline subsidies care must be taken to set threshold that is high enough to garner political support yet low enough that the poor are the primary beneficiaries

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.333349703244221
WordScorePoS
subsidy0.162850158165781NN
care0NN
set0NN
threshold0NN
political0JJ
support0NN
poor0JJ
primary0.0141533244035107JJ

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.318537075140757
WordScorePoS
subsidy0NN
care0NN
set0NN
threshold0NN
political0JJ
support0.0184786920895884NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
primary0JJ

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.568346591359606
WordScorePoS
subsidy0NN
care0.0931221694711702NN
set0NN
threshold0NN
political0.111637082206855JJ
support0NN
poor0JJ
primary0.0970239057629001JJ

For instance evidence from Honduras suggests that their electricity subsidy is too high

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.636958565568691
WordScorePoS
evidence0NN
suggest0VB
electricity0NN
subsidy0.162850158165781NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.506109056849536
WordScorePoS
evidence0.12939607756667NN
suggest0VB
electricity0NN
subsidy0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.355728791618596
WordScorePoS
evidence0NN
suggest0.0602029956716497VB
electricity0.030745604615229NN
subsidy0NN

percent of residential customers benefit from the subsidy those consuming under kWh monthly

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.629624787326962
WordScorePoS
residential0JJ
benefit0.0229784274580034NN
subsidy0.162850158165781NN
consume0VB

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.547741481568579
WordScorePoS
residential0.0542519672965169JJ
benefit0NN
subsidy0.0664302389559493NN
consume0.0409791940864438VB

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.50503094706169
WordScorePoS
residential0JJ
benefit0.0252000451111224NN
subsidy0.0357189919948307NN
consume0.0881366997038154VB

Means tested vouchers for purchasing services are another subsidy option

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.635119308771308
WordScorePoS
means0NNS
service0NN
subsidy0.162850158165781NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.642028653668073
WordScorePoS
means0.120266261535276NNS
service0.0443555132287109NN
subsidy0NN

They are similar to means tested tariff subsidies with added flexibility for the user to select service provider

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.550658288655197
WordScorePoS
means0NNS
subsidy0.162850158165781NN
add0VB
flexibility0NN
user0NN
service0NN
provider0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.556648797814716
WordScorePoS
means0.120266261535276NNS
subsidy0NN
add0VB
flexibility0NN
user0NN
service0.0443555132287109NN
provider0NN

Given the liquidity constraints of the poor and the possible seasonality of use and income introducing flexibility in payment is likely to help expand access

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.509138469543829
WordScorePoS
constraint0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
income0.0442083771593746NN
introduce0VB
flexibility0NN
expand0VB
access0.00514687440545096NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.427287705644336
WordScorePoS
constraint0NN
poor0JJ
income0.166475342664294NN
introduce0VB
flexibility0NN
expand0VB
access0.00138439773401932NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.467696928749427
WordScorePoS
constraint0.0602029956716497NN
poor0JJ
income0.110649350233433NN
introduce0VB
flexibility0NN
expand0VB
access0.0128821355880844NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.322366490560342
WordScorePoS
constraint0NN
poor0.0548141757796873JJ
income0.0643370113878709NN
introduce0VB
flexibility0NN
expand0VB
access0.00749031153171887NN

Increasing the frequency of billing is one such option

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Prepayment devices which facilitate budgeting for low income households are another

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.708897929307972
WordScorePoS
facilitate0.02794560829783VB
income0.166475342664294NN
household0.0330412182586772NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.425887496646057
WordScorePoS
facilitate0.0260040237236563VB
income0.110649350233433NN
household0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.371904779233238
WordScorePoS
facilitate0.0252000451111224VB
income0.0643370113878709NN
household0.0297950283197006NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.305023946434313
WordScorePoS
facilitate0.0528748274225028VB
income0.0449973847138318NN
household0NN

On the downside prepayment could lead to frequent self disconnection

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.639137883585785
WordScorePoS
lead0.0504071033101074NN

Justice land and infrastructure Utilities could also allow customers to choose from menu of tariffs with different combinations of fixed standing and variable charges

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.617354237628727
WordScorePoS
justice0.214981650384708NN
land0NN
infrastructure0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.551941433934872
WordScorePoS
justice0NN
land0NN
infrastructure0.192202909044225NN

Allowing lower fixed charges in exchange for slightly higher variable ones could benefit smaller consumers

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.975507581974349
WordScorePoS
slightly0RB
benefit0NN
consumer0.325511803779102NN

Enabling consumers to make certain quality price tradeoffs by encouraging lower quality services is also likely to be beneficial

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.803136433413986
WordScorePoS
enable0VB
consumer0.325511803779102NN
quality0.0203215381458133NN
price0NN
encourage0.0468670845659596VB
service0.00666957305782837NN

This can be done by allowing lower standards of formal provisioning in certain poor areas or by encouraging vibrant network of informal providers that can either operate independently or through subcontracting arrangements with the formal provider

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.48015874258898
WordScorePoS
standard0NN
provision0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
encourage0VB
provider0NN
operate0VB

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.561173101808312
WordScorePoS
standard0.0409791940864438NN
provision0NN
poor0.0339811641917276JJ
encourage0.0468670845659596VB
provider0NN
operate0.0542519672965169VB

Water service provides an example

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.923586435737759
WordScorePoS
water0.556409482163189NN
service0.0084006124696649NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.316522157901404
WordScorePoS
water0.186896403054502NN
service0.00666957305782837NN

A study using data from countries shows that informal providers such as pointsource vendors kiosks and mobile distributors such as tanker trucks and carters systematically charge more than networked providers both public and private

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.850085622912416
WordScorePoS
study0NN
datum0.0739231123597559NN
country0NN
provider0.048933054487825NN
public0.0390556786919513NN
private0.0898760357768464JJ

Microeconomic evidence supports this

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.871329655734345
WordScorePoS
evidence0.12939607756667NN
support0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.303768249159526
WordScorePoS
evidence0NN
support0.0451108483130998NN

In Niger for example wealthier households are more likely to use networked rather than informal providers and pay less per unit consumed figure

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.524890919765798
WordScorePoS
wealthier0JJR
household0.0465610847355851NN
provider0NN
pay0.078760887431929NN
consume0VB
figure0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.493938071043852
WordScorePoS
wealthier0JJR
household0.0297950283197006NN
provider0NN
pay0NN
consume0.0881366997038154VB
figure0NN

But informal providers can offer valuable service because many poor users cannot afford connection charges or monthly lump sum bills or live in areas inaccessible to utilities for legal or technical reasons

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.636680345540473
WordScorePoS
provider0NN
offer0NN
service0.0443555132287109NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
user0NN
live0.0739258553811849VB
legal0JJ
technical0JJ

Recognizing that private connections for all households may not be feasible goal in the near term governments and utilities can work with informal providers

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.8269532640092
WordScorePoS
recognize0VB
private0.0898760357768464JJ
household0NN
feasible0JJ
goal0NN
term0.149793392961411NN
government0.048933054487825NN
provider0.048933054487825NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.38758138298376
WordScorePoS
recognize0.0558185411034276VB
private0.0558185411034276JJ
household0.0465610847355851NN
feasible0JJ
goal0NN
term0NN
government0NN
provider0NN

For instance kiosk services could be improved by subsidizing kiosk connections increasing competition among kiosks and introducing performance measures and quality standards

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

In Senegal one study argues for directing subsidies away from private connections toward water provided at standposts or by other informal providers box

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.814611209568767
WordScorePoS
study0NN
direct0JJ
subsidy0NN
private0JJ
water0.556409482163189NN
provider0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.370882827988189
WordScorePoS
study0NN
direct0JJ
subsidy0.0664302389559493NN
private0JJ
water0.186896403054502NN
provider0NN

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.287204642157841
WordScorePoS
study0NN
direct0JJ
subsidy0.162850158165781NN
private0JJ
water0.0333211986002325NN
provider0NN

High tariffs for the consumer reflect the pricing decisions of the utilities concerned and the taxation decisions of local and central governments

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.879478871353772
WordScorePoS
consumer0.325511803779102NN
reflect0.0409791940864438VB
decision0NN
taxation0.0542519672965169NN
local0.0144336476662975JJ
central0JJ
government0NN

Avoiding exclusivity in contracts and liberalizing entry including through the participation of independent private providers or communities in nonnetwork services can help reduce costs

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Figure

Label: 9, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
figure0.0602029956716497NN

Poorer households have lower quality water and pay more in Niger Percent of quintile using each source Average price CFA franc per cubic meter Water sources Piped water Neighbors wells or rivers Fountains or vendors Average price Wealth quintile Source Bardasi and Wodon

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.899907828253498
WordScorePoS
household0NN
quality0.0255958462813622NN
water0.556409482163189NN
pay0.0295155485671997NN
quintile0NN
source0.0613562156822703NN
average0NN
price0NN
river0.206460189193271NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.288244879646198
WordScorePoS
household0.0554128417527413NN
quality0.0203215381458133NN
water0.186896403054502NN
pay0NN
quintile0NN
source0NN
average0NN
price0NN
river0.0409791940864438NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.210935269647537
WordScorePoS
household0.0330412182586772NN
quality0.0121171980355011NN
water0NN
pay0.02794560829783NN
quintile0.064698038783335NN
source0NN
average0.146608885563018NN
price0NN
river0NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.156676921748581
WordScorePoS
household0NN
quality0NN
water0NN
pay0NN
quintile0NN
source0.0123065238088614NN
average0.1656430212089NN
price0NN
river0NN

BOX

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

The pro poor agenda for urban water in Senegal In the government of Senegal launched sweeping reforms in the urban water sector

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.809392461538528
WordScorePoS
poor0.0642010940957526JJ
agenda0NN
urban0JJ
water0.556409482163189NN
government0NN
reform0NN
sector0.0214003646985842NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.450466238029542
WordScorePoS
poor0.0229054731708393JJ
agenda0NN
urban0.27622591898666JJ
water0.0458109463416786NN
government0NN
reform0NN
sector0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.28687864459396
WordScorePoS
poor0.0339811641917276JJ
agenda0NN
urban0JJ
water0.186896403054502NN
government0NN
reform0NN
sector0.0169905820958638NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.101752836091052
WordScorePoS
poor0.150659516460257JJ
agenda0NN
urban0JJ
water0NN
government0NN
reform0NN
sector0NN

The bankrupt public sector utility was dissolved

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.667232644103727
WordScorePoS
public0.0727679293221751NN
sector0.0571058915334038NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.436846036052946
WordScorePoS
public0.0390556786919513NN
sector0.0459744293658165NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.372882365439931
WordScorePoS
public0.0160169090870187NN
sector0.0565629593551219NN

A new state assetholding company was created to manage the sector

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.594870599202483
WordScorePoS
company0.108503934593034NN
create0.0234335422829798VB
manage0VB
sector0.0169905820958638NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.433670460210436
WordScorePoS
company0NN
create0.0520080474473126VB
manage0VB
sector0.0565629593551219NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.378366352694561
WordScorePoS
company0NN
create0.0695218668857431VB
manage0VB
sector0.0252035516550537NN

And private operator was contracted to run the system based on an international competitive bidding process

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.476291367285128
WordScorePoS
private0.0898760357768464JJ
contract0NN
system0.0211360962287062NN
base0.017987180284335NN
international0.00648516099948979JJ
process0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.406615814084838
WordScorePoS
private0.0558185411034276JJ
contract0NN
system0NN
base0NN
international0.00402768349408688JJ
process0.0558185411034276NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.398075070575028
WordScorePoS
private0.0368585655748969JJ
contract0NN
system0NN
base0NN
international0.00265959362690358JJ
process0.0737171311497939NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.35671134631775
WordScorePoS
private0JJ
contract0NN
system0.0519476926891779NN
base0.0442083771593746NN
international0.00531301439641424JJ
process0NN

The reform had positive outcomes for the poor thanks to strong government commitment connection subsidies in low income neighborhoods and well designed operator incentives

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.461825744429823
WordScorePoS
reform0NN
positive0JJ
outcome0.0330412182586772NN
poor0JJ
strong0.0488696285210061JJ
government0NN
commitment0NN
subsidy0NN
income0.166475342664294NN
incentive0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.362318896383956
WordScorePoS
reform0NN
positive0JJ
outcome0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
strong0JJ
government0NN
commitment0NN
subsidy0NN
income0.0442083771593746NN
incentive0NN

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.302788152971722
WordScorePoS
reform0NN
positive0JJ
outcome0NN
poor0JJ
strong0JJ
government0NN
commitment0NN
subsidy0.162850158165781NN
income0NN
incentive0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.43199759034165
WordScorePoS
reform0NN
positive0.0454743001434393JJ
outcome0.030745604615229NN
poor0JJ
strong0.0454743001434393JJ
government0NN
commitment0NN
subsidy0NN
income0.110649350233433NN
incentive0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.359087088230512
WordScorePoS
reform0NN
positive0JJ
outcome0NN
poor0.0153248097886055JJ
strong0JJ
government0.048933054487825NN
commitment0.0739231123597559NN
subsidy0NN
income0.017987180284335NN
incentive0.036961556179878NN

But tariff inequities and poor targeting of subsidies remain

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.502150622381304
WordScorePoS
poor0JJ
target0NN
subsidy0.162850158165781NN
remain0VB

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.464560617013151
WordScorePoS
poor0.150659516460257JJ
target0NN
subsidy0NN
remain0VB

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.389300208972617
WordScorePoS
poor0.0548141757796873JJ
target0.0357189919948307NN
subsidy0.0357189919948307NN
remain0VB

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.32438820244776
WordScorePoS
poor0.0153248097886055JJ
target0.0898760357768464NN
subsidy0NN
remain0VB

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.309619893236191
WordScorePoS
poor0.0339811641917276JJ
target0NN
subsidy0.0664302389559493NN
remain0VB

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.30774479359716
WordScorePoS
poor0JJ
target0.0499016491051341NN
subsidy0NN
remain0.0499016491051341VB

Subsidies targeted at the poor take three forms consumption subsidies connection subsidies and construction of standposts in areas lacking private connections

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.590201552962553
WordScorePoS
subsidy0.0664302389559493NN
target0NN
poor0.0339811641917276JJ
form0NN
consumption0.332151194779746NN
lack0NN
private0JJ

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.53037216560505
WordScorePoS
subsidy0.162850158165781NN
target0NN
poor0JJ
form0.0195550357485727NN
consumption0NN
lack0NN
private0JJ

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.328184211984148
WordScorePoS
subsidy0NN
target0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
form0.0884167543187491NN
consumption0NN
lack0.0753297582301286NN
private0JJ

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.242354954362314
WordScorePoS
subsidy0NN
target0NN
poor0JJ
form0.0591643007226199NN
consumption0.147812295323721NN
lack0.0252035516550537NN
private0JJ

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.164975316004643
WordScorePoS
subsidy0NN
target0NN
poor0JJ
form0.158049144643351NN
consumption0NN
lack0NN
private0JJ

In Senegal consumption subsidies are delivered through an increasing block tariff with low social tariff for household consumption under per month

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.854397002495466
WordScorePoS
consumption0.332151194779746NN
subsidy0.0664302389559493NN
deliver0.0332151194779746VB
increase0.00958677785775002NN
social0.0169905820958638JJ
household0.0554128417527413NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.356673413617913
WordScorePoS
consumption0.147812295323721NN
subsidy0NN
deliver0VB
increase0.00711043475673939NN
social0.0504071033101074JJ
household0NN

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.169225892047915
WordScorePoS
consumption0NN
subsidy0.162850158165781NN
deliver0VB
increase0.00470029406779661NN
social0JJ
household0NN

The problem with consumption subsidies is that many poor families do not have connection at all or share connection with several other families which bumps them into higher consumption block

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.818293530104763
WordScorePoS
consumption0.332151194779746NN
subsidy0.0664302389559493NN
poor0.0339811641917276JJ
family0NN
share0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.343306993577652
WordScorePoS
consumption0.147812295323721NN
subsidy0NN
poor0JJ
family0NN
share0.0252035516550537NN

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.174260268448727
WordScorePoS
consumption0NN
subsidy0.162850158165781NN
poor0JJ
family0NN
share0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.161215488387757
WordScorePoS
consumption0NN
subsidy0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
family0NN
share0NN

Connection subsidies have benefited the poor but those who could benefit most are likely to be ineligible because they lack title to their land and an established house

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.501520963980398
WordScorePoS
subsidy0NN
benefit0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
lack0.0753297582301286NN
land0.0319966432858631NN
establish0VB

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.433431732484392
WordScorePoS
subsidy0.162850158165781NN
benefit0.0229784274580034NN
poor0JJ
lack0NN
land0.0141533244035107NN
establish0VB

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.446065851466713
WordScorePoS
subsidy0NN
benefit0.0446918591208085NN
poor0.016202004209163JJ
lack0NN
land0.123873694868802NN
establish0VB

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.364494187113525
WordScorePoS
subsidy0.0357189919948307NN
benefit0.0252000451111224NN
poor0.0548141757796873JJ
lack0NN
land0.0465651203624806NN
establish0VB

The construction of public standposts has expanded access but does not necessarily provide the lowest cost water

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.831790910654661
WordScorePoS
public0NN
expand0.0251182378961834VB
access0.00731085509381114NN
provide0VB
cost0NN
water0.556409482163189NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.375468798976675
WordScorePoS
public0.028867295332595NN
expand0VB
access0.00232174891244877NN
provide0.0200087191734851VB
cost0.0277064208763707NN
water0.186896403054502NN

Tariffs on water sold to licensed standpost vendors are considerably higher than the subsidized social tariff and vendors also charge an overhead fee

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.88871391989488
WordScorePoS
water0.556409482163189NN
social0JJ

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.325654410280857
WordScorePoS
water0.186896403054502NN
social0.0169905820958638JJ

Analysis of one NGO run standpost showed that users were paying percent more than the social tariff rate

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.572149765491664
WordScorePoS
user0NN
pay0NN
social0.112994637345193JJ
rate0.0639932865717261NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.473490382533141
WordScorePoS
user0NN
pay0.02794560829783NN
social0.101310366625194JJ
rate0.0172128079963482NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.38769499440777
WordScorePoS
user0NN
pay0.0695218668857431NN
social0.0504071033101074JJ
rate0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.346913976613626
WordScorePoS
user0NN
pay0.078760887431929NN
social0.0285529457667019JJ
rate0NN

Given these shortcomings it would make more sense to direct consumption subsidies away from private connections and into water provided at standposts or by other informal providers who serve the poorest

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.6333140074626
WordScorePoS
sense0NN
direct0JJ
consumption0NN
subsidy0NN
private0JJ
water0.556409482163189NN
provider0NN
serve0VB
poorest0.0348974218717993JJS

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.627070836764987
WordScorePoS
sense0NN
direct0JJ
consumption0.332151194779746NN
subsidy0.0664302389559493NN
private0JJ
water0.186896403054502NN
provider0NN
serve0VB
poorest0JJS

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.267085168842785
WordScorePoS
sense0NN
direct0JJ
consumption0NN
subsidy0.162850158165781NN
private0JJ
water0.0333211986002325NN
provider0NN
serve0.0531983120572613VB
poorest0JJS

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.158313046008629
WordScorePoS
sense0NN
direct0JJ
consumption0.147812295323721NN
subsidy0NN
private0JJ
water0NN
provider0NN
serve0VB
poorest0JJS

Source Brocklehurst and Janssens

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.73415387760794
WordScorePoS
source0.0613562156822703NN

Moreover many governments view utilities and telecommunications as cash cows imposing indirect consumption taxes that tend to be regressive where connectivity to the formal system is high

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.768694164664587
WordScorePoS
government0NN
view0NN
consumption0.332151194779746NN
tax0NN
system0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.34208050630788
WordScorePoS
government0NN
view0NN
consumption0.147812295323721NN
tax0NN
system0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.36094536211047
WordScorePoS
government0.048933054487825NN
view0.048933054487825NN
consumption0NN
tax0.036961556179878NN
system0.0211360962287062NN

In Argentina utilities generate about percent of tax revenue in addition to the income tax there is WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT percent VAT plus municipal and provincial taxes

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.35327715632906
WordScorePoS
generate0VB
tax0NN
revenue0NN
addition0NN
income0.166475342664294NN
world0.00276879546803864NN
development0.0177346522508396NN
report0NN
municipal0JJ

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.525011574161402
WordScorePoS
generate0VB
tax0.036961556179878NN
revenue0.0978661089756501NN
addition0NN
income0.017987180284335NN
world0.00418824502414673NN
development0.0469463607292177NN
report0NN
municipal0JJ

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.345928434931714
WordScorePoS
generate0VB
tax0NN
revenue0NN
addition0.0368585655748969NN
income0.110649350233433NN
world0.00257642711761688NN
development0.0330049940546426NN
report0NN
municipal0JJ

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.3261108344552
WordScorePoS
generate0.0440683498519077VB
tax0NN
revenue0NN
addition0.0357189919948307NN
income0.0643370113878709NN
world0.0124838525528648NN
development0.0159922815774215NN
report0NN
municipal0JJ

So indirect taxes can be as high as percent in some municipalities

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.910131609690197
WordScorePoS
tax0.0811931365363091NN

Reducing such taxes would reduce tariffs

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.741314569371622
WordScorePoS
reduce0.0220985725470694VB
tax0.0811931365363091NN

Naturally benefits can be lower and costs higher for investments in poor remote areas that are short on economic potential

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.597206396332128
WordScorePoS
benefit0NN
cost0NN
investment0.0376648791150643NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
economic0.0959899298575892JJ
potential0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.322780563635601
WordScorePoS
benefit0NN
cost0NN
investment0.0252035516550537NN
poor0JJ
economic0.128463821595706JJ
potential0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.39830243375583
WordScorePoS
benefit0NN
cost0.0660824365173543NN
investment0.0202620733250388NN
poor0JJ
economic0.103276847978089JJ
potential0NN

This analysis is not blind to those considerations but also it recognizes the argument that there can be long run benefits from greater inclusion of groups that are marginalized because of location or poverty see focus on regional inequality

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.875757462160778
WordScorePoS
recognize0VB
benefit0NN
inclusion0.0488696285210061NN
marginalize0.0488696285210061VB
location0NN
poverty0.05809266143877NN
focus0NN
regional0JJ
inequality0.635305170773079NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.356349099282329
WordScorePoS
recognize0VB
benefit0NN
inclusion0NN
marginalize0VB
location0NN
poverty0.269969049497485NN
focus0NN
regional0.0519476926891779JJ
inequality0NN

Strengthening governance voice and accountability Infrastructure provision suffers from severe problems of corruption and lack of accountability

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.818950739694943
WordScorePoS
strengthen0.0396437925143789VB
governance0.107490825192354NN
voice0NN
accountability0NN
infrastructure0NN
provision0.0658099748168827NN
suffer0VB
corruption0.322472475577062NN
lack0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.38050148953823
WordScorePoS
strengthen0VB
governance0NN
voice0NN
accountability0NN
infrastructure0.192202909044225NN
provision0NN
suffer0VB
corruption0NN
lack0.0565629593551219NN

Because infrastructure investments are typically large and lumpy and often exhibit increasing returns to scale or network externalities they are less amenable to competition in financing and provision and generate significant scope for corruption and patronage

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.790872291136897
WordScorePoS
infrastructure0NN
investment0NN
typically0RB
increase0NN
return0.107490825192354NN
scale0NN
financing0NN
provision0.0658099748168827NN
generate0VB
significant0.033663879505068JJ
corruption0.322472475577062NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.422338105092555
WordScorePoS
infrastructure0.192202909044225NN
investment0.0377086395700813NN
typically0RB
increase0.0159575617614215NN
return0NN
scale0.0368585655748969NN
financing0NN
provision0NN
generate0VB
significant0JJ
corruption0NN

Politicians bribe public utility officials and pursue political goals by transferring resources to politically influential groups rather than encouraging utilities to expand service and cut costs

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.420233895170363
WordScorePoS
public0.0172128079963482NN
official0.0488696285210061NN
pursue0VB
political0.0792212041430275JJ
goal0NN
transfer0NN
resource0NN
encourage0.02794560829783VB
expand0VB
service0.00795378154685591NN
cut0NN
cost0.0660824365173543NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.405366081006633
WordScorePoS
public0NN
official0NN
pursue0VB
political0JJ
goal0NN
transfer0NN
resource0.0739147683583536NN
encourage0VB
expand0VB
service0.0443555132287109NN
cut0.120266261535276NN
cost0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.399081279958358
WordScorePoS
public0.0727679293221751NN
official0NN
pursue0VB
political0.111637082206855JJ
goal0NN
transfer0NN
resource0.0280166088658745NN
encourage0VB
expand0VB
service0.022416649027415NN
cut0NN
cost0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.354609232994152
WordScorePoS
public0.0390556786919513NN
official0.0739231123597559NN
pursue0VB
political0JJ
goal0NN
transfer0.036961556179878NN
resource0.0375923735942499NN
encourage0.0211360962287062VB
expand0VB
service0NN
cut0NN
cost0NN

One possible solution is to subject utilities to performance pressures and reduce politicians willingness or ability to use them for political purposes

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.632216132195965
WordScorePoS
solution0NN
performance0.064698038783335NN
pressure0NN
reduce0.0310356414389692VB
ability0NN
political0.0792212041430275JJ

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.403411225576772
WordScorePoS
solution0NN
performance0NN
pressure0NN
reduce0VB
ability0NN
political0.111637082206855JJ

The prudent use of BOX

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Addressing accountability and transparency in telecommunications in Brazil and Peru Brazil National Telecommunications Regulatory Agency has Web site that provides information on service price comparisons laws and operator compliance

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.622999832105505
WordScorePoS
address0NN
accountability0NN
transparency0NN
national0.0294647633960925JJ
agency0NN
information0.0241291244414115NN
service0NN
price0NN
law0.164686343640793NN

Its Advisory Council with civil society representatives assesses the agency annual reports and publishes the findings in the official gazette and on the Web

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.667501546439472
WordScorePoS
civil0JJ
society0.118536858482514NN
representative0.107490825192354NN
agency0NN
report0NN
official0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.613564276552355
WordScorePoS
civil0.0978661089756501JJ
society0.0359743605686701NN
representative0NN
agency0NN
report0NN
official0.0739231123597559NN

And an ombudsperson evaluates the agency performance every two years

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.766255124003228
WordScorePoS
agency0NN
performance0.064698038783335NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.642536446389462
WordScorePoS
agency0.0542519672965169NN
performance0NN

In it became the world first telecommunications regulator to receive ISO certification an international standard for meeting customers technical needs

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.667286258614341
WordScorePoS
world0.0017440716962658NN
receive0VB
international0.00360073990568919JJ
standard0NN
technical0.124876512346911JJ

Peru has made similar progress in improving regulation by increasing transparency

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.497483354248484
WordScorePoS
progress0NN
improve0.0121171980355011VB
regulation0.0977392570420122NN
increase0.00285817158600878NN
transparency0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.359037744855738
WordScorePoS
progress0.0591643007226199NN
improve0.0150723186962745VB
regulation0NN
increase0.00711043475673939NN
transparency0NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.351426994371005
WordScorePoS
progress0NN
improve0.0102677744436108VB
regulation0NN
increase0.0145316075945746NN
transparency0.0548233071065585NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.342505604314092
WordScorePoS
progress0.017987180284335NN
improve0.0183291958415182VB
regulation0.036961556179878NN
increase0.00432344066632653NN
transparency0NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.330558468989108
WordScorePoS
progress0.0299609328954485NN
improve0.0305306222517556VB
regulation0NN
increase0.0144029596227568NN
transparency0NN

The Supervisory Authority for Private Investment in Telecommunications sets prices ensures competitive market and monitors compliance with concession contracts and quality standards

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.685881496808618
WordScorePoS
private0.0898760357768464JJ
investment0.0766240489430275NN
set0.0978661089756501NN
price0NN
ensure0.00335331148065841VB
market0.030649619577211NN
monitor0.0599173571845643NN
contract0NN
quality0.00916459792075908NN
standard0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.363778433733496
WordScorePoS
private0JJ
investment0.0182713919265625NN
set0NN
price0.0583416713841148NN
ensure0.0159922815774215VB
market0.0913569596328122NN
monitor0NN
contract0NN
quality0.0109267235789154NN
standard0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.344249016293289
WordScorePoS
private0.0368585655748969JJ
investment0.0377086395700813NN
set0NN
price0NN
ensure0.00412562425683033VB
market0.0377086395700813NN
monitor0NN
contract0NN
quality0.022550656390892NN
standard0.0454743001434393NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.300574100613791
WordScorePoS
private0JJ
investment0.0252035516550537NN
set0NN
price0NN
ensure0VB
market0.0252035516550537NN
monitor0NN
contract0.0804764811724088NN
quality0.030144637392549NN
standard0NN

The agency sets norms through transparent process

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.69841798451394
WordScorePoS
agency0NN
set0.0978661089756501NN
transparent0.036961556179878JJ
process0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.420586878150275
WordScorePoS
agency0NN
set0NN
transparent0.0811931365363091JJ
process0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.381860578112057
WordScorePoS
agency0NN
set0NN
transparent0JJ
process0.0737171311497939NN

Regulatory proposals must be supported by assessments of welfare benefits and best practices published in the official gazette and undergo day consultation period

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.670549068379316
WordScorePoS
support0.0184786920895884NN
welfare0NN
benefit0NN
practice0NN
official0NN
undergo0VB
day0.25973846344589NN
period0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.419049259384283
WordScorePoS
support0.00833571598658786NN
welfare0.0542519672965169NN
benefit0NN
practice0.0703006268489394NN
official0NN
undergo0VB
day0NN
period0.0409791940864438NN

Some proposals also are subject to public hearings

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.640633878746864
WordScorePoS
public0.0727679293221751NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.513923230263676
WordScorePoS
public0.0583751976558017NN

In addition the agency has multiple dispute resolution mechanisms

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.907503075703687
WordScorePoS
addition0NN
agency0NN
multiple0.048933054487825JJ
mechanism0.147846224719512NN

Independent committees supported by experts resolve disputes among service providers and an internal tribunal handles consumer complaints not satisfactorily managed by phone companies

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.898827461751592
WordScorePoS
support0.00833571598658786NN
service0.00666957305782837NN
provider0NN
consumer0.325511803779102NN
manage0VB
phone0NN
company0.108503934593034NN

Source World Bank

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.737559496131694
WordScorePoS
source0.0130963126055467NN
world0.0124838525528648NN
bank0.0881366997038154NN

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.426402661922482
WordScorePoS
source0.0613562156822703NN
world0.00438651305628668NN
bank0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.33813808928791
WordScorePoS
source0.0109843026967392NN
world0.00418824502414673NN
bank0.036961556179878NN

regulation is another way to strengthen accountability and reduce political capture and corruption

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.802035307714972
WordScorePoS
regulation0NN
strengthen0.0396437925143789VB
accountability0NN
reduce0.0220985725470694VB
political0JJ
capture0NN
corruption0.322472475577062NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.450787979751536
WordScorePoS
regulation0.0977392570420122NN
strengthen0.00795378154685591VB
accountability0NN
reduce0.0310356414389692VB
political0.0792212041430275JJ
capture0NN
corruption0NN

Regulators have key role in ensuring that the public interest is being served

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.43289227727386
WordScorePoS
key0.0625160381065121NN
ensure0.0251662980592747VB
public0NN
serve0VB

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.420950871443898
WordScorePoS
key0NN
ensure0.0124956749436837VB
public0.0727679293221751NN
serve0VB

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.396774265081533
WordScorePoS
key0.0271683202880942NN
ensure0VB
public0NN
serve0.0531983120572613VB

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.312946307729657
WordScorePoS
key0NN
ensure0.00501208088147356VB
public0.0583751976558017NN
serve0VB

This includes safeguarding the value of public assets upholding the sectoral norms relating to health and safety providing information about the performance of the service provider and enforcing compliance with contractual obligations

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.413658387797184
WordScorePoS
include0VB
safeguard0VB
public0.021678073222951NN
asset0NN
health0.191387734041787NN
safety0NN
provide0.0100171139310145VB
information0.00914534810831654NN
performance0NN
service0.0100171139310145NN
provider0NN
enforce0VB
obligation0NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.480700591515202
WordScorePoS
include0VB
safeguard0.0731385760866977VB
public0.0583751976558017NN
asset0NN
health0.0229054731708393NN
safety0.0731385760866977NN
provide0.0269743071558856VB
information0NN
performance0NN
service0.0269743071558856NN
provider0NN
enforce0VB
obligation0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.434798586438141
WordScorePoS
include0VB
safeguard0VB
public0.0285977592242194NN
asset0.0811931365363091NN
health0NN
safety0NN
provide0.013214597504793VB
information0.0241291244414115NN
performance0NN
service0NN
provider0NN
enforce0.107490825192354VB
obligation0NN

If effective regulation will have an important impact on efficiency and equity

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.476423018578104
WordScorePoS
effective0JJ
regulation0NN
impact0NN
efficiency0.134992154141495NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.446404592458198
WordScorePoS
effective0JJ
regulation0NN
impact0.0866018859977851NN
efficiency0.039884692535803NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.396203783054305
WordScorePoS
effective0.0145231653596925JJ
regulation0.0977392570420122NN
impact0NN
efficiency0NN

Evidence comes from study of the energy telecommunications and water sectors in Argentina that separated the benefits of privatization from those of effective regulation

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.636934866013677
WordScorePoS
evidence0NN
study0NN
energy0.0153390539205676NN
water0.556409482163189NN
sector0.0214003646985842NN
benefit0NN
effective0JJ
regulation0NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.531129563799607
WordScorePoS
evidence0NN
study0NN
energy0.494617163780726NN
water0NN
sector0NN
benefit0NN
effective0JJ
regulation0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.362787747544204
WordScorePoS
evidence0NN
study0NN
energy0.133960988253756NN
water0.186896403054502NN
sector0.0169905820958638NN
benefit0NN
effective0JJ
regulation0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.259497613660595
WordScorePoS
evidence0.12939607756667NN
study0NN
energy0NN
water0NN
sector0NN
benefit0NN
effective0.0145231653596925JJ
regulation0.0977392570420122NN

The study found that effective regulation yielded operational gains more than one third higher than the gains from privatization alone and equivalent to

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.645780052431275
WordScorePoS
study0NN
effective0JJ
regulation0NN
yield0NN
gain0.0664302389559493NN
equivalent0.0664302389559493JJ

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.363774259855306
WordScorePoS
study0NN
effective0.0145231653596925JJ
regulation0.0977392570420122NN
yield0NN
gain0NN
equivalent0JJ

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.308252125420616
WordScorePoS
study0NN
effective0.0123065238088614JJ
regulation0NN
yield0.0828215106044499NN
gain0NN
equivalent0JJ

percent of GDP or percent of the average expenditure on utility services

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.753067238585359
WordScorePoS
gdp0NN
average0.146608885563018NN
expenditure0.064698038783335NN
service0.00795378154685591NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.568913303752095
WordScorePoS
gdp0NN
average0.1656430212089NN
expenditure0NN
service0NN

Gains for the lowest quintiles were proportionately higher

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.59766735051086
WordScorePoS
gain0.0664302389559493NN
quintile0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.582082889217453
WordScorePoS
gain0NN
quintile0.064698038783335NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.402865934344468
WordScorePoS
gain0.04477822029736NN
quintile0NN

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.376393792667134
WordScorePoS
gain0.041835863322702NN
quintile0NN

Another study of concessions in Latin America found that even moderately well functioning regulator can temper opportunistic renegotiation of contracts

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

It concluded that the probability of renegotiation goes from percent in setting in which regulatory body exists to percent in settings it does not

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.916111434966076
WordScorePoS
set0.0978661089756501NN
exist0.0599173571845643VB
setting0VBG

Positive impacts of regulation are conditioned on the ability to insulate regulators somewhat from pressures coming from politicians and providers

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.559426330004104
WordScorePoS
positive0JJ
impact0NN
regulation0NN
condition0.121575732851624NN
ability0.0607878664258118NN
pressure0NN
provider0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.517082663083042
WordScorePoS
positive0JJ
impact0.0866018859977851NN
regulation0NN
condition0.0409791940864438NN
ability0.0409791940864438NN
pressure0NN
provider0NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.398636361614622
WordScorePoS
positive0.055245183797332JJ
impact0.0194583992186006NN
regulation0NN
condition0NN
ability0NN
pressure0.055245183797332NN
provider0NN

Measures to strengthen the independence of the regulator are paramount and this may require separate agency with reliable and ringfenced funding and staffing

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.463966305673478
WordScorePoS
measure0NN
strengthen0VB
require0VB
agency0NN
reliable0.149891440995783JJ

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.461012811639823
WordScorePoS
measure0.0347609334428716NN
strengthen0.00989353561471291VB
require0.104282800328615VB
agency0NN
reliable0JJ

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.387356427096964
WordScorePoS
measure0.0710409787438328NN
strengthen0.00673981184904291VB
require0.0473606524958885VB
agency0NN
reliable0JJ

When assets are decentralized the regulatory agency can be at the level of the central or regional government

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.579332421459411
WordScorePoS
asset0.0811931365363091NN
agency0NN
level0.0610668815653026NN
central0JJ
regional0JJ
government0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.428024172929191
WordScorePoS
asset0NN
agency0NN
level0.0138997399903163NN
central0JJ
regional0.0422721924574123JJ
government0.048933054487825NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.376547186901745
WordScorePoS
asset0NN
agency0NN
level0NN
central0.0924643738905717JJ
regional0JJ
government0NN

In short regulators should be subject to substantive and procedural requirements that ensure integrity independence transparency and accountability box

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

In situations in which local provision is more susceptible to capture by local elites the central government can influence local outcomes by using fiscal incentives to nudge local governments toward broader access and by reducing costs for the poor through contingent intergovernmental transfers

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.329355107120882
WordScorePoS
situation0.0519476926891779NN
local0JJ
provision0NN
capture0NN
central0JJ
government0NN
influence0NN
outcome0NN
fiscal0JJ
incentive0NN
access0.00514687440545096NN
reduce0.0164833460638534VB
cost0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
intergovernmental0JJ
transfer0NN

This Justice land and infrastructure requires setting performance targets eliciting competition among local governments and benchmarking to monitor performance

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.375350483181141
WordScorePoS
justice0NN
land0NN
infrastructure0.192202909044225NN
require0.0260040237236563VB
set0NN
performance0NN
target0NN
local0JJ
government0NN
monitor0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.369802486673589
WordScorePoS
justice0.214981650384708NN
land0NN
infrastructure0NN
require0VB
set0NN
performance0NN
target0NN
local0JJ
government0NN
monitor0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.591331571836929
WordScorePoS
justice0NN
land0NN
infrastructure0.0130185595639838NN
require0.0211360962287062VB
set0.0978661089756501NN
performance0NN
target0.0898760357768464NN
local0.0130185595639838JJ
government0.048933054487825NN
monitor0.0599173571845643NN

It also requires sufficient policy autonomy at the local level to meet the specified targets

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.491690156829352
WordScorePoS
require0.0211360962287062VB
sufficient0JJ
policy0.0641521854453136NN
autonomy0NN
local0.0130185595639838JJ
level0.0138997399903163NN
meet0VB
target0.0898760357768464NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.459785301848785
WordScorePoS
require0VB
sufficient0.0440683498519077JJ
policy0NN
autonomy0NN
local0.0155217067874935JJ
level0.00552410547653725NN
meet0.0881366997038154VB
target0.0357189919948307NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.434384774964145
WordScorePoS
require0.104282800328615VB
sufficient0JJ
policy0.0452169560888236NN
autonomy0NN
local0.0214106369326177JJ
level0.00761994916892276NN
meet0VB
target0NN

Monitoring the performance of providers requires reliable information and performance benchmarks

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.399801602616404
WordScorePoS
monitor0NN
performance0NN
provider0NN
require0VB
reliable0.149891440995783JJ
information0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.485213999219864
WordScorePoS
monitor0.0599173571845643NN
performance0NN
provider0.048933054487825NN
require0.0211360962287062VB
reliable0.0299586785922821JJ
information0.0219686053934784NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.450787189203979
WordScorePoS
monitor0.0396106020715138NN
performance0.064698038783335NN
provider0NN
require0VB
reliable0JJ
information0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.446213220711729
WordScorePoS
monitor0NN
performance0NN
provider0NN
require0.0260040237236563VB
reliable0.0737171311497939JJ
information0.0675706773907211NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.311049588873774
WordScorePoS
monitor0.0332151194779746NN
performance0NN
provider0NN
require0.0468670845659596VB
reliable0JJ
information0.0365348149782971NN

This is more easily done when there is management contract or concession agreement with clear service obligations or when there are performance contracts with similar features for public utilities

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.41760667582356
WordScorePoS
management0.0687164195125178NN
contract0NN
agreement0NN
service0.0269743071558856NN
obligation0NN
performance0NN
feature0NN
public0.0583751976558017NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.367027547268695
WordScorePoS
management0.0486060126274891NN
contract0NN
agreement0.0223459295604043NN
service0.0127200410376242NN
obligation0.0517339898971162NN
performance0NN
feature0NN
public0NN

Community involvement can help monitor compliance

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.540599149257146
WordScorePoS
community0NN
monitor0.0599173571845643NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.540196011707003
WordScorePoS
community0.0202620733250388NN
monitor0.0396106020715138NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.452976580309975
WordScorePoS
community0.0169905820958638NN
monitor0.0332151194779746NN

A national regulator can benchmark local government performance when infrastructure assets and policy decisions are decentralized and provide useful information for intergovernmental fiscal transfers

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.450138768360419
WordScorePoS
national0.00412562425683033JJ
local0JJ
government0NN
performance0NN
infrastructure0.192202909044225NN
asset0NN
policy0.011275328195446NN
decision0NN
provide0.00740117451847634VB
information0.0675706773907211NN
intergovernmental0JJ
fiscal0JJ
transfer0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.477734540279347
WordScorePoS
national0.00886732612541978JJ
local0JJ
government0NN
performance0.064698038783335NN
infrastructure0NN
asset0.0488696285210061NN
policy0.0848203862485078NN
decision0.02794560829783NN
provide0VB
information0NN
intergovernmental0JJ
fiscal0.064698038783335JJ
transfer0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.380114081333762
WordScorePoS
national0.0134132459226336JJ
local0.0130185595639838JJ
government0.048933054487825NN
performance0NN
infrastructure0.0130185595639838NN
asset0NN
policy0.0641521854453136NN
decision0.0211360962287062NN
provide0.00601568197638796VB
information0.0219686053934784NN
intergovernmental0JJ
fiscal0JJ
transfer0.036961556179878NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.341795400928149
WordScorePoS
national0.0294647633960925JJ
local0JJ
government0NN
performance0NN
infrastructure0NN
asset0.0811931365363091NN
policy0.0201317944152378NN
decision0.0464294830712827NN
provide0.013214597504793VB
information0.0241291244414115NN
intergovernmental0JJ
fiscal0JJ
transfer0NN

Summary Justice systems can do much to level the playing field in the political economic and sociocultural domains especially when societies press for equitable laws and for transparency and accountability in their implementation

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.697109634990252
WordScorePoS
justice0.214981650384708NN
system0NN
level0.0610668815653026NN
field0NN
political0JJ
economic0JJ
society0.118536858482514NN
equitable0JJ
law0.164686343640793NN
transparency0NN
accountability0NN
implementation0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.243368837641246
WordScorePoS
justice0NN
system0NN
level0.00761994916892276NN
field0NN
political0JJ
economic0.128463821595706JJ
society0.0591643007226199NN
equitable0JJ
law0NN
transparency0NN
accountability0NN
implementation0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.357591623302767
WordScorePoS
justice0NN
system0NN
level0NN
field0NN
political0.0792212041430275JJ
economic0.103276847978089JJ
society0.0237821918091848NN
equitable0JJ
law0.0330412182586772NN
transparency0NN
accountability0NN
implementation0.0475643836183697NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.351183410610614
WordScorePoS
justice0NN
system0NN
level0.0172651853471334NN
field0NN
political0.111637082206855JJ
economic0.0727679293221751JJ
society0.0335134328085675NN
equitable0JJ
law0.0465610847355851NN
transparency0NN
accountability0NN
implementation0NN

Legal institutions can uphold the political rights of citizens and curb the capture of the state by the elite

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.774595514709188
WordScorePoS
legal0.0811931365363091JJ
institution0.274477239401321NN
political0JJ
rights0NNS
capture0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.414657568551058
WordScorePoS
legal0JJ
institution0NN
political0.111637082206855JJ
rights0.078760887431929NNS
capture0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.388407742494615
WordScorePoS
legal0JJ
institution0.0991236547760315NN
political0.0792212041430275JJ
rights0NNS
capture0NN

They can equalize economic opportunities by protecting property rights for all and ensuring nondiscrimination in the market

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.462019067642373
WordScorePoS
economic0.128463821595706JJ
opportunity0.0361300980868102NN
protect0.0180650490434051VB
property0NN
rights0.0347609334428716NNS
ensure0VB
market0.0252035516550537NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.469009184205717
WordScorePoS
economic0.0959899298575892JJ
opportunity0NN
protect0VB
property0.0736315832425121NN
rights0.0519476926891779NNS
ensure0.0247250190957801VB
market0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.457611382140185
WordScorePoS
economic0.0727679293221751JJ
opportunity0.02046578088155NN
protect0VB
property0.0558185411034276NN
rights0.078760887431929NNS
ensure0.0124956749436837VB
market0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.307448304971057
WordScorePoS
economic0.103276847978089JJ
opportunity0.029046330719385NN
protect0VB
property0NN
rights0NNS
ensure0.00886732612541978VB
market0.0202620733250388NN

They can force change in the social domain by challenging inequitable practices

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.747104878068811
WordScorePoS
force0NN
change0.402565546215053NN
social0JJ
challenge0.0236803262479443NN
practice0NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.301783461976504
WordScorePoS
force0NN
change0.0315914058171786NN
social0.0458109463416786JJ
challenge0.0947742174515357NN
practice0NN

But justice systems and legal institutions embedded as they are in the political and socioeconomic structure of societies can be hijacked by special interests

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.881588048618743
WordScorePoS
justice0.214981650384708NN
system0NN
legal0.0811931365363091JJ
institution0.274477239401321NN
political0JJ
structure0NN
society0.118536858482514NN
special0JJ

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.300819615528089
WordScorePoS
justice0NN
system0NN
legal0JJ
institution0.0991236547760315NN
political0.0792212041430275JJ
structure0NN
society0.0237821918091848NN
special0.0330412182586772JJ

Broadening access to land can enhance people opportunities to engage in productive activities

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.430355387617745
WordScorePoS
broaden0VB
access0.00749031153171887NN
land0.0465651203624806NN
enhance0.0268922747178632VB
people0.0257736572183839NNS
opportunity0.0261926252110933NN
engage0VB
productive0.0714379839896614JJ
activity0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.401665095411425
WordScorePoS
broaden0VB
access0.00344404437204141NN
land0NN
enhance0.0123650647908625VB
people0.0106656521351091NNS
opportunity0.0361300980868102NN
engage0VB
productive0.0985415302158139JJ
activity0.0295821503613099NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.39487937054294
WordScorePoS
broaden0VB
access0.00110699520004297NN
land0.123873694868802NN
enhance0.0158976666884135VB
people0.0159982027144574NNS
opportunity0.0116130458375813NN
engage0VB
productive0JJ
activity0.0190167691930804NN

The distribution of land rights especially ownership rights is skewed in many countries and challenging this pattern is difficult

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.548879365678207
WordScorePoS
land0.024255976440725NN
rights0.078760887431929NNS
ownership0.0558185411034276NN
country0NN
challenge0NN
pattern0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.484027701074077
WordScorePoS
land0.0319966432858631NN
rights0.0519476926891779NNS
ownership0.0736315832425121NN
country0NN
challenge0NN
pattern0NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.337786982671378
WordScorePoS
land0.123873694868802NN
rights0NNS
ownership0NN
country0NN
challenge0.0223459295604043NN
pattern0NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.30884421324165
WordScorePoS
land0.0389167984372011NN
rights0NNS
ownership0NN
country0NN
challenge0.0947742174515357NN
pattern0NN

Past land reform efforts show the need for broader menu of policies that go beyond redistribution through expropriation and include improvements to tenure security and the functioning of rental markets

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.562934399609311
WordScorePoS
land0.0465651203624806NN
reform0NN
effort0NN
policy0NN
include0VB
improvement0NN
security0.0893850849591018NN
function0.0440683498519077NN
market0.0913569596328122NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.389044992536205
WordScorePoS
land0.0325677023224526NN
reform0NN
effort0NN
policy0NN
include0VB
improvement0.0924643738905717NN
security0.0625160381065121NN
function0NN
market0NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.378984446168206
WordScorePoS
land0.123873694868802NN
reform0NN
effort0.032404008418326NN
policy0NN
include0VB
improvement0NN
security0.0264204925485796NN
function0NN
market0NN

There is also scope for redistribution through channels other than expropriation

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

More equitable access to infrastructure also has equity and efficiency benefits

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.699627152708669
WordScorePoS
equitable0.0221298700466866JJ
access0.0128821355880844NN
infrastructure0.192202909044225NN
efficiency0.0442597400933733NN
benefit0.0260040237236563NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.507633537350212
WordScorePoS
equitable0JJ
access0.0157161992303584NN
infrastructure0.0651354046449052NN
efficiency0.134992154141495NN
benefit0NN

Broadening access to infrastructure brings people closer to markets and services and to the power and water they need for productive activities and daily existence expanding their economic opportunities

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.632275626720813
WordScorePoS
broaden0VB
access0.00731085509381114NN
infrastructure0.0181797964452808NN
bring0VB
people0.024149913320522NNS
market0NN
service0.0084006124696649NN
power0NN
water0.556409482163189NN
productive0JJ
activity0.0502364757923669NN
daily0RB
expand0.0251182378961834VB
economic0JJ
opportunity0.0153390539205676NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.363097634170704
WordScorePoS
broaden0VB
access0.0128821355880844NN
infrastructure0.192202909044225NN
bring0VB
people0.0186171553883251NNS
market0.0377086395700813NN
service0.0148023490369527NN
power0.0454743001434393NN
water0.0377086395700813NN
productive0JJ
activity0NN
daily0RB
expand0VB
economic0.0320338181740375JJ
opportunity0.0135141354781442NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.341986632851635
WordScorePoS
broaden0VB
access0.00344404437204141NN
infrastructure0NN
bring0VB
people0.0106656521351091NNS
market0.0252035516550537NN
service0.0197870712294258NN
power0NN
water0NN
productive0.0985415302158139JJ
activity0.0295821503613099NN
daily0RB
expand0.0295821503613099VB
economic0.128463821595706JJ
opportunity0.0361300980868102NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.284216810663526
WordScorePoS
broaden0VB
access0.00232174891244877NN
infrastructure0.028867295332595NN
bring0VB
people0.0119834723221875NNS
market0.0169905820958638NN
service0.00666957305782837NN
power0NN
water0.186896403054502NN
productive0JJ
activity0.0199423462679015NN
daily0RB
expand0VB
economic0.0433009429988926JJ
opportunity0NN

Expanding affordable access for poor people and poor areas requires tackling difficult financing issues designing subsidies effectively working with informal providers as well as making providers more accountable and strengthening the voice of beneficiaries

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.470322998864857
WordScorePoS
expand0VB
affordable0JJ
access0.00514687440545096NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
people0.0371911007748996NNS
require0VB
tackle0VB
financing0NN
issue0NN
subsidy0NN
effectively0RB
provider0NN
accountable0JJ
strengthen0VB
voice0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.28593834041811
WordScorePoS
expand0VB
affordable0JJ
access0.00690021170452351NN
poor0JJ
people0NNS
require0VB
tackle0VB
financing0NN
issue0NN
subsidy0NN
effectively0RB
provider0NN
accountable0.162386273072618JJ
strengthen0.0396437925143789VB
voice0NN

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.243031483810581
WordScorePoS
expand0VB
affordable0JJ
access0.00113832851892715NN
poor0JJ
people0.00705044110169491NNS
require0VB
tackle0VB
financing0NN
issue0NN
subsidy0.162850158165781NN
effectively0RB
provider0NN
accountable0JJ
strengthen0.00654003986398914VB
voice0NN

The challenges of expanding access to justice land and infrastructure and rooting out corruption and elite capture remain significant for many developing countries

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.770362730872435
WordScorePoS
challenge0NN
expand0VB
access0.00690021170452351NN
justice0.214981650384708NN
land0NN
infrastructure0NN
corruption0.322472475577062NN
capture0NN
remain0VB
significant0.033663879505068JJ
develop0VB
country0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.273330269445821
WordScorePoS
challenge0NN
expand0VB
access0.0128821355880844NN
justice0NN
land0NN
infrastructure0.192202909044225NN
corruption0NN
capture0NN
remain0VB
significant0JJ
develop0VB
country0NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.30848805432607
WordScorePoS
challenge0.0223459295604043NN
expand0VB
access0.00110699520004297NN
justice0NN
land0.123873694868802NN
infrastructure0NN
corruption0NN
capture0.0517339898971162NN
remain0VB
significant0.032404008418326JJ
develop0VB
country0NN

taxation focus on Raising revenues for equitable policies The publicly provided equity enhancing programs outlined in this report from early childhood development interventions to water supply have to be financed

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.700782125762816
WordScorePoS
taxation0NN
focus0NN
raise0NN
revenue0NN
equitable0.0502364757923669JJ
policy0NN
enhance0VB
report0NN
childhood0NN
development0NN
intervention0NN
water0.556409482163189NN
supply0.0590310971343993NN
finance0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.450856990780149
WordScorePoS
taxation0.0542519672965169NN
focus0NN
raise0.0332151194779746NN
revenue0NN
equitable0JJ
policy0.0203215381458133NN
enhance0VB
report0.0409791940864438NN
childhood0NN
development0.022306853314744NN
intervention0NN
water0.186896403054502NN
supply0.0703006268489394NN
finance0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.341150843977759
WordScorePoS
taxation0NN
focus0NN
raise0NN
revenue0.0978661089756501NN
equitable0.017987180284335JJ
policy0.0641521854453136NN
enhance0.0601477977507998VB
report0NN
childhood0NN
development0.0469463607292177NN
intervention0NN
water0NN
supply0NN
finance0.036961556179878NN

The resources to fund them must generally be raised through taxation

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.550386688753294
WordScorePoS
resource0.0416785799329393NN
fund0NN
raise0.0332151194779746NN
taxation0.0542519672965169NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.462572964054656
WordScorePoS
resource0NN
fund0.0414107553022249NN
raise0.0671298309154199NN
taxation0NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.427008794746713
WordScorePoS
resource0.0449504361447405NN
fund0.055245183797332NN
raise0NN
taxation0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.315006346274723
WordScorePoS
resource0.0739147683583536NN
fund0NN
raise0NN
taxation0NN

In fact key ingredient for wellfunctioning public sector is societal understanding that the quality of public services depends on everyone paying their share of the tax burden

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.509684997116428
WordScorePoS
key0NN
public0.0727679293221751NN
sector0.0571058915334038NN
quality0NN
service0.022416649027415NN
depend0VB
pay0.078760887431929NN
share0.0285529457667019NN
tax0NN
burden0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.435196858518851
WordScorePoS
key0NN
public0.0390556786919513NN
sector0.0459744293658165NN
quality0.00916459792075908NN
service0NN
depend0VB
pay0NN
share0.0766240489430275NN
tax0.036961556179878NN
burden0.036961556179878NN

Where this perception fails the social compact breaks down and tax avoidance and evasion become widespread

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.733904839683657
WordScorePoS
social0JJ
tax0.0811931365363091NN
evasion0.107490825192354NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.439503763044738
WordScorePoS
social0.112994637345193JJ
tax0NN
evasion0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.394056642096999
WordScorePoS
social0.101310366625194JJ
tax0NN
evasion0NN

This leads to vicious circle of free riding and tax rate increases with adverse consequences for the public finances the quality of service delivery and social cohesion

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.378330443956861
WordScorePoS
lead0NN
free0JJ
tax0NN
rate0.0639932865717261NN
increase0NN
adverse0JJ
public0NN
quality0NN
service0.0443555132287109NN
social0.112994637345193JJ

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.340262572350123
WordScorePoS
lead0.0169905820958638NN
free0.0332151194779746JJ
tax0NN
rate0NN
increase0.00958677785775002NN
adverse0.0664302389559493JJ
public0.028867295332595NN
quality0.0203215381458133NN
service0.00666957305782837NN
social0.0169905820958638JJ

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.329658456337739
WordScorePoS
lead0NN
free0JJ
tax0NN
rate0NN
increase0.00323105002784081NN
adverse0.04477822029736JJ
public0.0583751976558017NN
quality0.0136980135278128NN
service0.0269743071558856NN
social0.0458109463416786JJ

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.321068615271918
WordScorePoS
lead0.0255262687343935NN
free0.0499016491051341JJ
tax0NN
rate0.0216847879059514NN
increase0.0144029596227568NN
adverse0JJ
public0NN
quality0.076326555629389NN
service0NN
social0JJ

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.306606833416423
WordScorePoS
lead0NN
free0.0898760357768464JJ
tax0.036961556179878NN
rate0NN
increase0.00432344066632653NN
adverse0JJ
public0.0390556786919513NN
quality0.00916459792075908NN
service0NN
social0JJ

It follows that the same institutions that influence the quality and breadth of service delivery also affect the overall tax effort

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.804036371873698
WordScorePoS
institution0.274477239401321NN
influence0NN
quality0NN
service0NN
affect0.033031539117106VB
tax0.0811931365363091NN
effort0NN

Revenues like spending increase with country level of income but the quality of institutions notably voice and accountability also matters even when controlling for income see figure

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.624084950591146
WordScorePoS
revenue0NN
spending0NN
increase0.00285817158600878NN
country0NN
level0NN
income0.166475342664294NN
quality0.0121171980355011NN
institution0.0991236547760315NN
notably0RB
voice0.064698038783335NN
accountability0NN
control0NN
figure0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.409201675560928
WordScorePoS
revenue0NN
spending0NN
increase0NN
country0NN
level0.0610668815653026NN
income0NN
quality0NN
institution0.274477239401321NN
notably0RB
voice0NN
accountability0NN
control0NN
figure0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.463676011900737
WordScorePoS
revenue0NN
spending0.0602029956716497NN
increase0.0159575617614215NN
country0NN
level0NN
income0.110649350233433NN
quality0.022550656390892NN
institution0NN
notably0RB
voice0NN
accountability0NN
control0NN
figure0.0602029956716497NN

Voice and accountability can strengthen the tax effort as the services provided become reflection of the desires of the broader electorate rather than of privileged few

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.546913507845797
WordScorePoS
voice0NN
accountability0NN
strengthen0.0396437925143789VB
tax0.0811931365363091NN
effort0NN
service0NN

Lindert argues that the expansion of voice in twentieth century Europe was the driving force behind fashioning the social compact that delivered high and equitable growth alongside extensive public provi sion of services during

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.478161473522365
WordScorePoS
expansion0NN
voice0NN
century0NN
drive0NN
force0.0410992516792148NN
social0.0504071033101074JJ
deliver0VB
equitable0JJ
growth0.208565600657229NN
public0NN
service0.0197870712294258NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.389729820134437
WordScorePoS
expansion0NN
voice0NN
century0.219293228426234NN
drive0.0414107553022249NN
force0NN
social0JJ
deliver0VB
equitable0JJ
growth0NN
public0NN
service0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.51210946181164
WordScorePoS
expansion0NN
voice0.064698038783335NN
century0NN
drive0NN
force0NN
social0.101310366625194JJ
deliver0.0396106020715138VB
equitable0JJ
growth0.11178243319132NN
public0.0172128079963482NN
service0.00795378154685591NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.312882103460324
WordScorePoS
expansion0NN
voice0NN
century0NN
drive0NN
force0NN
social0.112994637345193JJ
deliver0VB
equitable0JJ
growth0.0519476926891779NN
public0NN
service0.0443555132287109NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.305409307526507
WordScorePoS
expansion0.0731385760866977NN
voice0NN
century0NN
drive0NN
force0NN
social0.0458109463416786JJ
deliver0VB
equitable0JJ
growth0NN
public0.0583751976558017NN
service0.0269743071558856NN

In Chile and the Republic of Korea too the emergence of representative institutions and higher incomes and administrative capacity led to higher taxation and spending

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.71627292549769
WordScorePoS
representative0.107490825192354NN
institution0.274477239401321NN
income0NN
capacity0.016515769558553NN
lead0NN
taxation0NN
spending0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.477413020557215
WordScorePoS
representative0NN
institution0.0991236547760315NN
income0.166475342664294NN
capacity0NN
lead0NN
taxation0NN
spending0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.340996890650193
WordScorePoS
representative0NN
institution0NN
income0.110649350233433NN
capacity0NN
lead0.0188543197850406NN
taxation0NN
spending0.0602029956716497NN

For similar reasons high inequality in the distribution of political power and wealth may be prejudicial to the tax effort

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.963466889814842
WordScorePoS
inequality0.635305170773079NN
political0.0792212041430275JJ
power0NN
tax0NN
effort0NN

The low tax revenues in most of Central America may reflect the low solidarity of the elite with middle and lower income groups the small wealthiest segment of the population is unwilling to pay more in taxes to provide public services because the elite can procure many private substitutes for publicly provided services ranging from public safety to education and roads

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.337376768044056
WordScorePoS
tax0NN
revenue0NN
central0JJ
reflect0VB
middle0JJ
income0.166475342664294NN
population0.0860640399817412NN
pay0.02794560829783NN
provide0VB
public0.0172128079963482NN
service0.00795378154685591NN
private0JJ
range0NN
safety0NN
education0.0121171980355011NN
road0NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.250143839341356
WordScorePoS
tax0NN
revenue0NN
central0JJ
reflect0VB
middle0JJ
income0NN
population0NN
pay0NN
provide0.0100202166857628VB
public0NN
service0NN
private0JJ
range0NN
safety0NN
education0.244244978014045NN
road0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.404966684889
WordScorePoS
tax0NN
revenue0NN
central0JJ
reflect0VB
middle0JJ
income0NN
population0.024255976440725NN
pay0.078760887431929NN
provide0.0112083245137075VB
public0.0727679293221751NN
service0.022416649027415NN
private0.0558185411034276JJ
range0NN
safety0NN
education0.0512260062633133NN
road0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.366972177518964
WordScorePoS
tax0NN
revenue0NN
central0JJ
reflect0VB
middle0.0602029956716497JJ
income0.110649350233433NN
population0NN
pay0NN
provide0.00740117451847634VB
public0.0160169090870187NN
service0.0148023490369527NN
private0.0368585655748969JJ
range0.0368585655748969NN
safety0NN
education0.022550656390892NN
road0.0368585655748969NN

Resource rents can relieve the fiscal constraint on spending and in principle provide resources for equitable provision though they raise host of governance challenges

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.400361801713348
WordScorePoS
resource0.0185001613201543NN
fiscal0JJ
constraint0.0602029956716497NN
spending0.0602029956716497NN
principle0NN
provide0.00740117451847634VB
equitable0.0221298700466866JJ
provision0NN
raise0.0368585655748969NN
governance0NN
challenge0NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.378632158762474
WordScorePoS
resource0.0449504361447405NN
fiscal0JJ
constraint0NN
spending0NN
principle0NN
provide0.0269743071558856VB
equitable0JJ
provision0NN
raise0NN
governance0NN
challenge0.0947742174515357NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.333668456601265
WordScorePoS
resource0NN
fiscal0JJ
constraint0NN
spending0NN
principle0NN
provide0.013214597504793VB
equitable0JJ
provision0.0658099748168827NN
raise0NN
governance0.107490825192354NN
challenge0NN

The ability of resource rich states to rely on unearned revenues can undermine the accountability embedded in the social compact underpinning sound public finance

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.528474088927472
WordScorePoS
ability0NN
resource0.0375923735942499NN
rely0VB
revenue0.0978661089756501NN
accountability0.048933054487825NN
social0JJ
sound0.0211360962287062NN
public0.0390556786919513NN
finance0.036961556179878NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.448346966089962
WordScorePoS
ability0NN
resource0.0739147683583536NN
rely0VB
revenue0NN
accountability0NN
social0.112994637345193JJ
sound0.0519476926891779NN
public0NN
finance0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.347562867563596
WordScorePoS
ability0.0409791940864438NN
resource0.0416785799329393NN
rely0.0332151194779746VB
revenue0NN
accountability0NN
social0.0169905820958638JJ
sound0.0234335422829798NN
public0.028867295332595NN
finance0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.316692162406572
WordScorePoS
ability0NN
resource0.0280166088658745NN
rely0VB
revenue0NN
accountability0NN
social0.0285529457667019JJ
sound0.0393804437159645NN
public0.0727679293221751NN
finance0NN

If not properly addressed the result may be wasted natural resources corrupt state institutions and poorer prospects for long run growth and equity

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.459141297276519
WordScorePoS
address0NN
result0NN
waste0NN
natural0JJ
resource0NN
institution0.274477239401321NN
prospects0NNS
growth0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.438319608348958
WordScorePoS
address0NN
result0NN
waste0NN
natural0JJ
resource0.0123650647908625NN
institution0.0410992516792148NN
prospects0NNS
growth0.208565600657229NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.386718408148659
WordScorePoS
address0NN
result0NN
waste0.138532104381853NN
natural0.0509717462875914JJ
resource0.0416785799329393NN
institution0NN
prospects0NNS
growth0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.4610263370729
WordScorePoS
address0.064698038783335NN
result0NN
waste0NN
natural0JJ
resource0NN
institution0.0991236547760315NN
prospects0NNS
growth0.11178243319132NN

few recent efforts to harness resource rents for broad based development in countries with poor institutions aim to introduce greater transparency and accountability see box on next page

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.512838662583311
WordScorePoS
effort0NN
resource0NN
base0NN
development0.0368309542451156NN
country0NN
poor0JJ
institution0.274477239401321NN
aim0NN
introduce0VB
transparency0NN
accountability0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.469937640673889
WordScorePoS
effort0NN
resource0.0739147683583536NN
base0.0442083771593746NN
development0.0164833460638534NN
country0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
institution0NN
aim0NN
introduce0VB
transparency0NN
accountability0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.357089559755294
WordScorePoS
effort0NN
resource0.0375923735942499NN
base0.017987180284335NN
development0.0469463607292177NN
country0NN
poor0.0153248097886055JJ
institution0.0249900578719309NN
aim0.0249900578719309NN
introduce0VB
transparency0NN
accountability0.048933054487825NN

Foreign aid can also weaken the social Fiscal effort increases with income and the quality of institutions Tax revenue as percent of GDP Tax revenue as percent of GDP

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.573321344182616
WordScorePoS
foreign0.0488696285210061JJ
aid0NN
social0.101310366625194JJ
fiscal0.064698038783335JJ
effort0NN
increase0.00285817158600878NN
income0.166475342664294NN
quality0.0121171980355011NN
institution0.0991236547760315NN
tax0NN
revenue0NN
gdp0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.505524195048275
WordScorePoS
foreign0JJ
aid0NN
social0JJ
fiscal0JJ
effort0NN
increase0NN
income0NN
quality0NN
institution0.274477239401321NN
tax0.0811931365363091NN
revenue0NN
gdp0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.420146826330222
WordScorePoS
foreign0.036961556179878JJ
aid0NN
social0JJ
fiscal0JJ
effort0NN
increase0.00432344066632653NN
income0.017987180284335NN
quality0.00916459792075908NN
institution0.0249900578719309NN
tax0.036961556179878NN
revenue0.0978661089756501NN
gdp0NN

Rule of Law

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.94952054397232
WordScorePoS
rule0.162386273072618NN
law0.164686343640793NN

GDP per capita US current Source Authors calculations based on Kaufmann Kraay and Mastruzzi

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.716925584237231
WordScorePoS
gdp0.0531983120572613NN
capita0NN
current0.0325700316331562JJ
source0.0238835024181023NN
base0.058665107245718NN

compact in much the same way as resource revenues by making governments less beholden to civic interests

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.823127517987166
WordScorePoS
resource0.0375923735942499NN
revenue0.0978661089756501NN
government0.048933054487825NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.329957007746842
WordScorePoS
resource0.0739147683583536NN
revenue0NN
government0NN

Some evidence suggests that higher levels of aid are associated with lower revenue collection especially among poorly governed countries

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.479859104279793
WordScorePoS
evidence0.12939607756667NN
suggest0VB
level0NN
aid0NN
revenue0NN
collection0NN
poorly0RB
country0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.595944122265605
WordScorePoS
evidence0NN
suggest0VB
level0.0138997399903163NN
aid0NN
revenue0.0978661089756501NN
collection0.048933054487825NN
poorly0RB
country0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.456489313832988
WordScorePoS
evidence0NN
suggest0VB
level0NN
aid0.123094312756122NN
revenue0NN
collection0NN
poorly0RB
country0NN

Donors should thus consider ways of supporting accountable institutions in recipient countries both for spending and taxation see chapter for discussion of aid

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.850456940729164
WordScorePoS
support0NN
accountable0.162386273072618JJ
institution0.274477239401321NN
country0NN
spending0NN
taxation0NN
aid0NN

While institutional transparency and accountability and linking good public services to the taxes that fund them are probably the first order determinants of successful revenue raising technical aspects of public finance are important to reduce efficiency costs

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.246274479522444
WordScorePoS
institutional0JJ
transparency0NN
accountability0NN
public0NN
service0.0451471467893167NN
tax0NN
fund0NN
successful0JJ
revenue0NN
raise0NN
technical0JJ
aspect0NN
finance0NN
reduce0.00838876601975825VB
efficiency0.134992154141495NN
cost0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.506951482627217
WordScorePoS
institutional0.036961556179878JJ
transparency0NN
accountability0.048933054487825NN
public0.0390556786919513NN
service0NN
tax0.036961556179878NN
fund0NN
successful0.048933054487825JJ
revenue0.0978661089756501NN
raise0NN
technical0JJ
aspect0NN
finance0.036961556179878NN
reduce0.00335331148065841VB
efficiency0NN
cost0NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.417169085478031
WordScorePoS
institutional0.0828215106044499JJ
transparency0.0548233071065585NN
accountability0NN
public0NN
service0NN
tax0NN
fund0.0414107553022249NN
successful0JJ
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raise0.0671298309154199NN
technical0JJ
aspect0.0414107553022249NN
finance0NN
reduce0.00375696197697663VB
efficiency0NN
cost0.0279982034978914NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.405135871384419
WordScorePoS
institutional0JJ
transparency0NN
accountability0NN
public0.0583751976558017NN
service0.0269743071558856NN
tax0NN
fund0.055245183797332NN
successful0JJ
revenue0NN
raise0NN
technical0.0373517915079663JJ
aspect0NN
finance0NN
reduce0.0200483235258943VB
efficiency0.0537696560159885NN
cost0NN

Lindert argues that among industrial countries high social benefit high tax societies most notably Scandinavia have paid particular attention to tax design to reduce adverse incentive effects for labor effort and capital investment to sustain growth

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.51436060005036
WordScorePoS
industrial0.318320101004075JJ
country0NN
social0.0188543197850406JJ
benefit0.0260040237236563NN
tax0NN
society0.0221298700466866NN
notably0RB
pay0NN
attention0NN
reduce0VB
adverse0JJ
incentive0NN
effect0.0454743001434393NN
effort0.0188543197850406NN
investment0.0377086395700813NN
sustain0VB
growth0.0260040237236563NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.468569122005688
WordScorePoS
industrial0JJ
country0NN
social0.0504071033101074JJ
benefit0NN
tax0NN
society0.0591643007226199NN
notably0RB
pay0.0695218668857431NN
attention0NN
reduce0.0055149369084567VB
adverse0JJ
incentive0NN
effect0NN
effort0NN
investment0.0252035516550537NN
sustain0.049270765107907VB
growth0.208565600657229NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.396118109389835
WordScorePoS
industrial0JJ
country0NN
social0.101310366625194JJ
benefit0NN
tax0NN
society0.0237821918091848NN
notably0RB
pay0.02794560829783NN
attention0.0396106020715138NN
reduce0.0310356414389692VB
adverse0JJ
incentive0NN
effect0NN
effort0NN
investment0.0202620733250388NN
sustain0.0396106020715138VB
growth0.11178243319132NN

Tax design is an immense area

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.754416170716191
WordScorePoS
tax0.0811931365363091NN
immense0JJ

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.559383654798687
WordScorePoS
tax0NN
immense0.0602029956716497JJ

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.34343291645674
WordScorePoS
tax0.036961556179878NN
immense0JJ

From the perspective of equity the primary contribution of taxation is in providing the resources to fund equity enhancing spending

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.39366287000471
WordScorePoS
perspective0NN
primary0.108423939529757JJ
contribution0.0499016491051341NN
taxation0NN
provide0.0100202166857628VB
resource0NN
fund0NN
enhance0VB
spending0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.3513640168577
WordScorePoS
perspective0NN
primary0.0970239057629001JJ
contribution0NN
taxation0NN
provide0.0112083245137075VB
resource0.0280166088658745NN
fund0NN
enhance0.0140083044329373VB
spending0NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.32365468091745
WordScorePoS
perspective0NN
primary0JJ
contribution0NN
taxation0NN
provide0.0269743071558856VB
resource0.0449504361447405NN
fund0.055245183797332NN
enhance0.0112376090361851VB
spending0NN

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.315690257132561
WordScorePoS
perspective0NN
primary0.0141533244035107JJ
contribution0.0325700316331562NN
taxation0NN
provide0.00654003986398914VB
resource0.0572167664438909NN
fund0NN
enhance0.0245214713330961VB
spending0NN

For this the principal criteria are minimizing efficiency costs administrative feasibility and political supportability

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.427443025765292
WordScorePoS
criterion0NN
minimize0VB
efficiency0.134992154141495NN
cost0NN
political0JJ

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.46009361220716
WordScorePoS
criterion0NN
minimize0VB
efficiency0NN
cost0.0660824365173543NN
political0.0792212041430275JJ

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.424369051206788
WordScorePoS
criterion0NN
minimize0.0664302389559493VB
efficiency0.039884692535803NN
cost0.0277064208763707NN
political0JJ

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.353490856632227
WordScorePoS
criterion0NN
minimize0VB
efficiency0NN
cost0NN
political0.111637082206855JJ

For specific tax instruments there can also be potential for positive direct effects on equity

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.624848107107166
WordScorePoS
specific0JJ
tax0NN
potential0.0454743001434393NN
positive0.0454743001434393JJ
direct0JJ
effect0.0454743001434393NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.458130083130045
WordScorePoS
specific0JJ
tax0NN
potential0NN
positive0.055245183797332JJ
direct0.04477822029736JJ
effect0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.371883148025576
WordScorePoS
specific0JJ
tax0.0811931365363091NN
potential0NN
positive0JJ
direct0JJ
effect0NN

Here we suggest seven basic principles for mobilizing tax revenues in ways that minimize efficiency costs while not undermining equity

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.286858056508084
WordScorePoS
suggest0VB
basic0JJ
principle0NN
mobilize0VB
tax0NN
revenue0NN
minimize0VB
efficiency0.134992154141495NN
cost0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.556038145981669
WordScorePoS
suggest0VB
basic0JJ
principle0.036961556179878NN
mobilize0.0898760357768464VB
tax0.036961556179878NN
revenue0.0978661089756501NN
minimize0VB
efficiency0NN
cost0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.348120769885969
WordScorePoS
suggest0VB
basic0JJ
principle0.0977392570420122NN
mobilize0VB
tax0NN
revenue0NN
minimize0VB
efficiency0NN
cost0.0660824365173543NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.324090802707846
WordScorePoS
suggest0.0602029956716497VB
basic0.0480507272610562JJ
principle0NN
mobilize0VB
tax0NN
revenue0NN
minimize0VB
efficiency0.0442597400933733NN
cost0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.315466576999314
WordScorePoS
suggest0VB
basic0.0144336476662975JJ
principle0NN
mobilize0VB
tax0NN
revenue0NN
minimize0.0664302389559493VB
efficiency0.039884692535803NN
cost0.0277064208763707NN

Tax bases should be as broad as possible

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.726715553190429
WordScorePoS
tax0.036961556179878NN
basis0.048933054487825NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.686938501433082
WordScorePoS
tax0.0811931365363091NN
basis0NN

broad based consumption tax for example will still discourage labor supply on the margin but choices between tradable and nontradable goods and services will not be distorted if all are taxed at the same rate

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.750775015384573
WordScorePoS
base0.0199423462679015NN
consumption0.332151194779746NN
tax0NN
supply0.0703006268489394NN
choice0.0409791940864438NN
service0.00666957305782837NN
rate0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.267697709341053
WordScorePoS
base0NN
consumption0.147812295323721NN
tax0NN
supply0NN
choice0NN
service0.0197870712294258NN
rate0NN

A few items such as gasoline tobacco products and alcohol may be chosen for higher tax rates because of their negative spillover effects or because the demand for these products is relatively unresponsive to taxation

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

As result at any given tax rate efficiency costs will be relatively low and revenues relatively high

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.478618525702832
WordScorePoS
result0NN
tax0NN
rate0.0325677023224526NN
efficiency0.134992154141495NN
cost0NN
revenue0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.5520973478212
WordScorePoS
result0NN
tax0.0811931365363091NN
rate0.0571955184484387NN
efficiency0NN
cost0.0548954478802642NN
revenue0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.385122186677084
WordScorePoS
result0NN
tax0.036961556179878NN
rate0NN
efficiency0NN
cost0NN
revenue0.0978661089756501NN

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.338681306219393
WordScorePoS
result0.0683326727248364NN
tax0NN
rate0NN
efficiency0.0502364757923669NN
cost0NN
revenue0NN

Income tax bases should also be broad treating all incomes from every source as uniformly as possible

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.676147425132805
WordScorePoS
income0.166475342664294NN
tax0NN
basis0NN
source0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.476851682271395
WordScorePoS
income0.110649350233433NN
tax0NN
basis0NN
source0.0135141354781442NN

Tax rates should be as low as possible as long as they raise sufficient revenue to finance the appropriate expenditures of government

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.704854338548679
WordScorePoS
tax0.036961556179878NN
rate0NN
raise0NN
sufficient0JJ
revenue0.0978661089756501NN
finance0.036961556179878NN
expenditure0NN
government0.048933054487825NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.441930219811775
WordScorePoS
tax0.0811931365363091NN
rate0.0571955184484387NN
raise0NN
sufficient0JJ
revenue0NN
finance0NN
expenditure0NN
government0NN

Of course the broader the Focus on taxation base the lower the rate needed to generate given revenue level

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.442033943905087
WordScorePoS
focus0NN
taxation0NN
base0.017987180284335NN
rate0NN
generate0VB
revenue0.0978661089756501NN
level0.0138997399903163NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.407408233990249
WordScorePoS
focus0NN
taxation0NN
base0.0442083771593746NN
rate0.0639932865717261NN
generate0VB
revenue0NN
level0.0113874611101829NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.402888436561366
WordScorePoS
focus0NN
taxation0NN
base0NN
rate0.0571955184484387NN
generate0VB
revenue0NN
level0.0610668815653026NN

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.371070339844792
WordScorePoS
focus0NN
taxation0NN
base0.058665107245718NN
rate0NN
generate0.0401833161726777VB
revenue0NN
level0.010074208709011NN

Lower rates lower the efficiency costs

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.642299976585564
WordScorePoS
rate0.0325677023224526NN
efficiency0.134992154141495NN
cost0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.429673470530036
WordScorePoS
rate0.0571955184484387NN
efficiency0NN
cost0.0548954478802642NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.319292071083572
WordScorePoS
rate0.0172128079963482NN
efficiency0NN
cost0.0660824365173543NN

The general rule is that the distorting effect of taxes increases proportionally to the square of the tax rate so halving the tax rate implies fourfold increase in efficiency

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.767982817917088
WordScorePoS
rule0.162386273072618NN
effect0NN
tax0.0811931365363091NN
increase0NN
rate0.0571955184484387NN
halve0VB
efficiency0NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.343251621336378
WordScorePoS
rule0NN
effect0NN
tax0NN
increase0.0162235147372888NN
rate0.0325677023224526NN
halve0VB
efficiency0.134992154141495NN

From an efficiency perspective it is better to impose single rate on broad base of taxpayers rather than dividing that base into segments and imposing different rates on each one

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.497821427745164
WordScorePoS
efficiency0.134992154141495NN
perspective0NN
single0JJ
rate0.0325677023224526NN
base0NN

This needs to be balanced against the distributional argument for graduated rate schedules

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.596643111610239
WordScorePoS
rate0.0639932865717261NN

low in developing countries

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

But in the light of the second point higher revenues should be sought first by closing loopholes and enforcing greater compliance and only later through higher marginal rates

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.673772627904295
WordScorePoS
revenue0NN
seek0.120266261535276VB
enforce0VB
rate0.0639932865717261NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.60220027496415
WordScorePoS
revenue0NN
seek0VB
enforce0.107490825192354VB
rate0.0571955184484387NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.357862081529691
WordScorePoS
revenue0.0978661089756501NN
seek0VB
enforce0VB
rate0NN

Income taxes need to apply to persons and to corporations

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.639214008719834
WordScorePoS
income0.166475342664294NN
tax0NN
person0.0237821918091848NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.371751977763683
WordScorePoS
income0.110649350233433NN
tax0NN
person0NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.361303088096705
WordScorePoS
income0NN
tax0NN
person0.107539312031977NN

To keep tax avoidance in check the top marginal rate of the personal income tax should be fairly close to the rate of the corporate income tax which means that the rate is not likely to be all that high

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.47958364216656
WordScorePoS
tax0NN
rate0.0172128079963482NN
personal0JJ
income0.166475342664294NN
means0NNS

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.499627671431818
WordScorePoS
tax0NN
rate0.0639932865717261NN
personal0JJ
income0.0442083771593746NN
means0.120266261535276NNS

Keep indirect taxes from being regressive

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.910131609690197
WordScorePoS
tax0.0811931365363091NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.414319264629018
WordScorePoS
tax0.036961556179878NN

With few key exemptions value added taxes VAT can be made less regressive

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.538172416497736
WordScorePoS
key0NN
add0VB
tax0.0811931365363091NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.533422210194106
WordScorePoS
key0NN
add0.0804764811724088VB
tax0NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.414375016570528
WordScorePoS
key0.0625160381065121NN
add0VB
tax0NN

Bird and Miller show in Jamaica that exempting just five specific items from VAT halves the burden on the poorest percent of the population

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Reducing regressive excise taxes as well as import duties on food or kerosene is also desirable

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.66050926159471
WordScorePoS
reduce0.00799614078871077VB
tax0NN
import0NN
duty0NN
food0.292342270824999NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.460083302849004
WordScorePoS
reduce0.022306853314744VB
tax0NN
import0NN
duty0NN
food0.186896403054502NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.51911870140536
WordScorePoS
reduce0.00335331148065841VB
tax0.036961556179878NN
import0.0978661089756501NN
duty0.0978661089756501NN
food0NN

To make up for lost revenue from any of these measures there are often good reasons for higher taxes on private transport

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.723681274417116
WordScorePoS
lose0VB
revenue0.0978661089756501NN
measure0NN
tax0.036961556179878NN
private0.0898760357768464JJ
transport0.0249900578719309NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.301117437843503
WordScorePoS
lose0VB
revenue0NN
measure0.103895385378356NN
tax0NN
private0JJ
transport0NN

Export taxes are generally best avoided both on efficiency and on equity grounds

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.52108659378419
WordScorePoS
export0NN
tax0NN
avoid0VB
efficiency0.134992154141495NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.570704913429193
WordScorePoS
export0.110884668539634NN
tax0.036961556179878NN
avoid0VB
efficiency0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.340218681064248
WordScorePoS
export0.0881366997038154NN
tax0NN
avoid0VB
efficiency0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.313415659046474
WordScorePoS
export0NN
tax0.0811931365363091NN
avoid0VB
efficiency0NN

Use property taxes more

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.620573630682071
WordScorePoS
property0NN
tax0.0811931365363091NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.562779329571051
WordScorePoS
property0.0736315832425121NN
tax0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.426631069935818
WordScorePoS
property0.0558185411034276NN
tax0NN

Property taxes account for only small share of taxes in developing countries

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.658701192968479
WordScorePoS
property0NN
tax0.0811931365363091NN
account0.0285977592242194NN
share0NN
develop0VB
country0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.519235003866883
WordScorePoS
property0NN
tax0.036961556179878NN
account0NN
share0.0766240489430275NN
develop0VB
country0NN

Their coverage is typically not comprehensive and assessments and collection rates are low

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.800716634312988
WordScorePoS
coverage0.0908430554521382NN
typically0RB
collection0NN
rate0.0639932865717261NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.383352531042636
WordScorePoS
coverage0.0307735781890304NN
typically0RB
collection0NN
rate0.0433561464459019NN

Although nominal rates are also low governments usually find rate increases in this very visible tax difficult to sell politically

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.658586317445956
WordScorePoS
rate0.0571955184484387NN
government0NN
increase0NN
tax0.0811931365363091NN

Simply raising the tax rate usually would burden only the few actually paying taxes

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.717453415726142
WordScorePoS
raise0NN
tax0.0811931365363091NN
rate0.0571955184484387NN
burden0NN
pay0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.362300460545211
WordScorePoS
raise0NN
tax0.036961556179878NN
rate0NN
burden0.036961556179878NN
pay0NN

Higher nominal rates are likely to be acceptable only with better tax administration such as more comprehensive coverage better and more frequently evaluated assessments and enforced penalties for late payment

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.803897335501302
WordScorePoS
rate0.0571955184484387NN
tax0.0811931365363091NN
coverage0NN
enforce0.107490825192354VB

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.506233878085711
WordScorePoS
rate0.0639932865717261NN
tax0NN
coverage0.0908430554521382NN
enforce0VB

Raise personal income tax collections

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.563977628590828
WordScorePoS
raise0NN
personal0JJ
income0.166475342664294NN
tax0NN
collection0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.499720638651676
WordScorePoS
raise0.0368585655748969NN
personal0JJ
income0.110649350233433NN
tax0NN
collection0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.351926028066765
WordScorePoS
raise0NN
personal0JJ
income0.017987180284335NN
tax0.036961556179878NN
collection0.048933054487825NN

Collection from personal income taxes is

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.636521620954305
WordScorePoS
collection0NN
personal0JJ
income0.166475342664294NN
tax0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.423069883148718
WordScorePoS
collection0NN
personal0JJ
income0.110649350233433NN
tax0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.397193992252462
WordScorePoS
collection0.048933054487825NN
personal0JJ
income0.017987180284335NN
tax0.036961556179878NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.310443493020306
WordScorePoS
collection0NN
personal0JJ
income0NN
tax0.0811931365363091NN

Consider inheritance taxes

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.62757190551003
WordScorePoS
inheritance0.0908430554521382NN
tax0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.560907282970832
WordScorePoS
inheritance0NN
tax0.0811931365363091NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.475748947129021
WordScorePoS
inheritance0.0688661930304451NN
tax0NN

Because heirs have not earned the wealth taxing gifts estates and inheritances are consistent with this report notion that predetermined circumstances should not affect person life chances

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.497978202391343
WordScorePoS
tax0NN
inheritance0.0908430554521382NN
consistent0JJ
report0NN
circumstance0NN
affect0.0184786920895884VB
person0.0442083771593746NN
life0.0184786920895884NN
chance0NN

The efficiency arguments and the evidence are mixed parents may work more or less to avoid inheritance taxes and so may save more or less

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.51544196842695
WordScorePoS
efficiency0.134992154141495NN
evidence0NN
avoid0VB
inheritance0NN
tax0NN
save0IN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.494074410115579
WordScorePoS
efficiency0NN
evidence0.12939607756667NN
avoid0VB
inheritance0NN
tax0NN
save0IN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.346866998441173
WordScorePoS
efficiency0NN
evidence0NN
avoid0VB
inheritance0.0908430554521382NN
tax0NN
save0IN

Although inheritance taxes may be difficult to collect and are likely to represent only modest reduction in wealth concentration they may help prevent extreme concentrations of wealth from being passed from generation to generation

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.699025243822005
WordScorePoS
inheritance0.0908430554521382NN
tax0NN
represent0VB
reduction0NN
concentration0NN
prevent0VB
extreme0.294526332970048JJ
generation0NN

In addition design that restricts transfers of control rights on corporations can be good for both equity and efficiency

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.478176965423985
WordScorePoS
addition0NN
transfer0NN
control0NN
rights0NNS
efficiency0.134992154141495NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.443922691160243
WordScorePoS
addition0NN
transfer0NN
control0.0465610847355851NN
rights0.078760887431929NNS
efficiency0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.401577021892209
WordScorePoS
addition0NN
transfer0NN
control0.0614198493690006NN
rights0.0519476926891779NNS
efficiency0NN

Avoid implicit taxes

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.781696074735143
WordScorePoS
avoid0VB
tax0.0811931365363091NN

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.512172746265318
WordScorePoS
avoid0.0531983120572613VB
tax0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.355851548720407
WordScorePoS
avoid0VB
tax0.036961556179878NN

In many instances the most important taxes affecting the poor are not formal ones levied through the tax code but implicit taxes including bribes and inflation

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.452592699969815
WordScorePoS
tax0NN
affect0.0184786920895884VB
poor0.150659516460257JJ
include0VB

Other implicit taxes to be avoided include many instances of regulation as taxation such as quasitaxes imposed through controls on trade prices credit foreign exchange or capital markets

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.495074365245462
WordScorePoS
tax0.036961556179878NN
avoid0VB
include0VB
regulation0.036961556179878NN
taxation0NN
control0NN
trade0.0539615408530051NN
price0NN
credit0NN
foreign0.036961556179878JJ
market0.030649619577211NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.482810748755367
WordScorePoS
tax0NN
avoid0VB
include0VB
regulation0.0977392570420122NN
taxation0NN
control0NN
trade0.0237821918091848NN
price0NN
credit0NN
foreign0.0488696285210061JJ
market0.0202620733250388NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.433406466351943
WordScorePoS
tax0NN
avoid0VB
include0VB
regulation0NN
taxation0NN
control0NN
trade0.0214456704626236NN
price0.0583416713841148NN
credit0NN
foreign0JJ
market0.0913569596328122NN

Managing resource rents transparently and equitably High overall standards of transparency and accountability are essential if the revenues from extractive industries are to be used well

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.612105514326942
WordScorePoS
manage0VB
resource0.0185001613201543NN
standard0.0454743001434393NN
transparency0NN
accountability0NN
essential0JJ
revenue0NN
industry0.181897200573757NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.45904873987108
WordScorePoS
manage0VB
resource0.0375923735942499NN
standard0NN
transparency0NN
accountability0.048933054487825NN
essential0JJ
revenue0.0978661089756501NN
industry0NN

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.358799996764185
WordScorePoS
manage0.0271683202880942VB
resource0.0572167664438909NN
standard0NN
transparency0NN
accountability0NN
essential0.0195550357485727JJ
revenue0NN
industry0.0401833161726777NN

However as second best solution in weak institutions of accountability many countries developed and developing do not pool the revenues from extractive industries with other resources in unified planning and budget process

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.565966838524313
WordScorePoS
solution0.0368585655748969NN
institution0NN
accountability0NN
country0NN
develop0VB
revenue0NN
industry0.181897200573757NN
resource0.0185001613201543NN
plan0NN
process0.0737171311497939NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.499544932030179
WordScorePoS
solution0NN
institution0.274477239401321NN
accountability0NN
country0NN
develop0VB
revenue0NN
industry0NN
resource0NN
plan0NN
process0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.404765328820528
WordScorePoS
solution0NN
institution0.0249900578719309NN
accountability0.048933054487825NN
country0NN
develop0VB
revenue0.0978661089756501NN
industry0NN
resource0.0375923735942499NN
plan0.0130185595639838NN
process0NN

Instead they are channeled to dedicated fund with special arrangements to earmark the revenues for specific purposes define reporting and disclosure requirements and establish oversight bodies to ensure that the arrangements are properly implemented

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.720976879089287
WordScorePoS
dedicate0VB
fund0NN
special0JJ
revenue0.0978661089756501NN
specific0JJ
report0NN
establish0.048933054487825VB
oversight0.0978661089756501NN
ensure0.00335331148065841VB
implement0.0458229896037954VB

One common objective of such revenue management arrangements is to save part of the revenue stream

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.765419662681629
WordScorePoS
common0JJ
objective0.0299586785922821NN
revenue0.0978661089756501NN
management0NN
save0IN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.420409728721941
WordScorePoS
common0.055245183797332JJ
objective0NN
revenue0NN
management0.0687164195125178NN
save0IN

The savings may be used for short term budgetary stabilization so that expenditures are protected from fluctuations in prices and output

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.678131533575139
WordScorePoS
term0.149793392961411NN
expenditure0NN
protect0VB
price0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.472216946219114
WordScorePoS
term0.0396106020715138NN
expenditure0.064698038783335NN
protect0VB
price0NN

They may also be used to build up financial assets which can generate revenues over an extended period in some cases constituting perpetual fund so that future generations can benefit from the revenues generated from the depletion of resources

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.483008101330893
WordScorePoS
build0.0499801157438617VB
financial0.0150369494376999JJ
asset0NN
generate0VB
revenue0.0978661089756501NN
extend0VB
period0NN
fund0NN
future0NN
generation0NN
benefit0NN
depletion0NN
resource0.0375923735942499NN

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.434042357881453
WordScorePoS
build0VB
financial0JJ
asset0NN
generate0.0401833161726777VB
revenue0NN
extend0VB
period0NN
fund0NN
future0.0543366405761884NN
generation0NN
benefit0.0229784274580034NN
depletion0.0531983120572613NN
resource0.0572167664438909NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.375635844673168
WordScorePoS
build0VB
financial0.00896409157262106JJ
asset0NN
generate0.0440683498519077VB
revenue0NN
extend0VB
period0.0440683498519077NN
fund0NN
future0.0297950283197006NN
generation0NN
benefit0.0252000451111224NN
depletion0NN
resource0.0358563662904843NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.311365723144741
WordScorePoS
build0VB
financial0JJ
asset0NN
generate0VB
revenue0NN
extend0VB
period0.0409791940864438NN
fund0NN
future0.0277064208763707NN
generation0.0819583881728876NN
benefit0NN
depletion0NN
resource0.0416785799329393NN

Azerbaijan Chad and Kazakhstan have legislated savings to deflect pressures to spend revenues quickly and unproductively

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Revenue management arrangements can also serve distributional objectives

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.606019597798081
WordScorePoS
revenue0.0978661089756501NN
management0NN
serve0VB
objective0.0299586785922821NN

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.489178741674353
WordScorePoS
revenue0NN
management0.0499817979003487NN
serve0.0531983120572613VB
objective0NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.355318997644975
WordScorePoS
revenue0NN
management0NN
serve0VB
objective0.0749457204978913NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.325785770564797
WordScorePoS
revenue0NN
management0.0687164195125178NN
serve0VB
objective0NN

In Chad the Oil Revenue Management Law assigns share of revenues to future generation fund and specifies allocations for poverty reduction

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.44770750584458
WordScorePoS
revenue0NN
management0NN
law0NN
share0NN
future0NN
generation0NN
fund0NN
poverty0.269969049497485NN
reduction0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.273110240952897
WordScorePoS
revenue0NN
management0NN
law0.164686343640793NN
share0NN
future0NN
generation0NN
fund0NN
poverty0NN
reduction0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.469882380785213
WordScorePoS
revenue0.0978661089756501NN
management0NN
law0NN
share0.0766240489430275NN
future0NN
generation0NN
fund0NN
poverty0.0109843026967392NN
reduction0NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.339328372220537
WordScorePoS
revenue0NN
management0.0687164195125178NN
law0NN
share0NN
future0.0373517915079663NN
generation0NN
fund0.055245183797332NN
poverty0.0164178645080222NN
reduction0.0268848280079943NN

Such earmarked allocations may be anathema to financial managers but they communicate and underline the government commitment to prudent and redistributive spending

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.792064958811574
WordScorePoS
financial0.0150369494376999JJ
government0.048933054487825NN
commitment0.0739231123597559NN
spending0NN

Nigeria experience in the Niger Delta during the and highlights the resentment and political instability that can result when local communities see no demonstrable benefits from the extractive industries in their midst

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.703967888684861
WordScorePoS
experience0NN
political0.0368585655748969JJ
result0NN
local0JJ
community0.0188543197850406NN
benefit0.0260040237236563NN
industry0.181897200573757NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.403284516964906
WordScorePoS
experience0NN
political0.111637082206855JJ
result0NN
local0JJ
community0NN
benefit0.0393804437159645NN
industry0NN

The democratic government has responded by creating Niger Delta Development Commission to fund local development with statutory contributions from the federal government and the oil companies

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.439974264596128
WordScorePoS
democratic0JJ
government0NN
create0.0234335422829798VB
development0.022306853314744NN
commission0NN
fund0NN
local0.0144336476662975JJ
contribution0NN
company0.108503934593034NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.420286795789883
WordScorePoS
democratic0.0804764811724088JJ
government0NN
create0.0695218668857431VB
development0.0055149369084567NN
commission0NN
fund0NN
local0.0214106369326177JJ
contribution0NN
company0NN

High standards of transparency and accountability are essential if the revenues from extractive industries are to be used for development purposes

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.715861221918468
WordScorePoS
standard0.0454743001434393NN
transparency0NN
accountability0NN
essential0JJ
revenue0NN
industry0.181897200573757NN
development0.0330049940546426NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.532670615338569
WordScorePoS
standard0NN
transparency0NN
accountability0.048933054487825NN
essential0JJ
revenue0.0978661089756501NN
industry0NN
development0.0469463607292177NN

To reduce the risk of diversion of revenues the Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative EITI championed by the United Kingdom calls on governments and extractive indus tries to report and reconcile payments and revenues

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.404838846106712
WordScorePoS
reduce0VB
risk0NN
revenue0NN
industry0.181897200573757NN
transparency0NN
initiative0NN
unite0VB
government0NN
report0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.716528371103748
WordScorePoS
reduce0.00335331148065841VB
risk0NN
revenue0.0978661089756501NN
industry0NN
transparency0NN
initiative0.036961556179878NN
unite0.036961556179878VB
government0.048933054487825NN
report0NN

Some companies have taken the initiative of publishing payments to government in some of the countries in which they operate for example Shell in Nigeria and British Petroleum in Azerbaijan

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.790253862382095
WordScorePoS
company0.108503934593034NN
initiative0NN
government0NN
country0NN
operate0.0542519672965169VB

The Publish What You Pay coalition advocates more systematic disclosure of companies annual reports and for home country legislation to make such declarations mandatory

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.604405741853825
WordScorePoS
pay0NN
company0.108503934593034NN
report0.0409791940864438NN
country0NN
legislation0NN
declaration0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.544145550476046
WordScorePoS
pay0.078760887431929NN
company0NN
report0NN
country0NN
legislation0.0558185411034276NN
declaration0NN

Equally important are improvements in government reporting arrangements to ensure transparency in the application of revenues generated by large projects such as the Chad Cameroon pipeline and the Nam Theun hydropower project in the Lao People Democratic Republic

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Revenue management arrangements are likely to be more successful when they are the product of broad consultative process and the rationale is widely understood

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.604201118980241
WordScorePoS
revenue0.0978661089756501NN
management0NN
successful0.048933054487825JJ
product0.017987180284335NN
process0NN
widely0RB

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.432570782248797
WordScorePoS
revenue0NN
management0NN
successful0JJ
product0.0442597400933733NN
process0.0737171311497939NN
widely0RB

Timor Leste has facilitated broad civil society involvement in the design of the revenue management arrangements for its offshore oil and gas industry

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.536265913321678
WordScorePoS
facilitate0.0260040237236563VB
civil0JJ
society0.0221298700466866NN
revenue0NN
management0NN
gas0NN
industry0.181897200573757NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.589445997670064
WordScorePoS
facilitate0.0211360962287062VB
civil0.0978661089756501JJ
society0.0359743605686701NN
revenue0.0978661089756501NN
management0NN
gas0NN
industry0NN

Draft legislation on the industry commercial and tax regime and legislation on proposed petroleum fund have been published and subjected to numerous public consultations

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.466508266415192
WordScorePoS
legislation0NN
industry0.181897200573757NN
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.56903550318746
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Markets and the macroeconomy chapter Achieving more equal access to markets is fundamental to greater equity within societies as well as to moving countries onto dynamic growth paths thus enhancing global equity

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And both equity and growth are best served by prudent macropolicy allowing for its countercyclical role

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This chapter is organized around the three markets for capital labor and goods land was covered in chapter and the macroeconomy exploring in each domain the potential and options for leveling the economic playing field and strengthening voice and accountability

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How markets relate to equity Issues of design of market related reforms and macroeconomic policy are often allocated to ministries of finance macro and trade economists financial specialists and the like

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By contrast policies for equity including those for managing the consequences of market conditions and macroconditions are typically considered the domain of the providers of schools health centers rural roads safety nets and justice systems

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This division of labor is profoundly incorrect

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The first set of policy domains is as important for equity as the second

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The main issue is access

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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.52645216329045
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The playing field is typically far from level in the workings of markets

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Barriers are intrinsically inequitable when they privilege insiders access to capital good jobs and favored product markets

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But they are also bad for the innovation and investment that lie at the heart of modern economic growth

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That is why leveling the playing field has the potential to be both more equitable and more efficient

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Label: 15, with a score of: 0.307837182216562
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It is also why broadening access typically requires more economic competition and more political accountability

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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.452601592777833
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.432995921447551
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There are two broad categories of pathology that make the playing field uneven see table

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The first pathology arises when the influence of powerful political and economic elites is bad for equity and typically bad for growth whether this takes the form of outright predation by political elites or excessive influence of economic elites in the shaping of policies and institutions as under oligarchic capitalism

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As we read in chapter Mexico financial system through much of the country history provides an example of elite capture protected relational incumbent oriented financial system

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The second pathology arises when policy efforts to control or manage markets are directed at least notionally to improve equity but with high costs for efficiency and are often captured by middle groups or indeed elites in ways that harm the poor

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This had its extreme manifestation in communist economic policy but it is also prevalent in societies in which markets play large role

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Another example is when protection for formal sector workers while bringing valued benefits to some slows processes of restructuring and job creation for other workers

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Both pathologies but especially the first reflect Adam Smith concern that the influential may shape markets to serve the interests of incumbents

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As he said People of the same trade seldom meet together even for merriment and diversion but the conversation ends in conspiracy against the public or in some contrivance to raise prices

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The main purpose of this chapter is not to diagnose from where such pathologies came but to explore possibilities for change that are feasible within the prevailing political sociocultural and economic context

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Casual observation suggests that change is Markets and the macroeconomy Table

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Two pathologies in the interaction between equity and growth Domain Policy capture by powerful elites Ill designed attempts at equity with large inefficiencies Financial markets Protected relational incumbent oriented financial system in Mexico for much of its history Directed subsidized credit in India and elsewhere with dismal repayment largely from better off farmers Labor markets Repressive labor market conditions in the predemocratic Republic of Korea Excessive protection of formal sector insiders in the middle of the distribution India South Africa Product markets Clove and timber monopolies in Indonesia Protection for inefficient agricultural food production Philippines and industry Morocco before trade liberalization Macroeconomic management Regressive resolution of macroeconomic crises in Latin America and Indonesia Populist macroeconomic policies Peru under García that fuel future regressive crises possible

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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.315154826118159
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The Mexican financial system has been reformed after the Tequila Crisis

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Moroccan industry was partially disprotected

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And many countries no longer pursue populist macropolicy especially after they experienced its ill effects

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Reducing barriers to market access will often bring initial benefits or redistributions not to the poorest but to middle groups

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WordScorePoS
reduce0VB
barrier0.0558185411034276NN
market0NN
access0.00780347258345989NN
bring0VB
benefit0.0393804437159645NN
poorest0JJS
middle0JJ

There may even be temporary rises in inequalities in parts of the income distribution for example when there are increases in returns to skills

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.855993995884267
WordScorePoS
rise0.0237821918091848NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
income0.166475342664294NN
increase0.00285817158600878NN
return0NN
skill0NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.435981393691358
WordScorePoS
rise0NN
inequality0NN
income0NN
increase0.0144029596227568NN
return0NN
skill0.407534682675042NN

This is desirable for efficiency and consistent with equity if institutions allow households and individuals to respond to the new incentives and there are safety nets to manage those who are hurt

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.57755299344136
WordScorePoS
efficiency0NN
consistent0JJ
institution0.274477239401321NN
household0NN
individual0JJ
incentive0NN
safety0NN
manage0VB

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.284049500372317
WordScorePoS
efficiency0.134992154141495NN
consistent0JJ
institution0NN
household0NN
individual0JJ
incentive0NN
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manage0VB

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.553287672864358
WordScorePoS
efficiency0NN
consistent0JJ
institution0.0991236547760315NN
household0.0330412182586772NN
individual0.064698038783335JJ
incentive0NN
safety0NN
manage0.0660824365173543VB

It is undesirable however if it creates new possibilities for middle groups to hoard opportunities at the cost of future growth and gains for the poor

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.547524436005294
WordScorePoS
create0.0695218668857431VB
middle0JJ
opportunity0.0361300980868102NN
cost0NN
future0NN
growth0.208565600657229NN
gain0NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.443562182089412
WordScorePoS
create0.0519476926891779VB
middle0JJ
opportunity0NN
cost0NN
future0NN
growth0.0519476926891779NN
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poor0.150659516460257JJ

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.3605429826639
WordScorePoS
create0VB
middle0JJ
opportunity0.029046330719385NN
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future0NN
growth0.11178243319132NN
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poor0JJ

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.312356881227916
WordScorePoS
create0.0234335422829798VB
middle0JJ
opportunity0NN
cost0.0277064208763707NN
future0.0277064208763707NN
growth0NN
gain0.0664302389559493NN
poor0.0339811641917276JJ

Design choices will depend on the market and local context including the political context but two cross cutting issues are worth highlighting

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.379758611535091
WordScorePoS
choice0NN
depend0VB
market0.0202620733250388NN
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political0.0792212041430275JJ
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.36502614092289
WordScorePoS
choice0NN
depend0.0357189919948307VB
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local0.0155217067874935JJ
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cut0NN
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First there is often an apparent paradox when systems are shaped to favor those with influence and connection economic liberalization should be good for equity however that is not always the case

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.461739362392602
WordScorePoS
system0NN
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economic0.128463821595706JJ

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.53173432535425
WordScorePoS
system0.0519476926891779NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.371209460710256
WordScorePoS
system0NN
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Liberalization can also be captured by the powerful perpetuating inequitable and inefficient economic structures and risking political and social backlash to market oriented reforms

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.438268101698563
WordScorePoS
capture0NN
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structure0NN
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market0.0252035516550537NN
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.468422787639228
WordScorePoS
capture0NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.468332274838357
WordScorePoS
capture0NN
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market0.0202620733250388NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.401890357796507
WordScorePoS
capture0NN
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structure0NN
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market0NN
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This is why liberalization needs to be designed in ways that promote genuine competition and effective accountability structures whether in the form of regulation transparency or other forms of societal control and sequenced properly

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.629664614560022
WordScorePoS
promote0.0220985725470694VB
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accountability0NN
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.447016534130265
WordScorePoS
promote0.00624783747184187VB
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accountability0NN
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Second while greater equity can be complementary to long run prosperity the second pathology vividly shows the potential for inefficient choices in the name of equity

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Tradeoffs between equity and efficiency exist

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.656929421349757
WordScorePoS
efficiency0.134992154141495NN
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Label: 11, with a score of: 0.479576015165427
WordScorePoS
efficiency0.0537696560159885NN
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.355734875944362
WordScorePoS
efficiency0.039884692535803NN
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And even when there are aggregate gains protected incumbents will be losers at least in the short to medium term in economists jargon changes will often not be Pareto improving

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.573553284573284
WordScorePoS
gain0NN
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Whether societies choose to compensate losers is matter of social welfare especially if they are poor and political economy especially if they are not poor

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.662132956032124
WordScorePoS
society0NN
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.352014488296225
WordScorePoS
society0.0335134328085675NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.32652283832842
WordScorePoS
society0.0237821918091848NN
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.306475949918526
WordScorePoS
society0.0591643007226199NN
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We now turn to the three markets for capital labor and goods and the macroeconomy exploring in each domain the potential and options for broadening access and strengthening accountability

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.619081334417415
WordScorePoS
market0NN
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Box

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

illustrates some of the interactions among equity inequality and growth in China

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.959227548450273
WordScorePoS
inequality0.635305170773079NN
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.267789036717876
WordScorePoS
inequality0NN
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Achieving equity and efficiency in financial markets The performance of enterprises drives economic growth

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.669516501703368
WordScorePoS
achieve0.0152398983378455VB
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Label: 7, with a score of: 0.178991202621623
WordScorePoS
achieve0VB
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.461717382472504
WordScorePoS
achieve0.018377882320743VB
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.345878404666114
WordScorePoS
achieve0.0114006914853063VB
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An innovative and dynamic enterprise sector requires low barriers to entry effective guarantees for property rights and access to finance

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.60304458595185
WordScorePoS
enterprise0.0607878664258118NN
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.508541111578284
WordScorePoS
enterprise0NN
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.411697127366444
WordScorePoS
enterprise0.0909486002868787NN
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rights0NNS
access0.0128821355880844NN
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We focus on the latter here

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.592384365525351
WordScorePoS
focus0.0410992516792148NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.538370320860902
WordScorePoS
focus0.0373517915079663NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.443151997628628
WordScorePoS
focus0.030745604615229NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.403552311472766
WordScorePoS
focus0.0279982034978914NN

Unequal access to finance is associated with reduced productive opportunities and reflects unequal influence

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.522970912730374
WordScorePoS
access0.00344404437204141NN
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.436419299178513
WordScorePoS
access0.00232174891244877NN
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.411868563955904
WordScorePoS
access0.00749031153171887NN
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productive0.0714379839896614JJ
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Financial market liberalization can increase access but it can also be captured

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.57084304652675
WordScorePoS
financial0.00896409157262106JJ
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.402237542221212
WordScorePoS
financial0.0185001613201543JJ
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.344559902130223
WordScorePoS
financial0.0370951943725875JJ
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capture0NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.319933193236997
WordScorePoS
financial0.00794883334420673JJ
market0NN
increase0.0068563725919103NN
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Sound technical design and strengthened accountability can help expand access while reducing both the risk of capture and disincentives to broader lending thus enhancing opportunities

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.417125242758301
WordScorePoS
sound0NN
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capture0NN
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Label: 4, with a score of: 0.338555968069426
WordScorePoS
sound0NN
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BOX

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT Markets and development policy equity and social welfare in China China looms large in any attempt to interpret development especially the role of equity in development processes

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.399326404619863
WordScorePoS
world0.00276879546803864NN
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Hasn it moved from highly equitable form of communism to extensive use of domestic and international markets

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.450973131356673
WordScorePoS
move0NN
highly0RB
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form0.158049144643351NN
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.409720611878535
WordScorePoS
move0NN
highly0RB
equitable0.0214456704626236JJ
form0.0428913409252473NN
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.401050395742815
WordScorePoS
move0NN
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.366671512588055
WordScorePoS
move0NN
highly0RB
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.301925260362832
WordScorePoS
move0NN
highly0RB
equitable0.017987180284335JJ
form0NN
domestic0.0634082886861185JJ
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And didn this lead to both rising income inequality and the most extraordinary pace and scale of reduction in poverty and expansion in social welfare in history

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.847555074877797
WordScorePoS
lead0NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.350645317511737
WordScorePoS
lead0NN
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pace0NN
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poverty0.269969049497485NN
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This looks at first glance like brute fact refutation of central message of this report that equity can lay the basis for prosperous development

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

An account along these lines misreads change in China in important ways many of the changes were equity enhancing in the sense of leading to expansion of opportunities of the bulk of the population chapter discussed the institutional underpinnings of these changes

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.694948366340581
WordScorePoS
account0NN
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institutional0.0828215106044499JJ

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.311908573280588
WordScorePoS
account0NN
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Consider some of the major shifts in Chinese policy that the literature interprets as having driven growth and income poverty the institutional shift to the household responsibility system allowing peasants to produce for themselves and early the expansion of township and village enterprises TVEs and the massive indirect effects of opening to international trade whole period the opening to inward foreign direct investment especially in the and the huge internal migration flows

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.594621613616856
WordScorePoS
major0JJ
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migration0.12939607756667NN
flow0.0488696285210061NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.390463929108915
WordScorePoS
major0JJ
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investment0.0376648791150643NN
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.382798646903133
WordScorePoS
major0.0214106369326177JJ
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investment0.0252035516550537NN
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.300777256501588
WordScorePoS
major0JJ
policy0NN
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All these led to major expansions in opportunity and were major sources of growth for large segments of the population

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.684641194648873
WordScorePoS
lead0.0504071033101074NN
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expansion0NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.407989645578155
WordScorePoS
lead0NN
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opportunity0.029046330719385NN
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growth0.11178243319132NN
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Label: 7, with a score of: 0.334293655373108
WordScorePoS
lead0.0383371018038178NN
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expansion0NN
opportunity0.0549574626423028NN
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Rural reform quickly expanded opportunities for most peasants

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.651071461365844
WordScorePoS
rural0.148975141598503JJ
reform0NN
quickly0RB
expand0VB
opportunity0.0261926252110933NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.414937745561612
WordScorePoS
rural0JJ
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opportunity0.02046578088155NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.371516687824744
WordScorePoS
rural0JJ
reform0NN
quickly0RB
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TVEs were broadly dispersed

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

While the effects of international opening were concentrated initially in coastal areas they have broadened in scope both through the indirect effects of migration and the relocation of industries inland

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.669333894170328
WordScorePoS
effect0NN
international0.00470029406779661JJ
coastal0.265991560286306JJ
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migration0NN
industry0.0401833161726777NN
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.593180530451504
WordScorePoS
effect0.0454743001434393NN
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migration0NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.290905583004787
WordScorePoS
effect0NN
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migration0.12939607756667NN
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By contrast where investment has been linked to connections and corruption it is clearly inequitable in the sense of lacking fair process and equality of opportunity to all potential investors

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.54943324385548
WordScorePoS
investment0NN
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opportunity0NN
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.447300109940273
WordScorePoS
investment0NN
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process0.0558185411034276NN
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.386726960825509
WordScorePoS
investment0.0377086395700813NN
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opportunity0.0135141354781442NN
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In the long term introducing fairer and more transparent process will be important to sustained growth

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.498521992625042
WordScorePoS
term0NN
introduce0VB
transparent0JJ
process0NN
sustained0JJ
growth0.208565600657229NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.446389285122396
WordScorePoS
term0.149793392961411NN
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transparent0.036961556179878JJ
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.526156869670896
WordScorePoS
term0NN
introduce0VB
transparent0JJ
process0.0737171311497939NN
sustained0.120405991343299JJ
growth0.0260040237236563NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.361865798439208
WordScorePoS
term0.0396106020715138NN
introduce0VB
transparent0JJ
process0NN
sustained0JJ
growth0.11178243319132NN

There were periods in which policyrelated shifts such as selective opening the pricing of foodgrains tighter controls on internal migration and access to urban jobs were associated with biases either against inner provinces of China or against rural areas

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.661643909999561
WordScorePoS
period0NN
control0NN
migration0NN
access0.00626002771693937NN
urban0.27622591898666JJ
job0.0136980135278128NN
rural0.0373517915079663JJ

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.421921539835992
WordScorePoS
period0NN
control0NN
migration0.12939607756667NN
access0.00138439773401932NN
urban0.0488696285210061JJ
job0NN
rural0.0330412182586772JJ

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.419479977408063
WordScorePoS
period0.0440683498519077NN
control0NN
migration0NN
access0.00749031153171887NN
urban0JJ
job0.0109267235789154NN
rural0.148975141598503JJ

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.275926347863017
WordScorePoS
period0NN
control0NN
migration0NN
access0.00344404437204141NN
urban0JJ
job0.135650868266471NN
rural0JJ

These were factors behind the rise in inequality in outcomes and stagnating income poverty between the late and early s

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.912276928535949
WordScorePoS
rise0.0237821918091848NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
outcome0.0330412182586772NN
income0.166475342664294NN
poverty0.05809266143877NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.312662687429293
WordScorePoS
rise0NN
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This was probably inequitable in terms of rising inequality of opportunity

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.9447219498095
WordScorePoS
term0.0396106020715138NN
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inequality0.635305170773079NN
opportunity0.029046330719385NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.194454435667574
WordScorePoS
term0.149793392961411NN
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inequality0NN
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For these cases there may have been some tradeoff but few observers argue that such policy induced biases were essential to Chinese growth in contrast to the overall institutional change and opening

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.766192666729389
WordScorePoS
policy0.0102677744436108NN
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institutional0.0828215106044499JJ
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.39230190378078
WordScorePoS
policy0.0452169560888236NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.30391237815486
WordScorePoS
policy0.0848203862485078NN
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Moreover even using the much narrower lens of income inequality the periods when inequality fell notably the early and the mid actually had the highest growth rates not the lowest

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.963548075229409
WordScorePoS
income0.166475342664294NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
period0NN
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growth0.11178243319132NN
rate0.0172128079963482NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.128322221293418
WordScorePoS
income0NN
inequality0NN
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notably0RB
growth0.208565600657229NN
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And the provinces where rural inequality rose the least had the highest growth rates

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.912712551749593
WordScorePoS
rural0.0330412182586772JJ
inequality0.635305170773079NN
rise0.0237821918091848NN
growth0.11178243319132NN
rate0.0172128079963482NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.234693554327223
WordScorePoS
rural0.148975141598503JJ
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.231829154722068
WordScorePoS
rural0JJ
inequality0NN
rise0NN
growth0.208565600657229NN
rate0NN

There are rising concerns in China over the adverse consequences for development of growing inequality including in some areas of social provisioning in health for example and concentrations of wealth through connections

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.866890407428238
WordScorePoS
rise0.0237821918091848NN
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development0.0177346522508396NN
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social0.101310366625194JJ
provision0NN
health0.0405241466500776NN
concentration0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.257772659095603
WordScorePoS
rise0NN
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development0.00837573444202498NN
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inequality0.0307735781890304NN
include0VB
social0JJ
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health0.191387734041787NN
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But there is no evidence that these brought benefits in income growth the issue of concern here and most observers and the Chinese government would see this as an area in which policy could be improved

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.742378569463788
WordScorePoS
evidence0.12939607756667NN
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.395551891905895
WordScorePoS
evidence0NN
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growth0.208565600657229NN
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policy0.0452169560888236NN
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Sources Ravallion and Chen World Bank

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.737559496131694
WordScorePoS
source0.0130963126055467NN
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bank0.0881366997038154NN

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.426402661922482
WordScorePoS
source0.0613562156822703NN
world0.00438651305628668NN
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.33813808928791
WordScorePoS
source0.0109843026967392NN
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Unequal access to finance is associated with unequal productive opportunities and reflects unequal influence As discussed in chapter the access to financial services and their cost are unequally distributed especially in developing countries

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.474035262582559
WordScorePoS
access0.00138439773401932NN
finance0NN
productive0JJ
opportunity0.029046330719385NN
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financial0.0298222075472138JJ
service0.00795378154685591NN
cost0.0660824365173543NN
unequally0RB
distribute0.064698038783335VB
develop0VB
country0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.469470233175134
WordScorePoS
access0.00344404437204141NN
finance0NN
productive0.0985415302158139JJ
opportunity0.0361300980868102NN
reflect0VB
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financial0.0370951943725875JJ
service0.0197870712294258NN
cost0NN
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Many firms and households complain that the right financial services are not provided that procedures for opening an account or getting loan are too cumbersome and costly with high rejec tion rates and that financial institutions demand collateral which poorer borrowers typically lack

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.61456538515363
WordScorePoS
firm0NN
household0NN
financial0.016515769558553JJ
service0NN
account0.0285977592242194NN
rate0.0571955184484387NN
institution0.274477239401321NN
demand0NN
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Financial institutions respond that they cannot provide services profitably for technical and economic reasons

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.523861046380891
WordScorePoS
financial0.016515769558553JJ
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provide0.013214597504793VB
service0NN
technical0JJ
economic0JJ

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.460725459139925
WordScorePoS
financial0.0370951943725875JJ
institution0.0410992516792148NN
provide0VB
service0.0197870712294258NN
technical0.0410992516792148JJ
economic0.128463821595706JJ

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.413596194381478
WordScorePoS
financial0.0298222075472138JJ
institution0.0991236547760315NN
provide0VB
service0.00795378154685591NN
technical0JJ
economic0.103276847978089JJ

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.324424918799918
WordScorePoS
financial0.0184786920895884JJ
institution0NN
provide0.0295703421524739VB
service0.0443555132287109NN
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Poorer groups have small savings and seek small loans and insurance life health crop which are hard to provide

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.646106289991185
WordScorePoS
seek0VB
insurance0NN
life0.0250390290383647NN
health0.191387734041787NN
crop0NN
provide0.0100171139310145VB

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.480249555602257
WordScorePoS
seek0.120266261535276VB
insurance0NN
life0.0184786920895884NN
health0NN
crop0NN
provide0.0295703421524739VB

Smaller clients borrow frequently and repay in small installments making serving their needs very costly

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

And the underserved are new and not experienced in business making them poor credit risks

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.650090478444085
WordScorePoS
experienced0JJ
business0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
credit0NN
risk0.0519476926891779NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.484988731382171
WordScorePoS
experienced0JJ
business0.0909486002868787NN
poor0JJ
credit0.0602029956716497NN
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But such reasons form only part of the story

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.716719877693924
WordScorePoS
form0.158049144643351NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.45592926525219
WordScorePoS
form0.100540298425703NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.400951523555705
WordScorePoS
form0.0884167543187491NN

The microcredit movement and large banks such as Bank Rakyat Indonesia and ICICI Bank in India show that it is possible to provide financial services profitably to poorer customers and small firms

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Access is also unequal in areas of finance in which enforcement is not as much of concern such as deposit taking

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Inequalities in access are also in part product of unequal influence

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.979795382254923
WordScorePoS
inequality0.635305170773079NN
access0.00138439773401932NN
product0NN
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Incumbents who benefit from restricted patterns of finance may lobby to limit access to finance or erect other barriers to protect the rents of established firms

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.500151226851387
WordScorePoS
benefit0.0260040237236563NN
pattern0NN
finance0NN
limit0.0368585655748969NN
access0.0128821355880844NN
barrier0.0368585655748969NN
protect0VB
establish0VB
firm0.0602029956716497NN

Barriers to entrepreneurial activity are indeed generally more onerous in poorer more corrupt and more unequal countries

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Weak property rights are part of the problem

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.689116234168753
WordScorePoS
property0.0558185411034276NN
rights0.078760887431929NNS

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.643030800929205
WordScorePoS
property0.0736315832425121NN
rights0.0519476926891779NNS

But weak property rights can be the outcome of political economy forces economic elites have an interest in the selective protection of property rights because they stand to gain more when security of contracts and property depends on their position connections and wealth

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.373997982674542
WordScorePoS
property0NN
rights0.0347609334428716NNS
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political0JJ
economy0.0821985033584295NN
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economic0.128463821595706JJ
protection0NN
stand0VB
gain0NN
security0NN
contract0.0804764811724088NN
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.64755836682228
WordScorePoS
property0.0558185411034276NN
rights0.078760887431929NNS
outcome0.0465610847355851NN
political0.111637082206855JJ
economy0.0465610847355851NN
force0.0465610847355851NN
economic0.0727679293221751JJ
protection0.0465610847355851NN
stand0VB
gain0NN
security0NN
contract0NN
depend0VB

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.506055189856187
WordScorePoS
property0.0736315832425121NN
rights0.0519476926891779NNS
outcome0NN
political0JJ
economy0NN
force0NN
economic0.0959899298575892JJ
protection0.122839698738001NN
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security0NN
contract0NN
depend0VB

We are primarily concerned here with the first pathology mentioned earlier namely the influence of economic elites on the shaping of financial systems

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.500738974196017
WordScorePoS
primarily0RB
influence0NN
economic0.128463821595706JJ
financial0.0370951943725875JJ
system0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.50333190369076
WordScorePoS
primarily0RB
influence0NN
economic0.0959899298575892JJ
financial0.0184786920895884JJ
system0.0519476926891779NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.402562700318071
WordScorePoS
primarily0RB
influence0NN
economic0.103276847978089JJ
financial0.0298222075472138JJ
system0NN

In many countries small number of wealthy families or groups exert extensive control over the corporate sector notably through control pyramids in which cross shareholdings lead to dominant control rights in extensive parts of the corporate sector often substantially in excess of the share of capital owned

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.633974274911884
WordScorePoS
country0NN
family0.0465610847355851NN
exert0VB
control0.0465610847355851NN
sector0.0571058915334038NN
notably0RB
lead0NN
dominant0JJ
rights0.078760887431929NNS
substantially0RB
share0.0285529457667019NN

These wealthy families are typically linked to political elites through economic deals family connections and shared social and Markets and the macroeconomy Table

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.357394211614105
WordScorePoS
family0NN
typically0RB
political0JJ
economic0.128463821595706JJ
share0.0252035516550537NN
social0.0504071033101074JJ
market0.0252035516550537NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.52161964261802
WordScorePoS
family0.0465610847355851NN
typically0RB
political0.111637082206855JJ
economic0.0727679293221751JJ
share0.0285529457667019NN
social0.0285529457667019JJ
market0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.473979275879898
WordScorePoS
family0NN
typically0RB
political0.0792212041430275JJ
economic0.103276847978089JJ
share0NN
social0.101310366625194JJ
market0.0202620733250388NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.325761152152855
WordScorePoS
family0NN
typically0RB
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economic0.0959899298575892JJ
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social0.112994637345193JJ
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Financial policy and institutions are often captured by the few case study evidence Country Evidence Brazil Public financial institutions in Brazil appear to have served larger firms more than private banks have Kumar

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.622209448078546
WordScorePoS
financial0.016515769558553JJ
policy0.0201317944152378NN
institution0.274477239401321NN
capture0NN
study0NN
evidence0NN
country0NN
public0.0285977592242194NN
serve0VB
firm0NN
private0JJ
bank0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.610372767861077
WordScorePoS
financial0.0298222075472138JJ
policy0.0848203862485078NN
institution0.0991236547760315NN
capture0NN
study0NN
evidence0.12939607756667NN
country0NN
public0.0172128079963482NN
serve0VB
firm0NN
private0JJ
bank0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.305917325055021
WordScorePoS
financial0.0150369494376999JJ
policy0.0641521854453136NN
institution0.0249900578719309NN
capture0NN
study0NN
evidence0NN
country0NN
public0.0390556786919513NN
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firm0NN
private0.0898760357768464JJ
bank0.036961556179878NN

Chile Following liberalization in the late many privatizations of state owned banks went to groups of insiders Larrain

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.922190632718945
WordScorePoS
bank0.0881366997038154NN

Czech Republic Mass privatization in the Czech Republic delayed the establishment of securities and exchange commission facilitating tunneling stealing assets by channeling to another firm owned by insiders Cull Matesova and Shirley

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Indonesia Market attributes large financial value for political connections suggesting politics rather than economics determined access or rents Fisman

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.535858380345707
WordScorePoS
market0.0377086395700813NN
financial0.0185001613201543JJ
political0.0368585655748969JJ
suggest0.0602029956716497VB
economics0NNS
determine0VB
access0.0128821355880844NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.430385883700454
WordScorePoS
market0NN
financial0.0140083044329373JJ
political0.111637082206855JJ
suggest0VB
economics0NNS
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access0.00780347258345989NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.42148790933962
WordScorePoS
market0.0202620733250388NN
financial0.0298222075472138JJ
political0.0792212041430275JJ
suggest0VB
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access0.00138439773401932NN

France pre Banks protected and dependent on government support lend to less productive firms Bertrand Schoar and Thesmar

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.608426595809927
WordScorePoS
bank0.0881366997038154NN
protect0.0130963126055467VB
government0NN
support0.00896409157262106NN
productive0.0714379839896614JJ
firm0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.473438329734191
WordScorePoS
bank0NN
protect0.0180650490434051VB
government0NN
support0.024730129581725NN
productive0.0985415302158139JJ
firm0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.438831540613636
WordScorePoS
bank0.036961556179878NN
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government0.048933054487825NN
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Korea Rep

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

of The opening up of new segments of financial services provision was dominated by insiders

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.519606467204603
WordScorePoS
financial0.0140083044329373JJ
service0.022416649027415NN
provision0.0558185411034276NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.463739902712945
WordScorePoS
financial0.016515769558553JJ
service0NN
provision0.0658099748168827NN

Increasing openness primarily expanded and strengthened the politically most connected firms Haggard Lim and Kim Siegel

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Malaysia The imposition of capital controls in September primarily benefited firms with ties to Prime Minister Mahathir Johnson and Mitton

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Mexico late There was capture of the financial sector in Mexico in the late blocking entry in emerging industries Haber Noel and Razo

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.860398331116383
WordScorePoS
capture0NN
financial0.0185001613201543JJ
sector0.0565629593551219NN
emerge0VB
industry0.181897200573757NN

Mexico early Lending to connected interests in the early was prevalent percent of commercial loans and took place on better terms than arms length lending annual interest rates were percentage points lower

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.531659370951418
WordScorePoS
commercial0JJ
term0.149793392961411NN
arm0NN
rate0NN
percentage0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.584518690266326
WordScorePoS
commercial0JJ
term0NN
arm0.107490825192354NN
rate0.0571955184484387NN
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Related loans were percent more likely to default and had lower recovery rates percent less than unrelated ones La Porta López de Silanes and Zamarripa

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.819300570270657
WordScorePoS
related0.016515769558553JJ
recovery0.107490825192354NN
rate0.0571955184484387NN

Pakistan Insider activities have significant economic costs

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.441979624600577
WordScorePoS
activity0.0295821503613099NN
significant0JJ
economic0.128463821595706JJ
cost0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.586944412179056
WordScorePoS
activity0NN
significant0.0405241466500776JJ
economic0.103276847978089JJ
cost0.0660824365173543NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.373769110116018
WordScorePoS
activity0NN
significant0.0376648791150643JJ
economic0.0959899298575892JJ
cost0NN

Politically connected firms borrowed twice as much from government banks and had percent higher default rates between and with economywide costs of rent seeking estimated to be

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.590838252792748
WordScorePoS
firm0NN
government0NN
bank0NN
rate0.0639932865717261NN
cost0NN
seek0.120266261535276VB
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percent to

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

percent of GDP per year

Label: 14, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
gdp0.0531983120572613NN

Brokers trading on their own behalf earned annual rates of return percentage points higher than those earned by outside investors

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.79452686082232
WordScorePoS
trading0NN
rate0.0571955184484387NN
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Hence price manipulation by intermediaries helps keep equity markets marginal with few outsiders investing and little capital raised Khwaja and Mian

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.80161295605711
WordScorePoS
price0.0583416713841148NN
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market0.0913569596328122NN
invest0.0583416713841148VB
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Russian Federation Russia free for all banking entry combined with its choice of universal banking system gave great discretion to insiders to conduct asset stripping through the loan for shares scheme

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.523088493924013
WordScorePoS
free0.0898760357768464JJ
banking0NN
choice0NN
universal0.0109843026967392JJ
system0.0211360962287062NN
conduct0NN
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share0.0766240489430275NN

The weak political accountability could not stop the capture of state resources or protected rents Perotti Black Kraakman and Tassarova

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.503019161812486
WordScorePoS
political0.111637082206855JJ
accountability0NN
capture0NN
resource0.0280166088658745NN
protect0VB

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.468180883806449
WordScorePoS
political0JJ
accountability0NN
capture0.0517339898971162NN
resource0.0317953333768269NN
protect0.046452183350325VB

Thailand Connected lending was large before the crisis and firms with connections to banks and politicians had greater access to longterm debt Wiwattanakantang Kali and Charumilind forthcoming

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.952200215329987
WordScorePoS
firm0NN
bank0.036961556179878NN
access0.00314118376811005NN
debt0.342531381414775NN

United States early New bank licenses went largely to insiders in New York state Haber

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.621790443774396
WordScorePoS
unite0VB
bank0.0881366997038154NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.584292627314901
WordScorePoS
unite0.0828215106044499VB
bank0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.521515838394473
WordScorePoS
unite0.036961556179878VB
bank0.036961556179878NN

Ghana Kenya Tanzania Zambia and Zimbabwe Firms that have an owner of Asian or European descent have

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

higher probability of obtaining credit from suppliers Fisman

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.804370738742581
WordScorePoS
obtain0.0815069365350084VB
credit0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.59412769221331
WordScorePoS
obtain0VB
credit0.0602029956716497NN

cultural capital

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.744281657968119
WordScorePoS
cultural0.0615662203253227JJ

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.667865864985049
WordScorePoS
cultural0.055245183797332JJ

Examples include the Mexican banking system until the reforms of the second half of the and the concentrated wealth and close connections between economic and political elites in East Asia figure

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.460526785568978
WordScorePoS
include0VB
banking0.0804764811724088NN
system0NN
reform0NN
economic0.128463821595706JJ
political0JJ
asia0IN
figure0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.607399682380114
WordScorePoS
include0VB
banking0NN
system0NN
reform0.0911713013253052NN
economic0.0727679293221751JJ
political0.111637082206855JJ
asia0IN
figure0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.402245235612645
WordScorePoS
include0VB
banking0NN
system0NN
reform0NN
economic0.103276847978089JJ
political0.0792212041430275JJ
asia0IN
figure0NN

Concentrated corporate control and wealth should be concern if it leads to biases in access toward the influential and even more if it is associated with reduced innovation and dynamism

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.555493871333395
WordScorePoS
control0NN
lead0.0188543197850406NN
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reduce0VB
innovation0.122982418460916NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.508265469201111
WordScorePoS
control0NN
lead0.0504071033101074NN
access0.00344404437204141NN
reduce0.0055149369084567VB
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Reduced innovation can occur through direct restrictions on opportunity and the indirect effects of weaker property rights

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.440135305511271
WordScorePoS
reduce0VB
innovation0.122982418460916NN
occur0VB
direct0JJ
restriction0NN
opportunity0.0135141354781442NN
effect0.0454743001434393NN
property0NN
rights0NNS

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.383618728403548
WordScorePoS
reduce0.0055149369084567VB
innovation0.0821985033584295NN
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opportunity0.0361300980868102NN
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rights0.0347609334428716NNS

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.375009893528504
WordScorePoS
reduce0VB
innovation0NN
occur0VB
direct0JJ
restriction0NN
opportunity0.02046578088155NN
effect0NN
property0.0558185411034276NN
rights0.078760887431929NNS

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.343608738053145
WordScorePoS
reduce0.0164833460638534VB
innovation0NN
occur0VB
direct0JJ
restriction0NN
opportunity0NN
effect0NN
property0.0736315832425121NN
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.330393288835432
WordScorePoS
reduce0.00799614078871077VB
innovation0NN
occur0VB
direct0JJ
restriction0.0583416713841148NN
opportunity0.0261926252110933NN
effect0.0440683498519077NN
property0NN
rights0NNS

Cross country evidence suggests that there is relationship

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.906670803599693
WordScorePoS
country0NN
evidence0.12939607756667NN
suggest0VB

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.421838895669766
WordScorePoS
country0NN
evidence0NN
suggest0.0602029956716497VB

Countries with more self made billionaires tend to grow faster whereas those with more hereditary billionaires grow more slowly suggesting costs of dynastic family control over economies

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Societies with greater family control over the corporate sector also grow more slowly

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.584561204806058
WordScorePoS
society0.0335134328085675NN
family0.0465610847355851NN
control0.0465610847355851NN
sector0.0571058915334038NN
grow0VB
slowly0RB

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.377117042919716
WordScorePoS
society0.118536858482514NN
family0NN
control0NN
sector0NN
grow0VB
slowly0RB

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.310339694484309
WordScorePoS
society0.0221298700466866NN
family0NN
control0NN
sector0.0565629593551219NN
grow0.0188543197850406VB
slowly0RB

More compelling evidence on the links between unequal power and financial sector distortions comes from case study material from the historical experience of nowdeveloped societies and from contemporary developing countries

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.460826741362027
WordScorePoS
evidence0.12939607756667NN
power0NN
financial0.0298222075472138JJ
sector0NN
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material0NN
historical0JJ
experience0NN
society0.0237821918091848NN
develop0VB
country0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.412743492392432
WordScorePoS
evidence0NN
power0.036961556179878NN
financial0.0150369494376999JJ
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Table

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

provides selective list of results from recent studies of developing and transition countries

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

These case studies illustrate that unequal wealth and influence and low political accountability can be bad for entry and bad for the broad protection of property rights and so can hurt the efficiency growth and the health of the financial system

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.376544073929177
WordScorePoS
study0NN
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efficiency0.0295821503613099NN
growth0.208565600657229NN
health0NN
financial0.0370951943725875JJ
system0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.317015121446137
WordScorePoS
study0NN
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financial0.00625975725959118JJ
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Label: 7, with a score of: 0.163967289248445
WordScorePoS
study0NN
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efficiency0.134992154141495NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.450381224137208
WordScorePoS
study0NN
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system0.0519476926891779NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.441998655420485
WordScorePoS
study0NN
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efficiency0NN
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health0.0571058915334038NN
financial0.0140083044329373JJ
system0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.397713541062211
WordScorePoS
study0NN
influence0NN
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Such adverse long term effects can be magnified through crises further dampening growth and reducing equity

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.573013649298777
WordScorePoS
adverse0JJ
term0NN
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growth0.208565600657229NN
reduce0.0055149369084567VB

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.409916534161848
WordScorePoS
adverse0JJ
term0.149793392961411NN
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reduce0.00335331148065841VB

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.48829343835879
WordScorePoS
adverse0JJ
term0.0396106020715138NN
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Connected lending lowers asset quality and makes financial systems more vulnerable

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.559178534357306
WordScorePoS
asset0NN
quality0NN
financial0.0184786920895884JJ
system0.0519476926891779NN
vulnerable0.112994637345193JJ

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.38832874095677
WordScorePoS
asset0NN
quality0.076326555629389NN
financial0JJ
system0NN
vulnerable0.051052537468787JJ

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.346816625259598
WordScorePoS
asset0NN
quality0.0109267235789154NN
financial0.00896409157262106JJ
system0.0756001353333673NN
vulnerable0.0182713919265625JJ

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.338612108591799
WordScorePoS
asset0.0488696285210061NN
quality0.0121171980355011NN
financial0.0298222075472138JJ
system0NN
vulnerable0.0202620733250388JJ

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.311988222789138
WordScorePoS
asset0NN
quality0.0136980135278128NN
financial0.0112376090361851JJ
system0.0315914058171786NN
vulnerable0.0458109463416786JJ

And well connected interests do disproportionately well in crises through looting or securing greater protection and bailouts as WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT discussed in the section on macroeconomic management

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.448870403632374
WordScorePoS
secure0JJ
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The liberalization paradox Rapid and premature liberalization can also be captured seemingly obvious implication of the pathology sketched above is that more open and liberalized financial system should be good for access innovation and growth

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.674512950580191
WordScorePoS
rapid0JJ
premature0JJ
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financial0.0370951943725875JJ
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growth0.208565600657229NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.429815641755667
WordScorePoS
rapid0.030745604615229JJ
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financial0.0185001613201543JJ
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Yet overly rapid liberalization can bring new perils

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.923178516374967
WordScorePoS
rapid0.0373517915079663JJ
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Table

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

includes examples of liberalization and privatization of financial systems leading to highly concentrated benefits

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.511192509290366
WordScorePoS
include0VB
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Rapid privatizations of state owned banks often meant that banks went to powerful insiders or corporate groups as in Chile in the Mexico in the and the Russian Federation in the s

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

In Chile and Mexico the largest banks were sold to small number of wealthy families in dubious auctions with foreigners stopped from bidding

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.847447557946239
WordScorePoS
largest0.0714379839896614JJS
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The buyers were allowed to fund the purchases with loans from the banks themselves leading to extremely poor incentives for solvency

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.544998699250135
WordScorePoS
fund0NN
bank0NN
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incentive0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.517113309704061
WordScorePoS
fund0NN
bank0.0881366997038154NN
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In both countries the owners used the banks to grant themselves large loans aimed in BOX

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.73204206038945
WordScorePoS
country0NN
bank0.0881366997038154NN
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Too much and too little regulation Russia before and after the transition Within couple of years of liberalization the number of banks in Russia had risen from four to around

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.55064320917642
WordScorePoS
regulation0.0977392570420122NN
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Label: 13, with a score of: 0.547891535172861
WordScorePoS
regulation0NN
bank0NN
rise0.120914181920259NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.496544342978445
WordScorePoS
regulation0NN
bank0.0881366997038154NN
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One could argue that this was prime evidence that no elite was blocking entry

Label: 10, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
evidence0.12939607756667NN

But such rapid entry in regulatory power vacuum precluded any chance of regulatory oversight

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.784203317866653
WordScorePoS
rapid0JJ
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It compromised the public perception of what bank is and how it operates undermining the very foundation required for the development of the domestic banking sector

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.504036224755492
WordScorePoS
public0NN
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.448296419903794
WordScorePoS
public0.0390556786919513NN
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.420151833782217
WordScorePoS
public0.0727679293221751NN
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.389886663554727
WordScorePoS
public0.0160169090870187NN
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In practice many of these banks were not banks but private fund management entities used to channel capital flight

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.586568234423843
WordScorePoS
practice0.0252000451111224NN
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fund0NN
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.476883578141601
WordScorePoS
practice0NN
bank0.036961556179878NN
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Label: 11, with a score of: 0.360900857001228
WordScorePoS
practice0NN
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.303605203154139
WordScorePoS
practice0.0703006268489394NN
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Those raising deposits from the general public lent the cash to insiders gambled it irresponsibly or simply shipped it abroad leaving the banks as empty shells full of liabilities

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Banks could get away with such behavior not just because rapid entry overwhelmed the rather unprepared regulators but also because the banking lobby further promoted laws that granted banks an extraordinary freedom to operate and dispose of other people money

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.790064218870438
WordScorePoS
bank0NN
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Russia endorsed the universal bank model for example hardly structure suited to legal and regulatory vacuum although there is debate as to whether this was key factor in itself

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Bank lobbyists also ensured that banks were exonerated from the new commercial bankruptcy code the bankruptcy code established before the crisis vaguely stated that banks would be subject to specific bankruptcy legislation which was not even tabled before

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

The universal banking structure and lack of bankruptcy system contributed to the severity of the financial crisis of August resulting in massive losses to depositors foreign investors and cost to the state budget as many liabilities were transferred to the state owned Sberbank

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Source Claessens and Perotti

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.73415387760794
WordScorePoS
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part at accumulating control over other firms

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.593888049271225
WordScorePoS
control0.0614198493690006NN
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.58212190402677
WordScorePoS
control0NN
firm0.0602029956716497NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.450213930344238
WordScorePoS
control0.0465610847355851NN
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In Mexico this was associated with major consumer credit boom

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.956839738533674
WordScorePoS
major0JJ
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In the Republic of Korea chaebols family run conglomerates came to dominate nonbank financial institutions

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.836548860511446
WordScorePoS
family0NN
financial0.016515769558553JJ
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.370694521424228
WordScorePoS
family0NN
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This caused serious conflicts of interest and produced numerous incidents of illegal and unfair activities where funds from affiliated financial institutions were exploited for the benefit of chaebol ailing subsidiaries

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.655434402813095
WordScorePoS
cause0NN
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institution0.274477239401321NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.304461904847614
WordScorePoS
cause0NN
conflict0.147263166485024NN
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Label: 14, with a score of: 0.441174986668106
WordScorePoS
cause0.0325700316331562NN
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And in the particularly dramatic case of Russia the free for all liberalization was source of both rapid concentration of assets and increased financial vulnerabilities box

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.534148859461739
WordScorePoS
free0JJ
source0.0269969049497485NN
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financial0.0184786920895884JJ
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.38744446095663
WordScorePoS
free0.0898760357768464JJ
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Rapid or premature liberalization in context of low political accountability can increase financial fragility and the risk of opportunistic default

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.475669102256065
WordScorePoS
rapid0.020806307400253JJ
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context0NN
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.404215105680005
WordScorePoS
rapid0JJ
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political0.111637082206855JJ
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Reckless lending strategies in Chile and Mexico created extreme vulnerability for the financial system which collapsed when there were shocks to interest and exchange rates

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.937629760417523
WordScorePoS
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A greater percentage of large loans defaulted and subsequent losses on large loans were larger than losses on smaller loans losses were particularly large on loans to parties connected with the owners who escaped significant sanctions

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

In both countries the banking system had to be bailed out at enormous public cost while much of the lent capital probably disappeared in capital flight as in Russia

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

These cases suggest that rash liberalization with limited scrutiny can result in concentrated control of the banking system with owners putting up limited amounts of their own capital and weak or corrupt supervision and public guarantees to depositors

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.803929159244958
WordScorePoS
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In all these cases the rise in low quality liabilities and the associated moral hazard became major factor in the subsequent financial crises

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.710559388495554
WordScorePoS
rise0.120914181920259NN
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In countries with greater accountability financial liberalizations went different way

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.723422865531033
WordScorePoS
country0NN
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In France before the financial reforms government subsidies and limits on competition led banks to support less productive firms and provide poor quality loans

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.334273033796033
WordScorePoS
financial0.0184786920895884JJ
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Label: 14, with a score of: 0.310837127483831
WordScorePoS
financial0JJ
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.517443798170809
WordScorePoS
financial0.00896409157262106JJ
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quality0.0109267235789154NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.370797974000539
WordScorePoS
financial0.0370951943725875JJ
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poor0JJ
quality0.030144637392549NN

After the loan allocations improved and employment increased

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.726784970701747
WordScorePoS
improve0.0150723186962745VB
employment0.173804667214358NN
increase0.00711043475673939NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.44490126070761
WordScorePoS
improve0VB
employment0.104016094894625NN
increase0.0159575617614215NN

Although the reforms exposed some problematic lending patterns there was no Markets and the macroeconomy financial crisis or capture by the few

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.471694818544689
WordScorePoS
reform0.0911713013253052NN
pattern0NN
market0NN
financial0.0140083044329373JJ
capture0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.449905851076562
WordScorePoS
reform0NN
pattern0NN
market0.0913569596328122NN
financial0.00896409157262106JJ
capture0NN

The system was less concentrated to begin with and the reform process received more public scrutiny

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.730107372554172
WordScorePoS
system0NN
reform0.0911713013253052NN
process0.0558185411034276NN
receive0VB
public0.0727679293221751NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.34273058417176
WordScorePoS
system0NN
reform0NN
process0NN
receive0.0814816979556159VB
public0.021678073222951NN

Premature or ill designed liberalization can also lead to reform backlash if the benefits are perceived to be concentrated in few powerful groups while the losses are broadly socialized

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

There is less specific evidence on this for the financial system but it forms part of broader pattern of reaction against liberalizing processes

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.422236844457583
WordScorePoS
specific0JJ
evidence0NN
financial0.016515769558553JJ
system0NN
form0.158049144643351NN
pattern0NN
process0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.385116485714176
WordScorePoS
specific0JJ
evidence0.12939607756667NN
financial0.0298222075472138JJ
system0NN
form0NN
pattern0NN
process0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.412083296318026
WordScorePoS
specific0JJ
evidence0NN
financial0.0140083044329373JJ
system0NN
form0.100540298425703NN
pattern0NN
process0.0558185411034276NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.384209084184571
WordScorePoS
specific0JJ
evidence0NN
financial0.0184786920895884JJ
system0.0519476926891779NN
form0.0884167543187491NN
pattern0NN
process0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.329465006979161
WordScorePoS
specific0.0542519672965169JJ
evidence0NN
financial0JJ
system0NN
form0NN
pattern0.0819583881728876NN
process0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.308288965257735
WordScorePoS
specific0JJ
evidence0NN
financial0.00896409157262106JJ
system0.0756001353333673NN
form0.0428913409252473NN
pattern0NN
process0NN

Witness the dramatic fall in support for privatization in Latin America between the mid and early as documented by the Latinobarómetro surveys

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.670367306406533
WordScorePoS
fall0.123094312756122NN
support0.00625975725959118NN
document0NN
survey0NN

Such backlash is likely to be particularly sharp when associated with gains for particular groups economically dominant minorities in the interpretation of series of case studies by Chua that can heighten the sense of horizontal inequities for other groups

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

It can undercut support for the very reforms that are critical for equity and growth

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.739912003719276
WordScorePoS
support0.024730129581725NN
reform0NN
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growth0.208565600657229NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.354524980112111
WordScorePoS
support0NN
reform0NN
critical0JJ
growth0.11178243319132NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.314709604445331
WordScorePoS
support0.0277502419802315NN
reform0NN
critical0.0454743001434393JJ
growth0.0260040237236563NN

This is why policy designs need to consider both technical and political economy concerns

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.520653485134091
WordScorePoS
policy0.0341506708422088NN
technical0JJ
political0.111637082206855JJ
economy0.0465610847355851NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.456138818694553
WordScorePoS
policy0.0452169560888236NN
technical0.0410992516792148JJ
political0JJ
economy0.0821985033584295NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.444030890583879
WordScorePoS
policy0.0848203862485078NN
technical0JJ
political0.0792212041430275JJ
economy0NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.338018113931118
WordScorePoS
policy0NN
technical0.124876512346911JJ
political0JJ
economy0NN

Increasing access to financial services Technical design accountability and competition If both financial systems and financial liberalizations are often captured what does this imply for the design of reform

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

The answer is complex and to some degree specific to the initial financial and legal institutions and political context of country

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.729434254839
WordScorePoS
degree0NN
specific0JJ
financial0.016515769558553JJ
legal0.0811931365363091JJ
institution0.274477239401321NN
political0JJ
context0NN
country0NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.403498141332574
WordScorePoS
degree0.164469921319675NN
specific0JJ
financial0JJ
legal0JJ
institution0NN
political0JJ
context0.0414107553022249NN
country0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.407979154644281
WordScorePoS
degree0NN
specific0JJ
financial0.0298222075472138JJ
legal0JJ
institution0.0991236547760315NN
political0.0792212041430275JJ
context0NN
country0NN

But we can outline some general principles

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.935352333071656
WordScorePoS
principle0.0977392570420122NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.353717419725704
WordScorePoS
principle0.036961556179878NN

Options to expand access entail moving financial institutions closer to the country access possibilities frontier

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.792239010260396
WordScorePoS
expand0VB
access0.00690021170452351NN
move0NN
financial0.016515769558553JJ
institution0.274477239401321NN
country0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.342361347205964
WordScorePoS
expand0VB
access0.00138439773401932NN
move0NN
financial0.0298222075472138JJ
institution0.0991236547760315NN
country0NN

This will not necessarily imply finance for all for all the success of microcredit for the poor the major beneficiaries of greater access will be small and medium entrepreneurs from the middle class

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.533886470993542
WordScorePoS
finance0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
major0JJ
access0.00514687440545096NN
medium0NN
middle0JJ
class0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.461139540581884
WordScorePoS
finance0NN
poor0JJ
major0.0160169090870187JJ
access0.0128821355880844NN
medium0.0454743001434393NN
middle0.0602029956716497JJ
class0NN

But this is good for the broad based growth that will benefit all groups

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.720879304889376
WordScorePoS
base0NN
growth0.208565600657229NN
benefit0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.386361137617489
WordScorePoS
base0NN
growth0.11178243319132NN
benefit0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.332350687624844
WordScorePoS
base0.0442083771593746NN
growth0.0519476926891779NN
benefit0NN

This involves both issues of technical design and developing the political and social accountabilities that will support and sustain change

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.66023846252082
WordScorePoS
involve0VB
issue0.0335649154577099NN
technical0JJ
develop0VB
political0JJ
social0JJ
accountability0NN
support0NN
sustain0VB
change0.402565546215053NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.407244973096233
WordScorePoS
involve0.0488696285210061VB
issue0NN
technical0JJ
develop0VB
political0.0792212041430275JJ
social0.101310366625194JJ
accountability0NN
support0NN
sustain0.0396106020715138VB
change0NN

Technical design issues

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.836797576121841
WordScorePoS
technical0.124876512346911JJ
issue0NN

For financial institutions expanding the client base has much to do with scale which is often too small

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.775540554341324
WordScorePoS
financial0.016515769558553JJ
institution0.274477239401321NN
expand0VB
base0NN
scale0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.343660302711875
WordScorePoS
financial0.0298222075472138JJ
institution0.0991236547760315NN
expand0VB
base0NN
scale0NN

Recent experiences like those of ICICI bank in India show that the high transaction costs for small volumes and the large cost of expanding reach can be overcome

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.556601372060539
WordScorePoS
experience0NN
bank0NN
transaction0.064698038783335NN
cost0.0660824365173543NN
volume0NN
expand0VB
reach0NN
overcome0VBN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.496486029774622
WordScorePoS
experience0NN
bank0NN
transaction0NN
cost0.0548954478802642NN
volume0NN
expand0VB
reach0.0658099748168827NN
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One option is the innovative use of existing networks

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.732093193330456
WordScorePoS
exist0.0599173571845643VB

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.547117426894691
WordScorePoS
exist0.04477822029736VB

Postal systems with their broad coverage can be used to deliver new services by many private financial services providers

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.595892768859036
WordScorePoS
system0.0519476926891779NN
coverage0.0908430554521382NN
deliver0VB
service0.0443555132287109NN
private0JJ
financial0.0184786920895884JJ
provider0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.488529168044208
WordScorePoS
system0.0211360962287062NN
coverage0NN
deliver0.0299586785922821VB
service0NN
private0.0898760357768464JJ
financial0.0150369494376999JJ
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Many technological solutions now exist for small scale banking from mobile banking to broadening the range of delivery points through kiosks small branches and joint ventures with nonbanks

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.572600838942492
WordScorePoS
technological0.104016094894625JJ
solution0.0368585655748969NN
exist0VB
scale0.0368585655748969NN
banking0NN
broaden0VB
range0.0368585655748969NN

Simpler banking products like the Mzansi account in South Africa and prepaid cards for small transactions can lower costs

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.567644720009004
WordScorePoS
banking0NN
product0NN
account0.0172128079963482NN
south0RB
africa0IN
transaction0.064698038783335NN
cost0.0660824365173543NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.535607770668527
WordScorePoS
banking0.0804764811724088NN
product0.0591643007226199NN
account0NN
south0RB
africa0IN
transaction0NN
cost0NN

Handheld computers have been used for quick approval of microfinance loans

Label: 1, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
microfinance0.120266261535276NN

Reverse factoring lending on the basis of receivables from creditworthy institution using an Internet platform has allowed Nacional Financiera NAFIN in Mexico to extend trade finance

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.616161940590237
WordScorePoS
reverse0NN
basis0NN
institution0.274477239401321NN
internet0NN
platform0NN
extend0VB
trade0NN
finance0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.536002799231237
WordScorePoS
reverse0NN
basis0.048933054487825NN
institution0.0249900578719309NN
internet0.0739231123597559NN
platform0NN
extend0VB
trade0.0539615408530051NN
finance0.036961556179878NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.421143750655191
WordScorePoS
reverse0NN
basis0NN
institution0.0991236547760315NN
internet0NN
platform0NN
extend0.064698038783335VB
trade0.0237821918091848NN
finance0NN

There has also been much innovation in the market for international remittances which many banks have entered

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.41282301582631
WordScorePoS
innovation0NN
market0.0202620733250388NN
international0.00571634317201755JJ
remittance0.12939607756667NN
bank0NN
enter0VB

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.531946851073056
WordScorePoS
innovation0.122982418460916NN
market0.0377086395700813NN
international0.00265959362690358JJ
remittance0NN
bank0NN
enter0.0368585655748969VB

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.490602437734316
WordScorePoS
innovation0NN
market0.0913569596328122NN
international0.00515473144367677JJ
remittance0NN
bank0.0881366997038154NN
enter0VB

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.409264388882372
WordScorePoS
innovation0.0499801157438617NN
market0.030649619577211NN
international0.00648516099948979JJ
remittance0NN
bank0.036961556179878NN
enter0.0299586785922821VB

Some of these innovations need regulatory changes for example customer identification anti money laundering rules and other rules can hinder access to bank account as when individuals do not have fixed address or formal job

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.723019932725402
WordScorePoS
innovation0NN
money0.107490825192354NN
rule0.162386273072618NN
access0.00690021170452351NN
bank0NN
account0.0285977592242194NN
individual0JJ
job0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.342053813107931
WordScorePoS
innovation0.0821985033584295NN
money0NN
rule0NN
access0.00344404437204141NN
bank0NN
account0NN
individual0JJ
job0.135650868266471NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.374190010395957
WordScorePoS
innovation0.122982418460916NN
money0NN
rule0NN
access0.0128821355880844NN
bank0NN
account0.0160169090870187NN
individual0JJ
job0.0902026255635679NN

Better regulatory approaches for consumers can involve adopting truth in lending requirements for small borrowers and educating people on the risks of new financial services

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.83989386609363
WordScorePoS
approach0.0542519672965169NN
consumer0.325511803779102NN
involve0.0819583881728876VB
adopt0.0169905820958638VB
educate0VB
people0.0119834723221875NNS
risk0NN
financial0JJ
service0.00666957305782837NN

However general lesson is to be wary of regulation in weak environments all too often regulation ostensibly designed to protect savers and borrowers is ineffective in protection but still hinders access

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.746786311379137
WordScorePoS
regulation0.0977392570420122NN
environment0NN
protect0VB
protection0.0660824365173543NN
access0.00138439773401932NN

Are there shortcuts to enhancing access especially when overall institutional improvements will take time

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.538887915376679
WordScorePoS
enhance0.0188084899376888VB
access0.0157161992303584NN
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improvement0.0924643738905717NN
time0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.425420914011731
WordScorePoS
enhance0.0601477977507998VB
access0.00314118376811005NN
institutional0.036961556179878JJ
improvement0NN
time0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.406156681612192
WordScorePoS
enhance0.0185001613201543VB
access0.0128821355880844NN
institutional0JJ
improvement0.0454743001434393NN
time0.0188543197850406NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.351459488896121
WordScorePoS
enhance0VB
access0NN
institutional0.0828215106044499JJ
improvement0NN
time0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.306010108729087
WordScorePoS
enhance0.00994073584907126VB
access0.00138439773401932NN
institutional0JJ
improvement0NN
time0.0607862199751165NN

Too often there is emphasis on the more complicated and sophisticated aspects of financial systems while some of the basics broadening access to financial services including deposit taking institutions can be more important from an equity viewpoint

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.783184739941476
WordScorePoS
aspect0NN
financial0.016515769558553JJ
system0NN
broaden0.107490825192354VB
access0.00690021170452351NN
service0NN
include0VB
institution0.274477239401321NN

Information sharing can help improve competition in banking systems and can be encouraged more quickly in WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT some segments including allowing nonbank financial institutions access to existing networks such as payments systems

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.48905991723832
WordScorePoS
information0.0241291244414115NN
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banking0NN
system0NN
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quickly0RB
world0NN
development0.0368309542451156NN
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include0VB
financial0.016515769558553JJ
institution0.274477239401321NN
access0.00690021170452351NN
exist0VB

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.493821617285018
WordScorePoS
information0.0219686053934784NN
share0.0766240489430275NN
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banking0NN
system0.0211360962287062NN
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world0.00418824502414673NN
development0.0469463607292177NN
report0NN
include0VB
financial0.0150369494376999JJ
institution0.0249900578719309NN
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exist0.0599173571845643VB

There can also be some scope for specific government interventions

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.648549163355694
WordScorePoS
specific0.0542519672965169JJ
government0NN
intervention0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.584964806438549
WordScorePoS
specific0JJ
government0.048933054487825NN
intervention0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.487031988619782
WordScorePoS
specific0JJ
government0NN
intervention0.0407408489778079NN

But government interventions to broaden access through directed credit have typically been unsuccessful causing inefficient distortions with few access benefits the second type of pathology discussed in this chapter

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Many governments especially in the and used various forms of subsidized directed credit typically through state banks to try to channel finance to poor farmers and small enterprises

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.655752137056462
WordScorePoS
government0NN
form0.0428913409252473NN
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credit0NN
typically0RB
bank0.0881366997038154NN
finance0NN
poor0.0548141757796873JJ
farmer0.175025014152344NN
enterprise0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.434438935447426
WordScorePoS
government0NN
form0.0884167543187491NN
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credit0NN
typically0RB
bank0NN
finance0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
farmer0NN
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.287199988202523
WordScorePoS
government0NN
form0.158049144643351NN
direct0JJ
credit0NN
typically0RB
bank0NN
finance0NN
poor0JJ
farmer0NN
enterprise0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.305536022399625
WordScorePoS
government0.048933054487825NN
form0NN
direct0.0299586785922821JJ
credit0NN
typically0RB
bank0.036961556179878NN
finance0.036961556179878NN
poor0.0153248097886055JJ
farmer0NN
enterprise0NN

Directed credit undermines institutional development because banks have no reason to develop credit analysis skills as plentiful examples of defunct development banks show

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.757027607302992
WordScorePoS
direct0JJ
credit0NN
institutional0JJ
development0.0279277626235394NN
bank0NN
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skill0.407534682675042NN

By one account default rates ranged from to percent throughout the developing world

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.485184183238445
WordScorePoS
account0.0285977592242194NN
rate0.0571955184484387NN
range0NN
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world0NN

Moreover subsidies for housing lending for small and medium enterprises and agricultural finance are often captured by the well connected

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.611640008147709
WordScorePoS
subsidy0.0357189919948307NN
housing0NN
medium0NN
enterprise0NN
agricultural0.250032943963815JJ
finance0NN
capture0NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.469650143823211
WordScorePoS
subsidy0NN
housing0.219415728260093NN
medium0NN
enterprise0NN
agricultural0JJ
finance0NN
capture0NN

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.348573918609563
WordScorePoS
subsidy0.162850158165781NN
housing0NN
medium0NN
enterprise0NN
agricultural0JJ
finance0NN
capture0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.370901694589446
WordScorePoS
subsidy0NN
housing0NN
medium0.0454743001434393NN
enterprise0.0909486002868787NN
agricultural0.0368585655748969JJ
finance0NN
capture0NN

Some schemes do reach the poor India social banking program did so but at high cost

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.662153429707525
WordScorePoS
reach0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
social0.112994637345193JJ
banking0NN
cost0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.420398150794861
WordScorePoS
reach0NN
poor0JJ
social0.101310366625194JJ
banking0NN
cost0.0660824365173543NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.32870718365948
WordScorePoS
reach0NN
poor0JJ
social0.0504071033101074JJ
banking0.0804764811724088NN
cost0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.303145269928838
WordScorePoS
reach0.0658099748168827NN
poor0JJ
social0JJ
banking0NN
cost0.0548954478802642NN

Such schemes then become at best an inefficient means of support for the poor fostering unsustainable models of financial sector development

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.626891770653567
WordScorePoS
inefficient0JJ
means0.120266261535276NNS
support0.0184786920895884NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
foster0JJ
unsustainable0JJ
financial0.0184786920895884JJ
sector0NN
development0.0164833460638534NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.396882314725469
WordScorePoS
inefficient0JJ
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support0.0451108483130998NN
poor0.0153248097886055JJ
foster0.036961556179878JJ
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financial0.0150369494376999JJ
sector0.0459744293658165NN
development0.0469463607292177NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.367434872167716
WordScorePoS
inefficient0.0542519672965169JJ
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poor0.0339811641917276JJ
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unsustainable0.0542519672965169JJ
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sector0.0169905820958638NN
development0.022306853314744NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.350377957572146
WordScorePoS
inefficient0JJ
means0NNS
support0.0277502419802315NN
poor0JJ
foster0.0454743001434393JJ
unsustainable0JJ
financial0.0185001613201543JJ
sector0.0565629593551219NN
development0.0330049940546426NN

For example India Integrated Rural Development Program provided loans to socially excluded groups certain castes and tribes and women with high levels of subsidy to percent of the loan volume to such weak sectors

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.527907413956426
WordScorePoS
integrate0VB
rural0JJ
development0.0124956749436837NN
socially0RB
woman0.221979360474357NN
level0.0172651853471334NN
subsidy0NN
volume0NN
sector0.0571058915334038NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.477089242885522
WordScorePoS
integrate0VB
rural0.148975141598503JJ
development0.0159922815774215NN
socially0RB
woman0.0546336178945768NN
level0.00552410547653725NN
subsidy0.0357189919948307NN
volume0NN
sector0.0182713919265625NN

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.39274051028384
WordScorePoS
integrate0VB
rural0JJ
development0.0036456034155327NN
socially0RB
woman0NN
level0.010074208709011NN
subsidy0.162850158165781NN
volume0.0531983120572613NN
sector0NN

By loan recovery was only percent and there was little evidence of repeat borrowing

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.769212154684375
WordScorePoS
recovery0NN
evidence0.12939607756667NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.638993474994714
WordScorePoS
recovery0.107490825192354NN
evidence0NN

Microfinance clearly has role in expanding access

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.796157183458424
WordScorePoS
microfinance0.120266261535276NN
expand0VB
access0.00514687440545096NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.385426579345871
WordScorePoS
microfinance0NN
expand0.0449973847138318VB
access0.0157161992303584NN

It is best viewed as complement not substitute for more equitable financial reform and core financial system development

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.669716712624942
WordScorePoS
view0.048933054487825NN
complement0.0978661089756501NN
equitable0.017987180284335JJ
financial0.0150369494376999JJ
reform0NN
system0.0211360962287062NN
development0.0469463607292177NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.335398921071681
WordScorePoS
view0NN
complement0NN
equitable0JJ
financial0.0140083044329373JJ
reform0.0911713013253052NN
system0NN
development0.0124956749436837NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.333571916224425
WordScorePoS
view0NN
complement0NN
equitable0.0214456704626236JJ
financial0.00896409157262106JJ
reform0NN
system0.0756001353333673NN
development0.0159922815774215NN

In most countries microcredit and similar microfinance institutions reach less than percent of the population

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.801122295359448
WordScorePoS
country0NN
microfinance0NN
institution0.274477239401321NN
reach0.0658099748168827NN
population0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.435978740598639
WordScorePoS
country0NN
microfinance0NN
institution0.0991236547760315NN
reach0NN
population0.0860640399817412NN

Only in few countries is access really extensive Bangladesh Indonesia and Sri Lanka stand out with coverage ratios in the order of percent or more

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Subsidies are often used to encourage the setup of microfinance institutions but they need to be designed carefully because they can increase final costs by encouraging the formation of institutions that are too small and that are forced to raise prices to recover fixed costs

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.695341630787296
WordScorePoS
subsidy0NN
encourage0VB
microfinance0NN
institution0.274477239401321NN
increase0NN
final0JJ
cost0.0548954478802642NN
force0NN
raise0NN
price0NN

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.176858630350918
WordScorePoS
subsidy0.162850158165781NN
encourage0VB
microfinance0NN
institution0NN
increase0.00470029406779661NN
final0JJ
cost0NN
force0NN
raise0NN
price0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.410781239165914
WordScorePoS
subsidy0NN
encourage0.02794560829783VB
microfinance0NN
institution0.0991236547760315NN
increase0.00285817158600878NN
final0JJ
cost0.0660824365173543NN
force0NN
raise0NN
price0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.387265080312633
WordScorePoS
subsidy0.0664302389559493NN
encourage0.0468670845659596VB
microfinance0NN
institution0NN
increase0.00958677785775002NN
final0.108503934593034JJ
cost0.0277064208763707NN
force0NN
raise0.0332151194779746NN
price0NN

Co sharing costs and risks with the private sector is key market test

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.539397074982898
WordScorePoS
share0.0766240489430275NN
cost0NN
risk0NN
private0.0898760357768464JJ
sector0.0459744293658165NN
key0NN
market0.030649619577211NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.44630889990517
WordScorePoS
share0.0365427838531249NN
cost0NN
risk0.0252000451111224NN
private0JJ
sector0.0182713919265625NN
key0.0297950283197006NN
market0.0913569596328122NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.374587070756781
WordScorePoS
share0.0377086395700813NN
cost0NN
risk0NN
private0.0368585655748969JJ
sector0.0565629593551219NN
key0NN
market0.0377086395700813NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.313882801091742
WordScorePoS
share0.0285529457667019NN
cost0NN
risk0NN
private0.0558185411034276JJ
sector0.0571058915334038NN
key0NN
market0NN

Startup subsidies and other support can foster exploration of alternative business models phasing out support over time

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.397769039378457
WordScorePoS
subsidy0.162850158165781NN
support0NN
foster0JJ
alternative0NN
business0NN
phase0NN
time0.0166605993001162NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.600452776145786
WordScorePoS
subsidy0NN
support0.0277502419802315NN
foster0.0454743001434393JJ
alternative0.0602029956716497NN
business0.0909486002868787NN
phase0NN
time0.0188543197850406NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.553021786741427
WordScorePoS
subsidy0.0664302389559493NN
support0.00833571598658786NN
foster0JJ
alternative0NN
business0.0409791940864438NN
phase0.108503934593034NN
time0.0169905820958638NN

Maintaining segmented system makes sense until the microfinance sector matures with stronger microfinance institutions coming into the core financial system as they evolve

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.470478189899292
WordScorePoS
maintain0VB
system0NN
sense0NN
microfinance0NN
sector0NN
institution0.274477239401321NN
financial0.016515769558553JJ

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.586748256029067
WordScorePoS
maintain0VB
system0.0519476926891779NN
sense0NN
microfinance0.120266261535276NN
sector0NN
institution0NN
financial0.0184786920895884JJ

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.4309949782709
WordScorePoS
maintain0.0881366997038154VB
system0.0756001353333673NN
sense0NN
microfinance0NN
sector0.0182713919265625NN
institution0NN
financial0.00896409157262106JJ

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.313083920480798
WordScorePoS
maintain0VB
system0NN
sense0.064698038783335NN
microfinance0NN
sector0NN
institution0.0991236547760315NN
financial0.0298222075472138JJ

Accountability and competition

Label: 17, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
accountability0.048933054487825NN

Technical design is important but the core of reliable reform is building political and regulatory accountability

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.531561257937752
WordScorePoS
technical0JJ
reliable0.0299586785922821JJ
reform0NN
building0.149940347231585NN
political0JJ
accountability0.048933054487825NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.348187556662917
WordScorePoS
technical0JJ
reliable0.149891440995783JJ
reform0NN
building0NN
political0JJ
accountability0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.471109991762675
WordScorePoS
technical0JJ
reliable0JJ
reform0.0911713013253052NN
building0NN
political0.111637082206855JJ
accountability0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.328279708908496
WordScorePoS
technical0.030745604615229JJ
reliable0.0737171311497939JJ
reform0NN
building0NN
political0.0368585655748969JJ
accountability0NN

Public scrutiny has key role given the risks of capturing reform process and institutions

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.635930800258949
WordScorePoS
public0.0285977592242194NN
key0NN
risk0NN
capture0NN
reform0NN
process0NN
institution0.274477239401321NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.461109416106424
WordScorePoS
public0.0727679293221751NN
key0NN
risk0NN
capture0NN
reform0.0911713013253052NN
process0.0558185411034276NN
institution0NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.332772674832397
WordScorePoS
public0NN
key0.0528409850971592NN
risk0.0223459295604043NN
capture0.0517339898971162NN
reform0NN
process0.0316735178673487NN
institution0NN

Potential actors to help oversee the process include associations of small firms consumer groups NGOs media and labor unions

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.907606615499086
WordScorePoS
potential0NN
actor0.0542519672965169NN
process0NN
include0VB
firm0NN
consumer0.325511803779102NN
media0.0542519672965169NNS

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.375146692393422
WordScorePoS
potential0.0454743001434393NN
actor0NN
process0.0737171311497939NN
include0VB
firm0.0602029956716497NN
consumer0NN
media0NNS

But given the technical and complex nature of financial sector functioning societal accountability is likely to be most effective if groups with an interest in more open financial system are empowered engaging independent nongovernmental technical bodies with the capacity to analyze financial sector conditions

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.388673344230052
WordScorePoS
technical0JJ
nature0.162755901889551NN
financial0JJ
sector0.0169905820958638NN
function0NN
accountability0NN
effective0JJ
system0NN
empower0VB
engage0.0819583881728876VB
capacity0.00833571598658786NN
condition0.0409791940864438NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.469115131322253
WordScorePoS
technical0.0410992516792148JJ
nature0NN
financial0.0370951943725875JJ
sector0.0252035516550537NN
function0NN
accountability0NN
effective0.0180650490434051JJ
system0NN
empower0VB
engage0VB
capacity0.0123650647908625NN
condition0.121575732851624NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.36871832794167
WordScorePoS
technical0JJ
nature0NN
financial0.0150369494376999JJ
sector0.0459744293658165NN
function0.036961556179878NN
accountability0.048933054487825NN
effective0.0219686053934784JJ
system0.0211360962287062NN
empower0VB
engage0VB
capacity0.0451108483130998NN
condition0NN

The shadow regulatory commissions established in almost all regions and such research centers as the recently formed Center for Financial Stability in Argentina can be sources of education and avenues for interest groups to express their voice

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.545183112982476
WordScorePoS
commission0NN
establish0VB
region0.184259548107002NN
research0NN
form0.0884167543187491NN
financial0.0184786920895884JJ
stability0NN
source0.0269969049497485NN
education0.0225244866060403NN
voice0NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.390864300809601
WordScorePoS
commission0NN
establish0VB
region0NN
research0NN
form0NN
financial0JJ
stability0NN
source0NN
education0.244244978014045NN
voice0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.311572395479075
WordScorePoS
commission0NN
establish0VB
region0NN
research0NN
form0.158049144643351NN
financial0.016515769558553JJ
stability0NN
source0NN
education0.0201317944152378NN
voice0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.339799995854063
WordScorePoS
commission0NN
establish0VB
region0.0465610847355851NN
research0NN
form0.100540298425703NN
financial0.0140083044329373JJ
stability0NN
source0NN
education0.0512260062633133NN
voice0NN

It will remain important to design these mechanisms with care to avoid the creation of veto powers to reform which can lead to counter reform capture

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.543482861728938
WordScorePoS
remain0.049270765107907VB
mechanism0NN
care0NN
avoid0VB
creation0.160952962344818NN
power0NN
reform0NN
lead0.0504071033101074NN
capture0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.385372142424596
WordScorePoS
remain0VB
mechanism0.147846224719512NN
care0NN
avoid0VB
creation0NN
power0.036961556179878NN
reform0NN
lead0NN
capture0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.574415475790307
WordScorePoS
remain0VB
mechanism0NN
care0.0931221694711702NN
avoid0VB
creation0NN
power0NN
reform0.0911713013253052NN
lead0NN
capture0NN

It is possible to promote reforms that build more reliable and inclusive financial systems in context of unequal influence

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.366278747023695
WordScorePoS
promote0.00838876601975825VB
reform0NN
build0VB
reliable0.149891440995783JJ
inclusive0JJ
financial0JJ
system0NN
context0NN
influence0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.407635893587901
WordScorePoS
promote0.0100599344419752VB
reform0NN
build0.0499801157438617VB
reliable0.0299586785922821JJ
inclusive0.0130185595639838JJ
financial0.0150369494376999JJ
system0.0211360962287062NN
context0.036961556179878NN
influence0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.398223597979444
WordScorePoS
promote0.0082416730319267VB
reform0NN
build0.0614198493690006VB
reliable0JJ
inclusive0.0319966432858631JJ
financial0.0184786920895884JJ
system0.0519476926891779NN
context0NN
influence0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.37777471202718
WordScorePoS
promote0.00825124851366066VB
reform0NN
build0.030745604615229VB
reliable0.0737171311497939JJ
inclusive0.0320338181740375JJ
financial0.0185001613201543JJ
system0NN
context0NN
influence0NN

Formal regulatory structures can complement societal accountability

Label: 17, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
structure0.048933054487825NN
complement0.0978661089756501NN
accountability0.048933054487825NN

The development of the stock markets in Poland and the Czech Republic show what regulation and disclosure can do

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.535456432176997
WordScorePoS
development0.0177346522508396NN
stock0NN
market0.0202620733250388NN
regulation0.0977392570420122NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.451910897780313
WordScorePoS
development0.0469463607292177NN
stock0NN
market0.030649619577211NN
regulation0.036961556179878NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.423475342254335
WordScorePoS
development0.0159922815774215NN
stock0NN
market0.0913569596328122NN
regulation0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.316678280796712
WordScorePoS
development0.022306853314744NN
stock0.0409791940864438NN
market0.0169905820958638NN
regulation0NN

At the transition from communism in these two countries were quite similar in economic structure and history

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.557193243791884
WordScorePoS
country0NN
economic0.128463821595706JJ
structure0NN
history0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.447948389038399
WordScorePoS
country0NN
economic0.103276847978089JJ
structure0NN
history0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.416342435748409
WordScorePoS
country0NN
economic0.0959899298575892JJ
structure0NN
history0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.315620367504281
WordScorePoS
country0NN
economic0.0727679293221751JJ
structure0NN
history0NN

But the design of financial reforms was very different driven primarily by differences in philosophy toward markets

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.519364914025712
WordScorePoS
financial0.0140083044329373JJ
reform0.0911713013253052NN
drive0NN
primarily0RB
market0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.495373924998724
WordScorePoS
financial0.00896409157262106JJ
reform0NN
drive0NN
primarily0RB
market0.0913569596328122NN

Markets and the macroeconomy The Czech Republic went for radical voucher based privatization of state owned assets convinced of the power of the market to organize itself with property rights transferred to the private sector it was expected that private actors would efficiently contract with one another

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.516894691982099
WordScorePoS
market0.030649619577211NN
base0.017987180284335NN
asset0NN
power0.036961556179878NN
organize0VB
property0NN
rights0NNS
transfer0.036961556179878NN
private0.0898760357768464JJ
sector0.0459744293658165NN
expect0VB
actor0NN
contract0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.413752523271371
WordScorePoS
market0NN
base0NN
asset0NN
power0NN
organize0VB
property0.0558185411034276NN
rights0.078760887431929NNS
transfer0NN
private0.0558185411034276JJ
sector0.0571058915334038NN
expect0VB
actor0NN
contract0NN

Poland pursued more gradual approach based on case by case privatization and measured institutional development effort to build regulatory and supervisory capacity

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.501576489971975
WordScorePoS
pursue0VB
approach0NN
base0.0442083771593746NN
measure0.103895385378356NN
institutional0JJ
development0.0164833460638534NN
effort0NN
build0.0614198493690006VB
capacity0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.437170510424002
WordScorePoS
pursue0VB
approach0NN
base0.017987180284335NN
measure0NN
institutional0.036961556179878JJ
development0.0469463607292177NN
effort0NN
build0.0499801157438617VB
capacity0.0451108483130998NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.435653500869251
WordScorePoS
pursue0VB
approach0NN
base0NN
measure0.0710409787438328NN
institutional0.0828215106044499JJ
development0NN
effort0.0171695137813101NN
build0VB
capacity0.025270503924109NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.337408839744
WordScorePoS
pursue0.0517339898971162VB
approach0NN
base0.0190167691930804NN
measure0.0223459295604043NN
institutional0JJ
development0.0106357666046841NN
effort0.032404008418326NN
build0VB
capacity0.0158976666884135NN

Company and securities laws in the two countries reflected these differences in approach with much greater requirements in Poland than in the Czech Republic for disclosure to the public more protection of minority shareholders and more power for the independent regulator

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.449223307913857
WordScorePoS
company0NN
security0NN
law0.164686343640793NN
country0NN
reflect0VB
approach0NN
public0.0285977592242194NN
protection0NN
power0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.540605327098696
WordScorePoS
company0.108503934593034NN
security0NN
law0NN
country0NN
reflect0.0409791940864438VB
approach0.0542519672965169NN
public0.028867295332595NN
protection0NN
power0NN

The results were quite different

Label: 6, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
result0.0683326727248364NN

The stock market in the Czech Republic started bigger but was quickly dominated by corporate insiders who captured percent of the values of companies over and above their legitimate shareholding compared with an insignificant percent in the United States

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

There was widespread tunneling form of asset stripping by insiders through transfers to other institutions they controlled

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.860096000945679
WordScorePoS
form0.158049144643351NN
asset0.0811931365363091NN
transfer0NN
institution0.274477239401321NN
control0NN

The Polish stock market by contrast started more slowly but then overtook the Czech market figure

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Public scandals led to the regulator effectively pursuing violations using the greater legal protections and laying the basis for more broad based property rights greater confidence and openness

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.603933007623886
WordScorePoS
public0NN
lead0NN
effectively0RB
pursue0VB
legal0JJ
protection0.122839698738001NN
basis0NN
base0.0442083771593746NN
property0.0736315832425121NN
rights0.0519476926891779NNS

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.524023774393897
WordScorePoS
public0.0727679293221751NN
lead0NN
effectively0RB
pursue0VB
legal0JJ
protection0.0465610847355851NN
basis0NN
base0NN
property0.0558185411034276NN
rights0.078760887431929NNS

By the late there were already several initial public offerings in the market

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.516093276241902
WordScorePoS
public0NN
market0.0913569596328122NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.41108021983398
WordScorePoS
public0.0727679293221751NN
market0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.393778819914123
WordScorePoS
public0.0390556786919513NN
market0.030649619577211NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.329772872592738
WordScorePoS
public0.0583751976558017NN
market0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.303506098887049
WordScorePoS
public0.0160169090870187NN
market0.0377086395700813NN

Segmentation provides another example of the need for appropriate accountability mechanisms

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.978566284325863
WordScorePoS
accountability0.048933054487825NN
mechanism0.147846224719512NN

Financial sector regulation in many countries including developed ones enforced segmentation for long periods both on geographic basis and by type of financial services as among commercial banking investment banking and insurance

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.614196151408878
WordScorePoS
financial0.0370951943725875JJ
sector0.0252035516550537NN
regulation0NN
country0NN
include0VB
develop0VB
enforce0VB
period0NN
geographic0JJ
basis0NN
type0NN
service0.0197870712294258NN
commercial0JJ
banking0.0804764811724088NN
investment0.0252035516550537NN
insurance0.0804764811724088NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.457685352065585
WordScorePoS
financial0.0150369494376999JJ
sector0.0459744293658165NN
regulation0.036961556179878NN
country0NN
include0VB
develop0VB
enforce0VB
period0NN
geographic0.048933054487825JJ
basis0.048933054487825NN
type0NN
service0NN
commercial0JJ
banking0NN
investment0.0766240489430275NN
insurance0NN

The Italian experience with dispersed local banking suggests that mutual and cooperative banks performed an important function in supporting local activities which was much better than state owned banks or banks dominated by politicians

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

But regu latory capacity has been eroded by technological change

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.908540645292478
WordScorePoS
capacity0.025270503924109NN
technological0.0473606524958885JJ
change0.402565546215053NN

Given that segmentation often resulted in capture by local elites the erosion of barriers has likely improved access as often as not

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.576714785217457
WordScorePoS
result0.0683326727248364NN
capture0NN
local0.0181797964452808JJ
erosion0NN
barrier0NN
improve0.0511916925627245VB
access0.00731085509381114NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.47883639435303
WordScorePoS
result0NN
capture0NN
local0.0214106369326177JJ
erosion0.0804764811724088NN
barrier0NN
improve0.0150723186962745VB
access0.00344404437204141NN

Yet there is room for smaller locally managed intermediaries to promote access

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.582505678919916
WordScorePoS
manage0.0660824365173543VB
promote0.00886732612541978VB
access0.00138439773401932NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.492838319706106
WordScorePoS
manage0.0528409850971592VB
promote0.0106357666046841VB
access0.00110699520004297NN

Such locally focused intermediaries need explicit disclosure and accountability requirements to local users as opposed to local politicians which has been the tradition in cooperative or mutual banks to limit the undue political influence of the few

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Opening the financial sector to competition from foreign financial institutions can also spur financial broadening

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.753627163409147
WordScorePoS
financial0.016515769558553JJ
sector0NN
foreign0JJ
institution0.274477239401321NN
broaden0.107490825192354VB

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.414715781688437
WordScorePoS
financial0.0298222075472138JJ
sector0NN
foreign0.0488696285210061JJ
institution0.0991236547760315NN
broaden0VB

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.310152175859369
WordScorePoS
financial0.0370951943725875JJ
sector0.0252035516550537NN
foreign0JJ
institution0.0410992516792148NN
broaden0VB

Foreign bank entry can help by improving efficiency and stability reducing protected profits and forcing local financial institutions to focus more on providing financial services to all

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.461844275431389
WordScorePoS
foreign0JJ
bank0NN
improve0VB
efficiency0NN
stability0NN
reduce0.0220985725470694VB
protect0.0241291244414115VB
force0NN
local0JJ
financial0.016515769558553JJ
institution0.274477239401321NN
focus0NN
provide0.013214597504793VB
service0NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.26613650859959
WordScorePoS
foreign0JJ
bank0NN
improve0.0229264916384433VB
efficiency0.134992154141495NN
stability0NN
reduce0.00838876601975825VB
protect0VB
force0NN
local0JJ
financial0JJ
institution0NN
focus0NN
provide0VB
service0.0451471467893167NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.386289609721274
WordScorePoS
foreign0JJ
bank0NN
improve0.0150723186962745VB
efficiency0.0295821503613099NN
stability0NN
reduce0.0055149369084567VB
protect0.0180650490434051VB
force0.0410992516792148NN
local0.0214106369326177JJ
financial0.0370951943725875JJ
institution0.0410992516792148NN
focus0.0410992516792148NN
provide0VB
service0.0197870712294258NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.336403087391023
WordScorePoS
foreign0JJ
bank0NN
improve0.0273960270556257VB
efficiency0.0537696560159885NN
stability0NN
reduce0.0200483235258943VB
protect0.0328357290160445VB
force0NN
local0.0194583992186006JJ
financial0.0112376090361851JJ
institution0NN
focus0.0373517915079663NN
provide0.0269743071558856VB
service0.0269743071558856NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.325655357103638
WordScorePoS
foreign0.0488696285210061JJ
bank0NN
improve0.0121171980355011VB
efficiency0NN
stability0NN
reduce0.0310356414389692VB
protect0VB
force0NN
local0JJ
financial0.0298222075472138JJ
institution0.0991236547760315NN
focus0NN
provide0VB
service0.00795378154685591NN

Financing obstacles are perceived to be much lower by borrowers in countries with high levels of foreign bank penetration with evidence that even small enterprises benefit

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.58212545882115
WordScorePoS
financing0NN
country0NN
level0NN
foreign0.0488696285210061JJ
bank0NN
evidence0.12939607756667NN
enterprise0NN
benefit0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.407482642979556
WordScorePoS
financing0.036961556179878NN
country0NN
level0.0138997399903163NN
foreign0.036961556179878JJ
bank0.036961556179878NN
evidence0NN
enterprise0NN
benefit0NN

But note that allowing the entry of foreign banks is not synonymous with capital account liberalization

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Rapidly opening the capital account before adequate domestic regulatory and supervisory structures are in place can be dangerous especially in world of large and often herdlike international capital flows coupled with politically connected lending of poor quality

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.47487226969175
WordScorePoS
rapidly0RB
account0NN
adequate0.0519476926891779JJ
domestic0JJ
structure0NN
world0.00257343720272548NN
international0.00531301439641424JJ
flow0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
quality0NN

This increased the vulnerability of Indonesia the Republic of Korea and Thailand in the East Asian crisis

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.947215568522563
WordScorePoS
increase0NN
vulnerability0.120266261535276NN

Finally there is the potential for external commitment

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.860092890315205
WordScorePoS
potential0NN
external0.048933054487825JJ
commitment0.0739231123597559NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.318357012505164
WordScorePoS
potential0.0454743001434393NN
external0JJ
commitment0NN

The relative success of Central European countries in strengthening accountability has been attributed to the constraint on abuse induced by the need to prepare for accession to the European Union

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

In Slovakia after decade of influence peddling and slow reform in the financial sector the pendulum swung toward reform only as the date of possible EU accession approached

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.707086658097131
WordScorePoS
decade0NN
influence0NN
slow0JJ
reform0.0911713013253052NN
financial0.0140083044329373JJ
sector0.0571058915334038NN
approach0NN

Achieving equity and efficiency in labor markets For most of the world people economic opportunities are primarily determined or Figure

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.441278419741424
WordScorePoS
achieve0.0152398983378455VB
efficiency0.0295821503613099NN
market0.0252035516550537NN
world0.00172202218602071NN
people0.0106656521351091NNS
economic0.128463821595706JJ
opportunity0.0361300980868102NN
primarily0RB
determine0VB
figure0NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.363346749942103
WordScorePoS
achieve0VB
efficiency0.134992154141495NN
market0NN
world0.00261936653839306NN
people0.0108156764915259NNS
economic0JJ
opportunity0.0549574626423028NN
primarily0RB
determine0VB
figure0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.393590311499423
WordScorePoS
achieve0.0114006914853063VB
efficiency0.0442597400933733NN
market0.0377086395700813NN
world0.00257642711761688NN
people0.0186171553883251NNS
economic0.0320338181740375JJ
opportunity0.0135141354781442NN
primarily0RB
determine0VB
figure0.0602029956716497NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.320584388374862
WordScorePoS
achieve0.018377882320743VB
efficiency0NN
market0.0202620733250388NN
world0.00276879546803864NN
people0.00571634317201755NNS
economic0.103276847978089JJ
opportunity0.029046330719385NN
primarily0RB
determine0VB
figure0NN

Poland stock market started slowly but then surpassed the Czech Republic US millions end of year Czech Rep

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Poland Source Glaeser Johnson and Shleifer

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.73415387760794
WordScorePoS
source0.0613562156822703NN

WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT at least mediated by the labor market in formal and informal work

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.577553322798099
WordScorePoS
world0.0124838525528648NN
development0.0159922815774215NN
report0NN
market0.0913569596328122NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.409285116214971
WordScorePoS
world0.00464349782489754NN
development0.022306853314744NN
report0.0409791940864438NN
market0.0169905820958638NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.394171172660551
WordScorePoS
world0.00418824502414673NN
development0.0469463607292177NN
report0NN
market0.030649619577211NN

The wages and employment conditions in the labor market affect the quality of life of workers and their families sometimes in ways that may seem harsh or unfair

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.783741785963489
WordScorePoS
employment0.173804667214358NN
condition0.121575732851624NN
market0.0252035516550537NN
affect0VB
quality0.030144637392549NN
life0.0123650647908625NN
worker0.121575732851624NN
family0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.35413681337397
WordScorePoS
employment0.104016094894625NN
condition0NN
market0.0377086395700813NN
affect0.00925008066007716VB
quality0.022550656390892NN
life0NN
worker0.0454743001434393NN
family0NN

The functioning of the labor market has profound effect on equity across workers in patterns of access to work and between workers and employers

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.602292011469244
WordScorePoS
function0.0440683498519077NN
market0.0913569596328122NN
profound0.0583416713841148JJ
effect0.0440683498519077NN
worker0NN
pattern0NN
access0.00749031153171887NN
employer0.0440683498519077NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.565673124084699
WordScorePoS
function0NN
market0.0252035516550537NN
profound0JJ
effect0NN
worker0.121575732851624NN
pattern0NN
access0.00344404437204141NN
employer0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.48385818077209
WordScorePoS
function0NN
market0.0377086395700813NN
profound0JJ
effect0.0454743001434393NN
worker0.0454743001434393NN
pattern0NN
access0.0128821355880844NN
employer0.0454743001434393NN

Government intervention to achieve greater equity is frequent in labor markets but often with costs in terms of efficiency exemplifying the second pathology

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.566640239156985
WordScorePoS
government0.048933054487825NN
intervention0NN
achieve0.00463324666343875VB
market0.030649619577211NN
cost0NN
term0.149793392961411NN
efficiency0NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.508352619038995
WordScorePoS
government0NN
intervention0NN
achieve0VB
market0NN
cost0NN
term0.0749457204978913NN
efficiency0.134992154141495NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.349494133723878
WordScorePoS
government0NN
intervention0NN
achieve0.018377882320743VB
market0.0202620733250388NN
cost0.0660824365173543NN
term0.0396106020715138NN
efficiency0NN

While this is an area in which genuine tradeoffs exist between protection of weaker workers which is good for equity and flexibility which is good for growth elite capture and gross inefficiencies can be addressed through better design and broader accountability

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.710925408247177
WordScorePoS
exist0VB
protection0NN
worker0.121575732851624NN
flexibility0NN
growth0.208565600657229NN
capture0NN
gross0.0410992516792148JJ
address0NN
accountability0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.464507765652685
WordScorePoS
exist0VB
protection0.0660824365173543NN
worker0NN
flexibility0NN
growth0.11178243319132NN
capture0NN
gross0JJ
address0.064698038783335NN
accountability0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.334717707504628
WordScorePoS
exist0VB
protection0.122839698738001NN
worker0NN
flexibility0NN
growth0.0519476926891779NN
capture0NN
gross0JJ
address0NN
accountability0NN

Equity and efficiency reasons to intervene in the labor market Labor markets are different from other markets

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.332342263599344
WordScorePoS
efficiency0.134992154141495NN
market0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.674745409161297
WordScorePoS
efficiency0NN
market0.0913569596328122NN

Unlike the markets for many commodities labor markets generally are not competitive

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.803901463676918
WordScorePoS
market0.0913569596328122NN
commodity0.0440683498519077NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.428538429880224
WordScorePoS
market0.0377086395700813NN
commodity0.0454743001434393NN

They may be characterized by uneven market power between employers and workers by imperfect mobility of workers by insufficient information or by discrimination

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.742904606092552
WordScorePoS
uneven0.0804764811724088JJ
market0.0252035516550537NN
power0NN
employer0NN
worker0.121575732851624NN
mobility0NN
insufficient0.0804764811724088JJ
information0NN
discrimination0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.49695036599501
WordScorePoS
uneven0JJ
market0.0377086395700813NN
power0.0454743001434393NN
employer0.0454743001434393NN
worker0.0454743001434393NN
mobility0NN
insufficient0JJ
information0.0675706773907211NN
discrimination0NN

These imperfections generate rents in the employment relationship which both sides can try to capture

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.755623122280293
WordScorePoS
generate0VB
employment0.173804667214358NN
capture0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.452214360243527
WordScorePoS
generate0VB
employment0.104016094894625NN
capture0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.301147269035969
WordScorePoS
generate0.0440683498519077VB
employment0.0252000451111224NN
capture0NN

This can lead to unfair and inefficient outcomes when the bargaining position of the workers is weak

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.741159741353981
WordScorePoS
lead0.0504071033101074NN
inefficient0JJ
outcome0NN
worker0.121575732851624NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.409722209755751
WordScorePoS
lead0.0188543197850406NN
inefficient0JJ
outcome0.030745604615229NN
worker0.0454743001434393NN

For example employers may underpay workers who are not mobile force workers to work in hazardous conditions or discriminate against vulnerable groups

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.861683156428205
WordScorePoS
employer0NN
worker0.121575732851624NN
force0.0410992516792148NN
hazardous0JJ
condition0.121575732851624NN
vulnerable0JJ

Private markets left to themselves also do poor job of protecting workers against the risk of unemployment

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.642850242513952
WordScorePoS
private0JJ
market0.0252035516550537NN
poor0JJ
job0.135650868266471NN
protect0.0180650490434051VB
worker0.121575732851624NN
risk0NN
unemployment0.0804764811724088NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.379886410660547
WordScorePoS
private0JJ
market0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
job0.0225244866060403NN
protect0VB
worker0NN
risk0.0519476926891779NN
unemployment0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.354765187388612
WordScorePoS
private0.0368585655748969JJ
market0.0377086395700813NN
poor0JJ
job0.0902026255635679NN
protect0VB
worker0.0454743001434393NN
risk0NN
unemployment0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.329707495872481
WordScorePoS
private0JJ
market0.0913569596328122NN
poor0.0548141757796873JJ
job0.0109267235789154NN
protect0.0130963126055467VB
worker0NN
risk0.0252000451111224NN
unemployment0NN

In the absence of perfect access to financial markets or complete insurance markets workers may not be able to smooth consumption in response to labor income shocks

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.568068594249482
WordScorePoS
access0.00344404437204141NN
financial0.0370951943725875JJ
market0.0252035516550537NN
complete0JJ
insurance0.0804764811724088NN
worker0.121575732851624NN
consumption0.147812295323721NN
response0NN
income0NN
shock0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.474823172898608
WordScorePoS
access0.00232174891244877NN
financial0JJ
market0.0169905820958638NN
complete0JJ
insurance0NN
worker0NN
consumption0.332151194779746NN
response0NN
income0NN
shock0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.306973843470633
WordScorePoS
access0.00138439773401932NN
financial0.0298222075472138JJ
market0.0202620733250388NN
complete0JJ
insurance0NN
worker0NN
consumption0NN
response0NN
income0.166475342664294NN
shock0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.339576723324304
WordScorePoS
access0.00749031153171887NN
financial0.00896409157262106JJ
market0.0913569596328122NN
complete0JJ
insurance0NN
worker0NN
consumption0NN
response0NN
income0.0643370113878709NN
shock0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.338826567349108
WordScorePoS
access0.0128821355880844NN
financial0.0185001613201543JJ
market0.0377086395700813NN
complete0JJ
insurance0NN
worker0.0454743001434393NN
consumption0NN
response0NN
income0.110649350233433NN
shock0NN

If they cannot gain access to financial markets they may also be prevented from moving from bad jobs to good

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.501234762327606
WordScorePoS
gain0NN
access0.00344404437204141NN
financial0.0370951943725875JJ
market0.0252035516550537NN
prevent0VB
move0NN
bad0JJ
job0.135650868266471NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.396454740626856
WordScorePoS
gain0NN
access0.0128821355880844NN
financial0.0185001613201543JJ
market0.0377086395700813NN
prevent0VB
move0NN
bad0JJ
job0.0902026255635679NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.369673806540516
WordScorePoS
gain0NN
access0.00749031153171887NN
financial0.00896409157262106JJ
market0.0913569596328122NN
prevent0.0297950283197006VB
move0NN
bad0JJ
job0.0109267235789154NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.365965915294856
WordScorePoS
gain0.0664302389559493NN
access0.00232174891244877NN
financial0JJ
market0.0169905820958638NN
prevent0VB
move0.0409791940864438NN
bad0JJ
job0.0203215381458133NN

All governments irrespective of income intervene heavily in the labor market

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.600647469099992
WordScorePoS
government0NN
irrespective0RB
income0.166475342664294NN
heavily0RB
market0.0202620733250388NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.500795136059091
WordScorePoS
government0NN
irrespective0RB
income0.0643370113878709NN
heavily0RB
market0.0913569596328122NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.477198694349149
WordScorePoS
government0NN
irrespective0RB
income0.110649350233433NN
heavily0RB
market0.0377086395700813NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.31383686962206
WordScorePoS
government0.048933054487825NN
irrespective0RB
income0.017987180284335NN
heavily0RB
market0.030649619577211NN

Governments typically intervene to correct these failures to protect workers and endow them with rights and voice in the employment relationship to empower unions to represent workers in negotiations with employers to ensure compliance with labor laws and regulations and to provide insurance against income shocks

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.561223264182846
WordScorePoS
government0NN
typically0RB
correct0JJ
protect0.0180650490434051VB
worker0.121575732851624NN
rights0.0347609334428716NNS
voice0NN
employment0.173804667214358NN
empower0VB
represent0VB
negotiation0NN
employer0NN
ensure0VB
law0NN
regulation0NN
provide0VB
insurance0.0804764811724088NN
income0NN
shock0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.418610208917345
WordScorePoS
government0NN
typically0RB
correct0JJ
protect0VB
worker0NN
rights0NNS
voice0.064698038783335NN
employment0NN
empower0.0396106020715138VB
represent0VB
negotiation0NN
employer0NN
ensure0.00886732612541978VB
law0.0330412182586772NN
regulation0.0977392570420122NN
provide0VB
insurance0NN
income0.166475342664294NN
shock0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.228594712873363
WordScorePoS
government0NN
typically0RB
correct0JJ
protect0.0241291244414115VB
worker0NN
rights0NNS
voice0NN
employment0NN
empower0VB
represent0VB
negotiation0NN
employer0NN
ensure0.0220985725470694VB
law0.164686343640793NN
regulation0NN
provide0.013214597504793VB
insurance0NN
income0NN
shock0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.407433778999655
WordScorePoS
government0NN
typically0RB
correct0JJ
protect0VB
worker0.0454743001434393NN
rights0NNS
voice0NN
employment0.104016094894625NN
empower0.0368585655748969VB
represent0VB
negotiation0NN
employer0.0454743001434393NN
ensure0.00412562425683033VB
law0NN
regulation0NN
provide0.00740117451847634VB
insurance0NN
income0.110649350233433NN
shock0NN

Public intervention can improve market outcomes and lead to significant equity gains more equal opportunities for workers better working conditions and less discrimination

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.565056955784952
WordScorePoS
public0NN
intervention0NN
improve0.0150723186962745VB
market0.0252035516550537NN
outcome0NN
lead0.0504071033101074NN
significant0JJ
gain0NN
equal0.0504071033101074JJ
opportunity0.0361300980868102NN
worker0.121575732851624NN
condition0.121575732851624NN
discrimination0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.491492464067483
WordScorePoS
public0.0727679293221751NN
intervention0NN
improve0VB
market0NN
outcome0.0465610847355851NN
lead0NN
significant0JJ
gain0NN
equal0.114211783066808JJ
opportunity0.02046578088155NN
worker0NN
condition0NN
discrimination0.111637082206855NN

It can also lead to large gains in efficiency for example by allowing full use of the labor of discriminated groups by increasing labor mobility or by better managing income risk

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.526701269885834
WordScorePoS
lead0NN
gain0NN
efficiency0NN
full0JJ
increase0.00285817158600878NN
mobility0.064698038783335NN
manage0.0660824365173543VB
income0.166475342664294NN
risk0NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.41163647480762
WordScorePoS
lead0.0383371018038178NN
gain0NN
efficiency0.134992154141495NN
full0JJ
increase0.0162235147372888NN
mobility0NN
manage0VB
income0.0449973847138318NN
risk0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.386919736656075
WordScorePoS
lead0.0188543197850406NN
gain0NN
efficiency0.0442597400933733NN
full0.030745604615229JJ
increase0.0159575617614215NN
mobility0NN
manage0VB
income0.110649350233433NN
risk0NN

The problem is that poorly designed or inappropriate government intervention can also make things worse with results that are bad for equity and efficiency

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.531426354126804
WordScorePoS
poorly0RB
government0NN
intervention0NN
result0NN
bad0JJ
efficiency0.134992154141495NN

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.735780194589733
WordScorePoS
poorly0RB
government0NN
intervention0NN
result0.0683326727248364NN
bad0.0683326727248364JJ
efficiency0.0502364757923669NN

For example excessive protection of formal sector insiders can lead to rationing jobs in the formal sector pushing surplus labor into either informal employment as in India or unemployment as in South Africa

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.720846820166402
WordScorePoS
excessive0JJ
protection0NN
sector0.0252035516550537NN
lead0.0504071033101074NN
job0.135650868266471NN
employment0.173804667214358NN
unemployment0.0804764811724088NN
south0RB
africa0IN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.479146799612111
WordScorePoS
excessive0JJ
protection0NN
sector0.0565629593551219NN
lead0.0188543197850406NN
job0.0902026255635679NN
employment0.104016094894625NN
unemployment0NN
south0RB
africa0IN

The problem is particularly acute in developing countries because labor market regulations and standards typically apply only to formal sector workers leaving the majority of the workforce uncovered

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.537672538391922
WordScorePoS
develop0VB
country0NN
market0.0377086395700813NN
regulation0NN
standard0.0454743001434393NN
typically0RB
sector0.0565629593551219NN
worker0.0454743001434393NN
leave0NN
majority0NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.459660464616034
WordScorePoS
develop0VB
country0NN
market0.0202620733250388NN
regulation0.0977392570420122NN
standard0NN
typically0RB
sector0NN
worker0NN
leave0NN
majority0.0792212041430275NN
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.400835079888119
WordScorePoS
develop0VB
country0NN
market0.0252035516550537NN
regulation0NN
standard0NN
typically0RB
sector0.0252035516550537NN
worker0.121575732851624NN
leave0NN
majority0NN
workforce0NN

Protecting workers through legislation and regulation that is enforced only in the formal sector without other measures to improve working conditions in informal employment can reinforce the segmentation between formal and informal employment in ways that are inherently unfair

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.767923463520308
WordScorePoS
protect0.0180650490434051VB
worker0.121575732851624NN
legislation0NN
regulation0NN
enforce0VB
sector0.0252035516550537NN
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improve0.0150723186962745VB
condition0.121575732851624NN
employment0.173804667214358NN
reinforce0VB

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.348183373364486
WordScorePoS
protect0VB
worker0.0454743001434393NN
legislation0NN
regulation0NN
enforce0VB
sector0.0565629593551219NN
measure0NN
improve0VB
condition0NN
employment0.104016094894625NN
reinforce0VB

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.31287157601112
WordScorePoS
protect0.0241291244414115VB
worker0NN
legislation0.0658099748168827NN
regulation0NN
enforce0.107490825192354VB
sector0NN
measure0NN
improve0VB
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employment0NN
reinforce0.0811931365363091VB

In Colombia workers are legally entitled to severance payments for dismissals deemed unjust but these entitlements are not enforced in the informal sector which employs more than half the workforce

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.685058428731799
WordScorePoS
worker0.0454743001434393NN
enforce0VB
sector0.0565629593551219NN
employ0.0454743001434393VB
workforce0.0454743001434393NN

Not only do Colombian informal sector workers not benefit from the legislation but arguably they are harmed by it because the resulting higher cost of labor in the formal sector limits formal employment opportunities for outsiders mainly women and youth

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.60490044186798
WordScorePoS
sector0.0252035516550537NN
worker0.121575732851624NN
benefit0NN
legislation0NN
harm0.0607878664258118NN
result0NN
cost0NN
limit0NN
employment0.173804667214358NN
opportunity0.0361300980868102NN
woman0.0452169560888236NN
youth0.0821985033584295NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.521203612634355
WordScorePoS
sector0.0571058915334038NN
worker0NN
benefit0.0393804437159645NN
legislation0.0558185411034276NN
harm0NN
result0NN
cost0NN
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employment0.0393804437159645NN
opportunity0.02046578088155NN
woman0.221979360474357NN
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.359672885105493
WordScorePoS
sector0.0565629593551219NN
worker0.0454743001434393NN
benefit0.0260040237236563NN
legislation0NN
harm0NN
result0NN
cost0NN
limit0.0368585655748969NN
employment0.104016094894625NN
opportunity0.0135141354781442NN
woman0NN
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In reality the distinction between formal and informal employment is often blurred

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.824351029662739
WordScorePoS
employment0.173804667214358NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.493345640840179
WordScorePoS
employment0.104016094894625NN

Some authors argue that the informal economy functions partly as an unregulated entrepreneurial sector often voluntarily Markets and the macroeconomy entered even at the expense of lower income

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.37222508963343
WordScorePoS
economy0NN
function0NN
unregulated0JJ
sector0NN
market0.0202620733250388NN
enter0VB
income0.166475342664294NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.481940917230845
WordScorePoS
economy0NN
function0NN
unregulated0JJ
sector0.0565629593551219NN
market0.0377086395700813NN
enter0.0368585655748969VB
income0.110649350233433NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.434608232419852
WordScorePoS
economy0NN
function0.0440683498519077NN
unregulated0JJ
sector0.0182713919265625NN
market0.0913569596328122NN
enter0VB
income0.0643370113878709NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.321981876782938
WordScorePoS
economy0NN
function0.036961556179878NN
unregulated0JJ
sector0.0459744293658165NN
market0.030649619577211NN
enter0.0299586785922821VB
income0.017987180284335NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.317903676050508
WordScorePoS
economy0.0465610847355851NN
function0NN
unregulated0JJ
sector0.0571058915334038NN
market0NN
enter0.0558185411034276VB
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It is clear that the informal sector is heterogeneous and includes both those who choose to work there and those who work there out of necessity

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Those in the top strata microentrepreneurs who hire others and many of the self employed do relatively well in average earnings

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.722139144318713
WordScorePoS
employ0VB
average0.1656430212089NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.639157716378997
WordScorePoS
employ0VB
average0.146608885563018NN

Those at the bottom intermittent casual laborers and industrial outworkers do not

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.972096108514496
WordScorePoS
bottom0NN
industrial0.318320101004075JJ

Women tend to be underrepresented in the top strata and overrepresented in the bottom

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.836340652287937
WordScorePoS
woman0.221979360474357NN
bottom0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.335066334170392
WordScorePoS
woman0.0242343960710022NN
bottom0.064698038783335NN

They also often earn less than men within each strata although some of these differences may reflect voluntary choices for more flexible part time work

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.691159752098911
WordScorePoS
reflect0.0409791940864438VB
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In recent study the International Labour Office ILO argued that the formal and informal sectors are part of continuum of working conditions earnings and rights

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.966802072797736
WordScorePoS
study0NN
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labour0.563335368206862NN
sector0.0252035516550537NN
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significant share of formal sector employees had some of the poor working conditions associated with informality while fraction of informal sector workers enjoyed conditions more typically associated with formal sector jobs

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.711446910581146
WordScorePoS
significant0JJ
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poor0JJ
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.249517155250001
WordScorePoS
significant0.0376648791150643JJ
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poor0.150659516460257JJ
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.405991998895946
WordScorePoS
significant0JJ
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poor0JJ
condition0NN
worker0.0454743001434393NN
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The challenge for governments is to shift more jobs along this continuum toward better working conditions and higher wages and to do so in ways that do not come at the expense of efficiency

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.702206172798243
WordScorePoS
challenge0.0347609334428716NN
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Label: 7, with a score of: 0.460306070530599
WordScorePoS
challenge0.0528748274225028NN
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efficiency0.134992154141495NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.354284809409498
WordScorePoS
challenge0.0947742174515357NN
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Indeed poorly designed or inappropriate government intervention can also be inefficient and bad for long term growth

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.590359593254813
WordScorePoS
poorly0RB
government0NN
intervention0NN
inefficient0JJ
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term0NN
growth0.208565600657229NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.56250917848105
WordScorePoS
poorly0RB
government0.048933054487825NN
intervention0NN
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term0.149793392961411NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.428528628104235
WordScorePoS
poorly0RB
government0NN
intervention0NN
inefficient0JJ
bad0JJ
term0.0396106020715138NN
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Recent research on India for example suggests that starting from common legal framework the Industries Disputes Act of the states that amended the legislation in the direction of reinforcing security rights of workers and other prolabor measures had lower output and productivity growth in formal manufacturing than those that did not change it or that made labor regulations more flexible

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.618882914557165
WordScorePoS
research0.104016094894625NN
suggest0.0602029956716497VB
common0JJ
legal0JJ
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industry0.181897200573757NN
legislation0NN
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worker0.0454743001434393NN
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growth0.0260040237236563NN
manufacture0.240811982686599NN
change0NN
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Label: 13, with a score of: 0.414525196648792
WordScorePoS
research0NN
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framework0.0291713033871158NN
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productivity0NN
growth0NN
manufacture0NN
change0.402565546215053NN
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.398700236544814
WordScorePoS
research0NN
suggest0VB
common0JJ
legal0JJ
framework0.0428212738652355NN
industry0NN
legislation0NN
direction0NN
reinforce0VB
security0NN
rights0.0347609334428716NNS
worker0.121575732851624NN
measure0.0347609334428716NN
productivity0.0410992516792148NN
growth0.208565600657229NN
manufacture0NN
change0NN
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Relatively protective legislation may have reduced opportunities for workers especially the majority without formal sector job

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.646365619633415
WordScorePoS
legislation0NN
reduce0.0055149369084567VB
opportunity0.0361300980868102NN
worker0.121575732851624NN
majority0NN
sector0.0252035516550537NN
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.410374906805938
WordScorePoS
legislation0NN
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opportunity0.0135141354781442NN
worker0.0454743001434393NN
majority0NN
sector0.0565629593551219NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.356842237800666
WordScorePoS
legislation0.0396106020715138NN
reduce0.0310356414389692VB
opportunity0.029046330719385NN
worker0NN
majority0.0792212041430275NN
sector0NN
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.300102449815602
WordScorePoS
legislation0.0558185411034276NN
reduce0VB
opportunity0.02046578088155NN
worker0NN
majority0NN
sector0.0571058915334038NN
job0.0170753354211044NN

look at some African labor markets illustrates the impact of government policies figure

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.474166280931804
WordScorePoS
african0IN
market0.030649619577211NN
impact0NN
government0.048933054487825NN
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figure0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.413034491391302
WordScorePoS
african0IN
market0.0377086395700813NN
impact0.0160169090870187NN
government0NN
policy0.011275328195446NN
figure0.0602029956716497NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.408779357311686
WordScorePoS
african0IN
market0.0169905820958638NN
impact0.0866018859977851NN
government0NN
policy0.0203215381458133NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.346656052796764
WordScorePoS
african0IN
market0.0202620733250388NN
impact0NN
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policy0.0848203862485078NN
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.301377062835675
WordScorePoS
african0IN
market0.0913569596328122NN
impact0NN
government0NN
policy0NN
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Many countries including Ghana Uganda and Tanzania have large self employment sectors which absorb increases in the labor supply and help keep unemployment low

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.709613884797551
WordScorePoS
country0NN
include0VB
employment0.173804667214358NN
sector0.0252035516550537NN
absorb0VB
increase0.00711043475673939NN
supply0NN
unemployment0.0804764811724088NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.437107329071549
WordScorePoS
country0NN
include0VB
employment0.104016094894625NN
sector0.0565629593551219NN
absorb0VB
increase0.0159575617614215NN
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South Africa stands in sharp contrast with small informal sector absorbing only about percent of the total workforce in much lower than the share of nonagricultural employment in other African countries and high unemployment percent in

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.619359966106717
WordScorePoS
south0RB
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sector0.0252035516550537NN
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total0NN
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employment0.173804667214358NN
african0IN
country0NN
unemployment0.0804764811724088NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.548371230727802
WordScorePoS
south0RB
africa0IN
stand0VB
sector0.0565629593551219NN
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total0.0260040237236563NN
workforce0.0454743001434393NN
share0.0377086395700813NN
employment0.104016094894625NN
african0IN
country0NN
unemployment0NN

Part of the story lies in much larger wage differences between formal and informal sector work in South Africa than in the other cases

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

But it also appears to be caused by the unusually small size of the informal sector compared with Latin America for example

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.548314042093302
WordScorePoS
cause0NN
size0.0368585655748969NN
sector0.0565629593551219NN
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Some suggest that the legacy of apartheid that inhibited the development of traditions of small scale entrepreneurial activity and labor regulations that are enforced for firms of all sizes depending on the industry and region may explain the lack of entrepreneurs and small firms in South Africa

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.73945781657577
WordScorePoS
suggest0.0602029956716497VB
development0.0330049940546426NN
scale0.0368585655748969NN
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firm0.0602029956716497NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.388260687414278
WordScorePoS
suggest0VB
development0.0164833460638534NN
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In Ethiopia on the other hand the majority of the urban unemployed are well educated and from middle class households

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.755865132824643
WordScorePoS
majority0NN
urban0.27622591898666JJ
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class0NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.440922052209314
WordScorePoS
majority0.0792212041430275NN
urban0.0488696285210061JJ
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class0NN
household0.0330412182586772NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.338918951560828
WordScorePoS
majority0.0357189919948307NN
urban0JJ
educate0VB
middle0JJ
class0.0583416713841148NN
household0.0297950283197006NN

They also tend to be young have never held paid work and have median duration of unemployment of nearly four years

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.854701420364337
WordScorePoS
hold0.18234260265061NN
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.491007611951411
WordScorePoS
hold0NN
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Indeed about half of young unemployed males are searching for public sector jobs which pay on average percent premium over selfemployed work

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.487648974665423
WordScorePoS
public0NN
sector0.0252035516550537NN
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pay0.0695218668857431NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.405923410872801
WordScorePoS
public0.0172128079963482NN
sector0NN
job0NN
pay0.02794560829783NN
average0.146608885563018NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.350624843261667
WordScorePoS
public0NN
sector0NN
job0NN
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average0.1656430212089NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.477771705202779
WordScorePoS
public0.0727679293221751NN
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job0.0170753354211044NN
pay0.078760887431929NN
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.344569822682202
WordScorePoS
public0.0160169090870187NN
sector0.0565629593551219NN
job0.0902026255635679NN
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Addressing links with unequal power Government intervention in the labor market is often reflection of the underlying distribution of political agency

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.64403682064358
WordScorePoS
address0.064698038783335NN
power0NN
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market0.0202620733250388NN
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.362876350977039
WordScorePoS
address0NN
power0.0454743001434393NN
government0NN
intervention0NN
market0.0377086395700813NN
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Governments may and often do intervene in the labor market in pursuit of goals other than addressing market failure

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.688473449970002
WordScorePoS
government0NN
market0.0913569596328122NN
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They may intervene to buy off the support of certain groups for example urban formal sector workers or to suppress social dissent under an authoritarian regime or to serve the interests of those with greater political influence

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.585740573219652
WordScorePoS
support0.0224752180723703NN
urban0.27622591898666JJ
sector0NN
worker0NN
social0.0458109463416786JJ
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.390028670816344
WordScorePoS
support0NN
urban0.0488696285210061JJ
sector0NN
worker0NN
social0.101310366625194JJ
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political0.0792212041430275JJ
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.377303190137233
WordScorePoS
support0.024730129581725NN
urban0JJ
sector0.0252035516550537NN
worker0.121575732851624NN
social0.0504071033101074JJ
regime0NN
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.335443168916344
WordScorePoS
support0NN
urban0JJ
sector0.0571058915334038NN
worker0NN
social0.0285529457667019JJ
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political0.111637082206855JJ
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.315388365617952
WordScorePoS
support0.0277502419802315NN
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sector0.0565629593551219NN
worker0.0454743001434393NN
social0.0188543197850406JJ
regime0NN
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political0.0368585655748969JJ
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Oligarchic capitalist societies can be associated either with labor repression or with unionized and relatively advantaged formal sector workers who share in the rents

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.619806114048359
WordScorePoS
society0.0591643007226199NN
sector0.0252035516550537NN
worker0.121575732851624NN
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.434059416726239
WordScorePoS
society0.0221298700466866NN
sector0.0565629593551219NN
worker0.0454743001434393NN
share0.0377086395700813NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.425202822682865
WordScorePoS
society0.0359743605686701NN
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worker0NN
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Interventions aimed at shifting aggregate welfare toward politically powerful middle groups often in the name of equity at the expense of others an illustration of our Figure

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.728510301953061
WordScorePoS
intervention0NN
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Patterns of employment and unemployment vary widely across African countries Employment by sector for selected African countries Percentage of total labor force Unemployed Self employment including agriculture Private wage job Public wage job Ghana Ethiopia urban South Africa Source Kingdon Sandefur and Teal

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.670855029146383
WordScorePoS
pattern0NN
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.279292226282127
WordScorePoS
pattern0NN
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widely0RB
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percentage0.0583416713841148NN
total0.0252000451111224NN
force0.0297950283197006NN
include0VB
agriculture0.148975141598503NN
private0JJ
wage0NN
job0.0109267235789154NN
public0NN
urban0JJ
south0RB
africa0IN
source0.0130963126055467NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.258487377285987
WordScorePoS
pattern0NN
employment0NN
unemployment0NN
widely0RB
african0IN
country0NN
sector0NN
percentage0NN
total0NN
force0NN
include0VB
agriculture0NN
private0JJ
wage0NN
job0.0136980135278128NN
public0.0583751976558017NN
urban0.27622591898666JJ
south0RB
africa0IN
source0NN

Note Ghanaian data are for and public wage employment includes government and state enterprise workers

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.684277495210019
WordScorePoS
datum0NN
public0NN
wage0NN
employment0.173804667214358NN
include0VB
government0NN
enterprise0.0607878664258118NN
worker0.121575732851624NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.580074261349668
WordScorePoS
datum0.0454743001434393NN
public0.0160169090870187NN
wage0NN
employment0.104016094894625NN
include0VB
government0NN
enterprise0.0909486002868787NN
worker0.0454743001434393NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.311068229637397
WordScorePoS
datum0.0739231123597559NN
public0.0390556786919513NN
wage0NN
employment0NN
include0VB
government0.048933054487825NN
enterprise0NN
worker0NN

South African data are for Labor Force Survey

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.568704882493949
WordScorePoS
south0RB
african0IN
datum0.0739231123597559NN
force0NN
survey0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.49773459706083
WordScorePoS
south0RB
african0IN
datum0NN
force0NN
survey0.064698038783335NN

Ethiopian data are for urban areas in Labour Force Survey and because of definitional issues may not be fully comparable

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.878232411326272
WordScorePoS
datum0NN
urban0JJ
labour0.563335368206862NN
force0.0410992516792148NN
survey0NN
issue0NN
fully0RB

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.401351191545238
WordScorePoS
datum0NN
urban0.27622591898666JJ
labour0NN
force0NN
survey0NN
issue0NN
fully0RB

WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT second pathology are inherently bad for equity and usually bad for efficiency

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.462858993414669
WordScorePoS
world0.00261936653839306NN
development0NN
report0NN
bad0JJ
efficiency0.134992154141495NN

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.643401987187196
WordScorePoS
world0.00438651305628668NN
development0NN
report0NN
bad0.0683326727248364JJ
efficiency0.0502364757923669NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.362635259894564
WordScorePoS
world0.00464349782489754NN
development0.022306853314744NN
report0.0409791940864438NN
bad0JJ
efficiency0.039884692535803NN

Politically influential energy sector and teacher unions in Mexico for example have protected their employment and wage entitlements by blocking reforms that would lead to respectively energy sector reform and higher quality and more equitable schooling

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.772625535716447
WordScorePoS
energy0.494617163780726NN
sector0NN
teacher0NN
protect0VB
employment0NN
wage0NN
reform0NN
lead0.0383371018038178NN
quality0NN
equitable0JJ
schooling0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.264210943019642
WordScorePoS
energy0.133960988253756NN
sector0.0169905820958638NN
teacher0NN
protect0.0121782716594324VB
employment0NN
wage0NN
reform0NN
lead0.0169905820958638NN
quality0.0203215381458133NN
equitable0JJ
schooling0NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.248150565761878
WordScorePoS
energy0NN
sector0NN
teacher0.163013873070017NN
protect0VB
employment0.0352060273355634NN
wage0NN
reform0NN
lead0.0255262687343935NN
quality0.076326555629389NN
equitable0.0299609328954485JJ
schooling0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.242733091049111
WordScorePoS
energy0NN
sector0.0252035516550537NN
teacher0NN
protect0.0180650490434051VB
employment0.173804667214358NN
wage0NN
reform0NN
lead0.0504071033101074NN
quality0.030144637392549NN
equitable0JJ
schooling0NN

Public sector workers in France have used their political force with the aid of massive strikes to curtail attempts to bring their nonwage benefits and other entitlements in line with those of the private sector

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.610225362997676
WordScorePoS
public0.0727679293221751NN
sector0.0571058915334038NN
worker0NN
political0.111637082206855JJ
force0.0465610847355851NN
aid0NN
bring0VB
benefit0.0393804437159645NN
line0NN
private0.0558185411034276JJ

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.436449354354927
WordScorePoS
public0NN
sector0.0252035516550537NN
worker0.121575732851624NN
political0JJ
force0.0410992516792148NN
aid0.0607878664258118NN
bring0VB
benefit0NN
line0.0410992516792148NN
private0JJ

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.422751377528268
WordScorePoS
public0.0160169090870187NN
sector0.0565629593551219NN
worker0.0454743001434393NN
political0.0368585655748969JJ
force0NN
aid0NN
bring0VB
benefit0.0260040237236563NN
line0.030745604615229NN
private0.0368585655748969JJ

Stronger civil and political rights and broader mechanisms for voice can reduce the likelihood that the government labor policy agenda will be hijacked by politically powerful groups

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.732368307965921
WordScorePoS
civil0.0978661089756501JJ
political0JJ
rights0NNS
mechanism0.147846224719512NN
voice0NN
reduce0.00335331148065841VB
government0.048933054487825NN
policy0.0641521854453136NN
agenda0.0739231123597559NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.436281861553775
WordScorePoS
civil0JJ
political0.0792212041430275JJ
rights0NNS
mechanism0NN
voice0.064698038783335NN
reduce0.0310356414389692VB
government0NN
policy0.0848203862485078NN
agenda0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.37712018794909
WordScorePoS
civil0JJ
political0.111637082206855JJ
rights0.078760887431929NNS
mechanism0NN
voice0NN
reduce0VB
government0NN
policy0.0341506708422088NN
agenda0NN

There is strong association between democracy and the level of wages both across countries and within societies that have experienced political transition such as the Republic of Korea and Taiwan China

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.542059964020996
WordScorePoS
strong0JJ
level0.0610668815653026NN
country0NN
society0.118536858482514NN
experienced0JJ
political0JJ

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.490184940867786
WordScorePoS
strong0JJ
level0.0172651853471334NN
country0NN
society0.0335134328085675NN
experienced0JJ
political0.111637082206855JJ

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.458366213085514
WordScorePoS
strong0.0488696285210061JJ
level0NN
country0NN
society0.0237821918091848NN
experienced0JJ
political0.0792212041430275JJ

Stronger respect for civic rights in Latin America has also been associated with greater formalization of employment and higher wage share

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.757629179420223
WordScorePoS
respect0NN
rights0.0347609334428716NNS
formalization0.0804764811724088NN
employment0.173804667214358NN
wage0NN
share0.0252035516550537NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.353671945770607
WordScorePoS
respect0NN
rights0.078760887431929NNS
formalization0NN
employment0.0393804437159645NN
wage0NN
share0.0285529457667019NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.341690648443887
WordScorePoS
respect0NN
rights0NNS
formalization0NN
employment0.104016094894625NN
wage0NN
share0.0377086395700813NN

In Spain the transition to democracy in the mid led to demands for greater equity that were associated with the legalization of free trade unions the rapid Figure

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.509607119393916
WordScorePoS
lead0NN
demand0NN
free0.0898760357768464JJ
trade0.0539615408530051NN
rapid0JJ
figure0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.497954223639344
WordScorePoS
lead0.0188543197850406NN
demand0.030745604615229NN
free0JJ
trade0NN
rapid0.030745604615229JJ
figure0.0602029956716497NN

Different labor market institutional setups can yield equally good productivity growth paths Scandinavia versus the United States Labor productivity GDP per hour worked US Norway United States Denmark Sweden Finland Source Underlying series for OECD

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.531912090868048
WordScorePoS
market0.0252035516550537NN
institutional0JJ
yield0NN
productivity0.0410992516792148NN
growth0.208565600657229NN
unite0VB
gdp0NN
source0NN
underlie0.0607878664258118VB
oecd0NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.485091868836678
WordScorePoS
market0NN
institutional0.0828215106044499JJ
yield0.0828215106044499NN
productivity0NN
growth0NN
unite0.0828215106044499VB
gdp0NN
source0.0123065238088614NN
underlie0VB
oecd0NN

Note Measures used are GDP volumes in U

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.600343464778019
WordScorePoS
measure0NN
gdp0.0531983120572613NN
volume0.0531983120572613NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.586230213144292
WordScorePoS
measure0.103895385378356NN
gdp0NN
volume0NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.400849065233385
WordScorePoS
measure0.0710409787438328NN
gdp0NN
volume0NN

dollars at constant prices constant purchasing power parity PPPs prices with base year of and total hours worked for total employment

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.42100715090883
WordScorePoS
dollar0NN
price0NN
power0NN
parity0NN
base0NN
total0NN
employment0.173804667214358NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.4880897995605
WordScorePoS
dollar0NN
price0NN
power0.0454743001434393NN
parity0NN
base0NN
total0.0260040237236563NN
employment0.104016094894625NN

introduction of extensive social transfers including pensions and unemployment insurance and the implementation of progressive income taxation

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.671703244809416
WordScorePoS
introduction0NN
social0.101310366625194JJ
transfer0NN
include0VB
unemployment0NN
insurance0NN
implementation0.0475643836183697NN
income0.166475342664294NN
taxation0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.450201998085432
WordScorePoS
introduction0NN
social0.0504071033101074JJ
transfer0NN
include0VB
unemployment0.0804764811724088NN
insurance0.0804764811724088NN
implementation0NN
income0NN
taxation0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.334846183055963
WordScorePoS
introduction0NN
social0.112994637345193JJ
transfer0NN
include0VB
unemployment0NN
insurance0NN
implementation0NN
income0.0442083771593746NN
taxation0NN

The result was shift from regulated state in which protection for workers came mainly through permanent jobs and controlled housing rentals to liberal economy with flexible markets and more extensive public provisioning of services see focus on Spain

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.533950183214569
WordScorePoS
result0NN
regulate0VB
protection0NN
worker0.121575732851624NN
job0.135650868266471NN
control0NN
housing0NN
economy0.0821985033584295NN
market0.0252035516550537NN
public0NN
provision0NN
service0.0197870712294258NN
focus0.0410992516792148NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.44648840615802
WordScorePoS
result0NN
regulate0VB
protection0NN
worker0NN
job0.0136980135278128NN
control0NN
housing0.219415728260093NN
economy0NN
market0NN
public0.0583751976558017NN
provision0NN
service0.0269743071558856NN
focus0.0373517915079663NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.386189509287831
WordScorePoS
result0NN
regulate0VB
protection0.0465610847355851NN
worker0NN
job0.0170753354211044NN
control0.0465610847355851NN
housing0NN
economy0.0465610847355851NN
market0NN
public0.0727679293221751NN
provision0.0558185411034276NN
service0.022416649027415NN
focus0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.315138160208571
WordScorePoS
result0NN
regulate0VB
protection0.122839698738001NN
worker0NN
job0.0225244866060403NN
control0.0614198493690006NN
housing0NN
economy0NN
market0NN
public0NN
provision0NN
service0.0443555132287109NN
focus0NN

Better design Can labor market institutions be designed to be pro growth and pro equity

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.574180612831966
WordScorePoS
market0.0252035516550537NN
institution0.0410992516792148NN
growth0.208565600657229NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.573363497729451
WordScorePoS
market0NN
institution0.274477239401321NN
growth0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.482893903375701
WordScorePoS
market0.0202620733250388NN
institution0.0991236547760315NN
growth0.11178243319132NN

The challenge for governments is to design interventions that balance equity and efficiency goals in ways that are within country institutional capacity

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.557539412009141
WordScorePoS
challenge0.0528748274225028NN
government0NN
intervention0NN
efficiency0.134992154141495NN
goal0NN
country0NN
institutional0JJ
capacity0NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.474189094131583
WordScorePoS
challenge0.0947742174515357NN
government0NN
intervention0NN
efficiency0.0537696560159885NN
goal0NN
country0NN
institutional0JJ
capacity0.0112376090361851NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.391065384582082
WordScorePoS
challenge0.0236803262479443NN
government0NN
intervention0NN
efficiency0NN
goal0NN
country0NN
institutional0.0828215106044499JJ
capacity0.025270503924109NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.388789482654581
WordScorePoS
challenge0NN
government0.048933054487825NN
intervention0NN
efficiency0NN
goal0NN
country0NN
institutional0.036961556179878JJ
capacity0.0451108483130998NN

History suggests that this is complex task and there are real tradeoffs that need to be assessed

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Different societies are likely to make different choices

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.744243610772992
WordScorePoS
society0.118536858482514NN
choice0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.371468025746248
WordScorePoS
society0.0591643007226199NN
choice0NN

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.324069404768186
WordScorePoS
society0NN
choice0.0516150472983178NN

Scandinavia and the United States have very different sets of labor market institutions yet they share good track record of solid growth and high employment topopulation ratios figure

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.615895217645423
WordScorePoS
unite0VB
set0NN
market0.0252035516550537NN
institution0.0410992516792148NN
share0.0252035516550537NN
record0NN
growth0.208565600657229NN
employment0.173804667214358NN
ratio0NN
figure0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.356736776925606
WordScorePoS
unite0VB
set0NN
market0NN
institution0.274477239401321NN
share0NN
record0NN
growth0NN
employment0NN
ratio0NN
figure0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.410735485952536
WordScorePoS
unite0.036961556179878VB
set0.0978661089756501NN
market0.030649619577211NN
institution0.0249900578719309NN
share0.0766240489430275NN
record0.048933054487825NN
growth0NN
employment0NN
ratio0NN
figure0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.345251569784789
WordScorePoS
unite0VB
set0NN
market0.0377086395700813NN
institution0NN
share0.0377086395700813NN
record0NN
growth0.0260040237236563NN
employment0.104016094894625NN
ratio0NN
figure0.0602029956716497NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.300448171830706
WordScorePoS
unite0VB
set0NN
market0.0202620733250388NN
institution0.0991236547760315NN
share0NN
record0NN
growth0.11178243319132NN
employment0NN
ratio0NN
figure0NN

The Nordic countries have mandated generous benefits and protection for workers financed by high tax effort

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.417705243462767
WordScorePoS
country0NN
mandate0NN
benefit0NN
protection0.122839698738001NN
worker0NN
finance0NN
tax0NN
effort0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.413407242216248
WordScorePoS
country0NN
mandate0NN
benefit0NN
protection0NN
worker0.121575732851624NN
finance0NN
tax0NN
effort0NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.395036109480775
WordScorePoS
country0NN
mandate0NN
benefit0.0446918591208085NN
protection0NN
worker0NN
finance0.0390772412228479NN
tax0NN
effort0.032404008418326NN

But they also have highly coordinated and centralized approach to wage setting and policymaking which allowed all parties to internalize the consequences of their actions with the union movement historically an advocate for openness and competition

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

The United States leaves the setting of wages and work conditions including benefits much more to discretion and employer worker negotiation

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.692780035252876
WordScorePoS
unite0VB
set0NN
condition0.121575732851624NN
include0VB
benefit0NN
employer0NN
worker0.121575732851624NN
negotiation0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.489456818483893
WordScorePoS
unite0.036961556179878VB
set0.0978661089756501NN
condition0NN
include0VB
benefit0NN
employer0NN
worker0NN
negotiation0.036961556179878NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.333217991306777
WordScorePoS
unite0VB
set0NN
condition0NN
include0VB
benefit0.0260040237236563NN
employer0.0454743001434393NN
worker0.0454743001434393NN
negotiation0NN

This fits well within its tradition of decentralized bargaining which gives freedom to individual firms to bargain with their workers in response to their varying economic and financial conditions

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.772646773778524
WordScorePoS
freedom0NN
individual0JJ
firm0NN
worker0.121575732851624NN
response0NN
economic0.128463821595706JJ
financial0.0370951943725875JJ
condition0.121575732851624NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.373925538085796
WordScorePoS
freedom0NN
individual0.064698038783335JJ
firm0NN
worker0NN
response0NN
economic0.103276847978089JJ
financial0.0298222075472138JJ
condition0NN

It leads to greater wage inequality and more workers without health and other forms of insurance

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.836578338016733
WordScorePoS
lead0NN
wage0.064698038783335NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
worker0NN
health0.0405241466500776NN
form0NN
insurance0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.279805263932422
WordScorePoS
lead0.025518364538905NN
wage0NN
inequality0.0307735781890304NN
worker0NN
health0.191387734041787NN
form0NN
insurance0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.178549096994915
WordScorePoS
lead0NN
wage0NN
inequality0NN
worker0NN
health0NN
form0.158049144643351NN
insurance0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.35204313020408
WordScorePoS
lead0.0504071033101074NN
wage0NN
inequality0NN
worker0.121575732851624NN
health0NN
form0.0591643007226199NN
insurance0.0804764811724088NN

But it is consistent with lower taxes and high levels of flexibility

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.759830858817884
WordScorePoS
consistent0JJ
tax0.0811931365363091NN
level0.0610668815653026NN
flexibility0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.469074264262557
WordScorePoS
consistent0.036961556179878JJ
tax0.036961556179878NN
level0.0138997399903163NN
flexibility0NN

The Nordic countries and the United States opted for different labor market models in line with their history legal tradition and societal preferences but all succeeded in delivering to their workforces large pool Markets and the macroeconomy of job opportunities productivity growth and rising incomes over the long term

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.480836234212335
WordScorePoS
country0NN
unite0VB
market0.0252035516550537NN
line0.0410992516792148NN
history0NN
legal0JJ
deliver0VB
workforce0NN
job0.135650868266471NN
opportunity0.0361300980868102NN
productivity0.0410992516792148NN
growth0.208565600657229NN
rise0NN
income0NN
term0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.422605076218627
WordScorePoS
country0NN
unite0VB
market0.0202620733250388NN
line0NN
history0NN
legal0JJ
deliver0.0396106020715138VB
workforce0NN
job0NN
opportunity0.029046330719385NN
productivity0NN
growth0.11178243319132NN
rise0.0237821918091848NN
income0.166475342664294NN
term0.0396106020715138NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.277467481984138
WordScorePoS
country0NN
unite0.036961556179878VB
market0.030649619577211NN
line0NN
history0NN
legal0JJ
deliver0.0299586785922821VB
workforce0NN
job0NN
opportunity0NN
productivity0NN
growth0NN
rise0NN
income0.017987180284335NN
term0.149793392961411NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.47466992265232
WordScorePoS
country0NN
unite0VB
market0.0377086395700813NN
line0.030745604615229NN
history0NN
legal0JJ
deliver0VB
workforce0.0454743001434393NN
job0.0902026255635679NN
opportunity0.0135141354781442NN
productivity0.0922368138456871NN
growth0.0260040237236563NN
rise0.0221298700466866NN
income0.110649350233433NN
term0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.365962725814955
WordScorePoS
country0NN
unite0VB
market0.0913569596328122NN
line0NN
history0NN
legal0JJ
deliver0VB
workforce0NN
job0.0109267235789154NN
opportunity0.0261926252110933NN
productivity0.0595900566394012NN
growth0.0252000451111224NN
rise0.0214456704626236NN
income0.0643370113878709NN
term0NN

What doesn work

Label: 8, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
doesn0.0804764811724088NN

There are also many ways of getting labor market institutions wrong

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.834244336152542
WordScorePoS
market0NN
institution0.274477239401321NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.362860205469139
WordScorePoS
market0.0202620733250388NN
institution0.0991236547760315NN

And when countries get it wrong one segment of the labor market typically public and formal sector workers who represent the middle and high end of the usage distribution benefits from extra protection at the expense of others

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.517417260789663
WordScorePoS
country0NN
market0.0377086395700813NN
typically0RB
public0.0160169090870187NN
sector0.0565629593551219NN
worker0.0454743001434393NN
represent0VB
middle0.0602029956716497JJ
benefit0.0260040237236563NN
protection0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.461489715494953
WordScorePoS
country0NN
market0NN
typically0RB
public0.0727679293221751NN
sector0.0571058915334038NN
worker0NN
represent0VB
middle0JJ
benefit0.0393804437159645NN
protection0.0465610847355851NN

Outcomes are highly unequal and the costs to efficiency and growth are usually severe

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.613594235124081
WordScorePoS
outcome0NN
highly0RB
cost0NN
efficiency0.0295821503613099NN
growth0.208565600657229NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.347811000582385
WordScorePoS
outcome0NN
highly0RB
cost0NN
efficiency0.134992154141495NN
growth0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.543405340490765
WordScorePoS
outcome0.0330412182586772NN
highly0RB
cost0.0660824365173543NN
efficiency0NN
growth0.11178243319132NN

The experiences of India South Africa and Colombia cited earlier are vivid examples

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Governments also get it wrong if they intervene extensively in the labor market when product markets are not competitive

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.622222563961855
WordScorePoS
government0NN
market0.0913569596328122NN
product0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.436644619835748
WordScorePoS
government0.048933054487825NN
market0.030649619577211NN
product0.017987180284335NN

typical example is the unionization of public sector workers

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.565101289794684
WordScorePoS
public0NN
sector0.0252035516550537NN
worker0.121575732851624NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.500015134442985
WordScorePoS
public0.0727679293221751NN
sector0.0571058915334038NN
worker0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.454509389097856
WordScorePoS
public0.0160169090870187NN
sector0.0565629593551219NN
worker0.0454743001434393NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.327366521074982
WordScorePoS
public0.0390556786919513NN
sector0.0459744293658165NN
worker0NN

In Mexico before the reforms of the workers in public utilities and in the public oil sector secured high wages by capturing share of the rents generated in these monopolistic sectors

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.583799726148796
WordScorePoS
reform0.0911713013253052NN
worker0NN
public0.0727679293221751NN
sector0.0571058915334038NN
secure0JJ
capture0NN
share0.0285529457667019NN
generate0VB

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.490400591568864
WordScorePoS
reform0NN
worker0.121575732851624NN
public0NN
sector0.0252035516550537NN
secure0.121575732851624JJ
capture0NN
share0.0252035516550537NN
generate0VB

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.37951218689906
WordScorePoS
reform0NN
worker0NN
public0.0390556786919513NN
sector0.0459744293658165NN
secure0JJ
capture0NN
share0.0766240489430275NN
generate0VB

But their gain came at cost for employment and competitiveness in Mexico private sector

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.490094103551578
WordScorePoS
gain0NN
cost0NN
employment0.173804667214358NN
competitiveness0NN
private0JJ
sector0.0252035516550537NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.486226216409744
WordScorePoS
gain0NN
cost0NN
employment0.104016094894625NN
competitiveness0NN
private0.0368585655748969JJ
sector0.0565629593551219NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.407276522304007
WordScorePoS
gain0.0664302389559493NN
cost0.0277064208763707NN
employment0NN
competitiveness0.0542519672965169NN
private0JJ
sector0.0169905820958638NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.375078588546327
WordScorePoS
gain0NN
cost0NN
employment0.0393804437159645NN
competitiveness0NN
private0.0558185411034276JJ
sector0.0571058915334038NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.334556594242208
WordScorePoS
gain0NN
cost0NN
employment0NN
competitiveness0NN
private0.0898760357768464JJ
sector0.0459744293658165NN

Mexico experience is not unique it applied equally to state enterprise workers in Turkey until the and to public sector workers in India and many other countries

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.711670811391377
WordScorePoS
experience0NN
enterprise0.0607878664258118NN
worker0.121575732851624NN
public0NN
sector0.0252035516550537NN
country0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.550228824955642
WordScorePoS
experience0NN
enterprise0.0909486002868787NN
worker0.0454743001434393NN
public0.0160169090870187NN
sector0.0565629593551219NN
country0NN

Things can also go greatly wrong when governments mandate protection with no attention to incentives

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.544259795249334
WordScorePoS
government0NN
mandate0NN
protection0.122839698738001NN
attention0NN
incentive0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.468288933729383
WordScorePoS
government0NN
mandate0NN
protection0.0660824365173543NN
attention0.0396106020715138NN
incentive0NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.39679330478741
WordScorePoS
government0NN
mandate0NN
protection0NN
attention0.08955644059472NN
incentive0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.38056901551618
WordScorePoS
government0.048933054487825NN
mandate0NN
protection0NN
attention0NN
incentive0.036961556179878NN

In much of Europe governments implemented generous unemployment benefits with little connection to workers actual job search behavior

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.826338935361716
WordScorePoS
government0NN
implement0.030144637392549VB
unemployment0.0804764811724088NN
benefit0NN
worker0.121575732851624NN
actual0JJ
job0.135650868266471NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.363202641940861
WordScorePoS
government0NN
implement0VB
unemployment0NN
benefit0.0260040237236563NN
worker0.0454743001434393NN
actual0JJ
job0.0902026255635679NN

The result was an increase in the duration of unemployment and the emergence of longterm unemployment with its destructive impact on human capital loss of employability weakened ties to economic and social life and for many high degrees of poverty and social exclusion

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.643237167191481
WordScorePoS
result0NN
increase0NN
unemployment0NN
destructive0JJ
impact0NN
human0JJ
loss0NN
economic0.0959899298575892JJ
social0.112994637345193JJ
life0.0184786920895884NN
degree0NN
poverty0.269969049497485NN
exclusion0.0908430554521382NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.455907084036482
WordScorePoS
result0NN
increase0.00711043475673939NN
unemployment0.0804764811724088NN
destructive0JJ
impact0NN
human0.0150723186962745JJ
loss0NN
economic0.128463821595706JJ
social0.0504071033101074JJ
life0.0123650647908625NN
degree0NN
poverty0.0722601961736204NN
exclusion0NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.252607610760306
WordScorePoS
result0NN
increase0.0145316075945746NN
unemployment0NN
destructive0JJ
impact0.0437569550806737NN
human0.0205355488872215JJ
loss0.0236803262479443NN
economic0JJ
social0JJ
life0.00842350130803634NN
degree0.164469921319675NN
poverty0NN
exclusion0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.336490273701825
WordScorePoS
result0NN
increase0.00285817158600878NN
unemployment0NN
destructive0JJ
impact0NN
human0JJ
loss0NN
economic0.103276847978089JJ
social0.101310366625194JJ
life0NN
degree0NN
poverty0.05809266143877NN
exclusion0NN

The key to avoiding these pitfalls is achieving balance between protection and flexibility

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.583963439397533
WordScorePoS
key0NN
avoid0VB
achieve0.0113874611101829VB
protection0.122839698738001NN
flexibility0NN

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.371554161445865
WordScorePoS
key0.0271683202880942NN
avoid0.0531983120572613VB
achieve0.00503710435450552VB
protection0NN
flexibility0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.367449764541634
WordScorePoS
key0NN
avoid0VB
achieve0.018377882320743VB
protection0.0660824365173543NN
flexibility0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.315236698428634
WordScorePoS
key0NN
avoid0VB
achieve0.0258977780207001VB
protection0.0465610847355851NN
flexibility0NN

Design specifics matter lot as does the underlying structural context

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Collective organization of workers is one of the main channels for securing better and more equitable working conditions

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.943793383114796
WordScorePoS
organization0.0347609334428716NN
worker0.121575732851624NN
secure0.121575732851624JJ
equitable0JJ
condition0.121575732851624NN

Free trade unions are the cornerstone of any effective system of industrial relations

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.737603959807166
WordScorePoS
free0JJ
trade0NN
effective0JJ
system0NN
industrial0.318320101004075JJ
relation0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.433178314090537
WordScorePoS
free0.0898760357768464JJ
trade0.0539615408530051NN
effective0.0219686053934784JJ
system0.0211360962287062NN
industrial0JJ
relation0NN

Unions act as agents for labor coordinating the demands of workers and organizing them into single entity whose collective bargaining power matches that of the employer

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.578773946555931
WordScorePoS
coordinate0NN
demand0.030745604615229NN
worker0.0454743001434393NN
organize0VB
single0JJ
power0.0454743001434393NN
match0NN
employer0.0454743001434393NN

Trade unions can help provide positive work environment by reducing labor turnover and by promoting worker training and higher productivity

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.63352804231633
WordScorePoS
trade0.0591643007226199NN
provide0VB
positive0JJ
environment0.0591643007226199NN
reduce0.0055149369084567VB
promote0.0275746845422835VB
worker0.121575732851624NN
training0.0410992516792148NN
productivity0.0410992516792148NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.448960662250076
WordScorePoS
trade0NN
provide0.00740117451847634VB
positive0.0454743001434393JJ
environment0.0221298700466866NN
reduce0VB
promote0.00825124851366066VB
worker0.0454743001434393NN
training0.030745604615229NN
productivity0.0922368138456871NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.313968265022615
WordScorePoS
trade0NN
provide0.0100202166857628VB
positive0JJ
environment0.0299609328954485NN
reduce0VB
promote0.0111711050494158VB
worker0NN
training0.124876512346911NN
productivity0NN

Unions have also been found to reduce inequality and wage discrimination in countries as diverse as Ghana the Republic of Korea Mexico and Spain

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.975167398058328
WordScorePoS
reduce0.0310356414389692VB
inequality0.635305170773079NN
wage0.064698038783335NN
discrimination0NN
country0NN

Unions also can have an important noneconomic role

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

They have been force for progressive political and social change in many countries Poland the Republic of Korea and South Africa

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.754374882986524
WordScorePoS
force0NN
political0JJ
social0JJ
change0.402565546215053NN
country0NN
south0RB
africa0IN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.349956299345854
WordScorePoS
force0.0465610847355851NN
political0.111637082206855JJ
social0.0285529457667019JJ
change0NN
country0NN
south0RB
africa0IN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.338301386827818
WordScorePoS
force0NN
political0.0792212041430275JJ
social0.101310366625194JJ
change0NN
country0NN
south0RB
africa0IN

But the involvement of unions in wagesetting can also have significant negative economic effects

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.465515196094578
WordScorePoS
significant0JJ
economic0.128463821595706JJ
effect0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.52109261098896
WordScorePoS
significant0.0405241466500776JJ
economic0.103276847978089JJ
effect0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.484325811228767
WordScorePoS
significant0.0376648791150643JJ
economic0.0959899298575892JJ
effect0NN

Evidence from industrial societies suggests that union involvement reduces the employment of young and older workers outsiders and benefits prime age males and females

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.723844597976194
WordScorePoS
evidence0NN
industrial0.318320101004075JJ
society0.0221298700466866NN
suggest0.0602029956716497VB
reduce0VB
employment0.104016094894625NN
worker0.0454743001434393NN
benefit0.0260040237236563NN
age0NN
female0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.48402663179192
WordScorePoS
evidence0NN
industrial0JJ
society0.0591643007226199NN
suggest0VB
reduce0.0055149369084567VB
employment0.173804667214358NN
worker0.121575732851624NN
benefit0NN
age0.0252035516550537NN
female0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.256894052224389
WordScorePoS
evidence0.12939607756667NN
industrial0JJ
society0.0237821918091848NN
suggest0VB
reduce0.0310356414389692VB
employment0NN
worker0NN
benefit0NN
age0.0202620733250388NN
female0NN

Unions often act as monopolists improving wages and work conditions for their members at the expense of consumers and nonunion labor

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.919155439118045
WordScorePoS
improve0VB
condition0.0409791940864438NN
consumer0.325511803779102NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.34271182800297
WordScorePoS
improve0.0150723186962745VB
condition0.121575732851624NN
consumer0NN

For example recent studies of manufacturing wages in Africa show substantial union wage premiums to percent in some countries

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.886034961423167
WordScorePoS
study0NN
manufacture0.240811982686599NN
africa0IN
substantial0JJ
wage0NN
country0NN

Formal trade unions are most effective at improving conditions for workers without huge efficiency costs when product markets are competitive so that unions cannot raise wages for their members by capturing rents at the expense of other parts of society when collective bargaining arrangements and institutions have enough flexibility to accommodate different demand and supply conditions for different types of workers and when unions operate in context that allows them to internalize and absorb the cost of their actions

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.432342459236196
WordScorePoS
trade0NN
effective0.0482582488828229JJ
improve0VB
condition0NN
worker0NN
efficiency0NN
cost0.0548954478802642NN
product0NN
market0NN
raise0NN
capture0NN
society0.118536858482514NN
institution0.274477239401321NN
flexibility0NN
demand0NN
supply0NN
type0NN
operate0VB
context0NN
absorb0VB
action0NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.165380235083973
WordScorePoS
trade0NN
effective0JJ
improve0.0229264916384433VB
condition0NN
worker0NN
efficiency0.134992154141495NN
cost0NN
product0NN
market0NN
raise0NN
capture0NN
society0NN
institution0NN
flexibility0NN
demand0NN
supply0.0528748274225028NN
type0NN
operate0VB
context0NN
absorb0VB
action0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.622013816947787
WordScorePoS
trade0.0591643007226199NN
effective0.0180650490434051JJ
improve0.0150723186962745VB
condition0.121575732851624NN
worker0.121575732851624NN
efficiency0.0295821503613099NN
cost0NN
product0.0591643007226199NN
market0.0252035516550537NN
raise0NN
capture0NN
society0.0591643007226199NN
institution0.0410992516792148NN
flexibility0NN
demand0NN
supply0NN
type0NN
operate0VB
context0NN
absorb0VB
action0NN

On the other hand when unions are co opted by political elites or by the state their actions can have significant costs for efficiency

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.375382362842842
WordScorePoS
political0JJ
action0NN
significant0JJ
cost0NN
efficiency0.134992154141495NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.5571302605654
WordScorePoS
political0.0792212041430275JJ
action0.0145231653596925NN
significant0.0405241466500776JJ
cost0.0660824365173543NN
efficiency0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.424258568458278
WordScorePoS
political0.111637082206855JJ
action0.0409315617631NN
significant0JJ
cost0NN
efficiency0NN

An illustration of the potentially highly positive role of unions in improving working conditions while supporting productivity growth comes from study of worker firm relationships in high value export crops in BOX

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.737872160826103
WordScorePoS
potentially0RB
highly0RB
positive0JJ
improve0.0150723186962745VB
condition0.121575732851624NN
support0.024730129581725NN
productivity0.0410992516792148NN
growth0.208565600657229NN
study0NN
worker0.121575732851624NN
firm0NN
export0NN
crop0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.411651488674801
WordScorePoS
potentially0RB
highly0RB
positive0.0454743001434393JJ
improve0VB
condition0NN
support0.0277502419802315NN
productivity0.0922368138456871NN
growth0.0260040237236563NN
study0NN
worker0.0454743001434393NN
firm0.0602029956716497NN
export0NN
crop0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.331744462508488
WordScorePoS
potentially0RB
highly0RB
positive0JJ
improve0.0218534471578307VB
condition0NN
support0.00896409157262106NN
productivity0.0595900566394012NN
growth0.0252000451111224NN
study0NN
worker0NN
firm0NN
export0.0881366997038154NN
crop0.0357189919948307NN

WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT Organizing in the informal economy Developing countries have trade unions and large informal economies two phenomena commonly thought to be incompatible

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

But recent work by Women in Informal Employment Globalizing and Organizing WIEGO has uncovered surprising amount of organizing in the informal economy

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.544322330393399
WordScorePoS
woman0.221979360474357NN
employment0.0393804437159645NN
organize0VB
amount0NN
economy0.0465610847355851NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.532477162812088
WordScorePoS
woman0.0452169560888236NN
employment0.173804667214358NN
organize0VB
amount0NN
economy0.0821985033584295NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.477071015090326
WordScorePoS
woman0NN
employment0NN
organize0.107490825192354VB
amount0.0548954478802642NN
economy0NN

Formal trade unions that extend their coverage to informal workers and trade unions of informal workers are two organizational forms that have emerged

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.286699618704406
WordScorePoS
trade0NN
extend0VB
coverage0NN
worker0NN
form0.158049144643351NN
emerge0VB

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.763044812111708
WordScorePoS
trade0.0591643007226199NN
extend0VB
coverage0NN
worker0.121575732851624NN
form0.0591643007226199NN
emerge0VB

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.325175559958336
WordScorePoS
trade0NN
extend0VB
coverage0.0908430554521382NN
worker0NN
form0.0884167543187491NN
emerge0VB

Organizing can also be done by cooperatives savings and credit groups producer groups and neighborhood and trade associations

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.621824902236671
WordScorePoS
organize0.107490825192354VB
credit0NN
producer0NN
trade0NN

Organizing in the informal economy differs from organizing in the formal economy along several dimensions

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.452568230082986
WordScorePoS
organize0VB
economy0NN
dimension0.181686110904276NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.535505243249919
WordScorePoS
organize0.107490825192354VB
economy0NN
dimension0NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.4184501723157
WordScorePoS
organize0VB
economy0.0839946104936743NN
dimension0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.409502201299188
WordScorePoS
organize0VB
economy0.0821985033584295NN
dimension0NN

Collective bargaining can take many forms

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.716719877693924
WordScorePoS
form0.158049144643351NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.45592926525219
WordScorePoS
form0.100540298425703NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.400951523555705
WordScorePoS
form0.0884167543187491NN

Bargaining partners are not just employers but can also include municipal authorities police wholesalers and other interest groups

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.743290272777012
WordScorePoS
employer0NN
include0VB
municipal0JJ
police0.107490825192354NNS

Activities of informal workers trade unions can also extend beyond collective bargaining and include range of services such as savings credit social security and advocacy

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.57598036622013
WordScorePoS
activity0.0295821503613099NN
worker0.121575732851624NN
trade0.0591643007226199NN
extend0VB
include0VB
range0NN
service0.0197870712294258NN
credit0NN
social0.0504071033101074JJ
security0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.406025802979702
WordScorePoS
activity0NN
worker0NN
trade0.0237821918091848NN
extend0.064698038783335VB
include0VB
range0NN
service0.00795378154685591NN
credit0NN
social0.101310366625194JJ
security0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.361773689878268
WordScorePoS
activity0NN
worker0.0454743001434393NN
trade0NN
extend0VB
include0VB
range0.0368585655748969NN
service0.0148023490369527NN
credit0.0602029956716497NN
social0.0188543197850406JJ
security0NN

Because members do not work in standard workplace or for single employer membership in trade unions can take unusual forms

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.495342620500304
WordScorePoS
standard0NN
single0JJ
employer0NN
trade0NN
form0.158049144643351NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.522602715041291
WordScorePoS
standard0NN
single0.0583416713841148JJ
employer0.0440683498519077NN
trade0.0214456704626236NN
form0.0428913409252473NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.370854265945481
WordScorePoS
standard0NN
single0JJ
employer0NN
trade0.0591643007226199NN
form0.0591643007226199NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.315103855832004
WordScorePoS
standard0NN
single0JJ
employer0NN
trade0NN
form0.100540298425703NN

Registered as trade union the SelfEmployed Women Association SEWA in India is both an organization of poor self employed women workers and movement combining elements of the labor cooperative and women movements

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.730121071535285
WordScorePoS
trade0NN
woman0.221979360474357NN
organization0NN
poor0JJ
employ0VB
worker0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.313352407972426
WordScorePoS
trade0NN
woman0.0450489732120807NN
organization0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
employ0VB
worker0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.384995784744667
WordScorePoS
trade0.0591643007226199NN
woman0.0452169560888236NN
organization0.0347609334428716NN
poor0JJ
employ0VB
worker0.121575732851624NN

It offers broad range of services to its nearly members including banking health care child care insurance legal aid housing assistance and capacity building www

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.64730978908318
WordScorePoS
offer0NN
range0.0249430985430622NN
service0.0100171139310145NN
include0VB
banking0NN
health0.191387734041787NN
care0.104031537001265NN
child0.10682408961305NN
insurance0NN
legal0JJ
aid0.123094312756122NN
housing0NN
assistance0NN
capacity0.00625975725959118NN
building0NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.405404826966535
WordScorePoS
offer0NN
range0NN
service0.0269743071558856NN
include0VB
banking0NN
health0.0229054731708393NN
care0NN
child0.0273960270556257NN
insurance0NN
legal0JJ
aid0NN
housing0.219415728260093NN
assistance0.0373517915079663NN
capacity0.0112376090361851NN
building0.0747035830159326NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.236525090360327
WordScorePoS
offer0NN
range0NN
service0NN
include0VB
banking0NN
health0NN
care0NN
child0NN
insurance0NN
legal0JJ
aid0NN
housing0NN
assistance0.0499801157438617NN
capacity0.0451108483130998NN
building0.149940347231585NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.328398868119189
WordScorePoS
offer0NN
range0NN
service0.0197870712294258NN
include0VB
banking0.0804764811724088NN
health0NN
care0NN
child0.0452169560888236NN
insurance0.0804764811724088NN
legal0JJ
aid0.0607878664258118NN
housing0NN
assistance0.0410992516792148NN
capacity0.0123650647908625NN
building0NN

sewa

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

StreetNet International launched in in South Africa has affiliates unions cooperatives or associations in Asia Africa and Latin America that organize street vendors informal market vendors and hawkers

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

As of early these affiliates represented members UNRISD Gender Policy Report

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.724649268622978
WordScorePoS
represent0VB
gender0.196902218579822NN
policy0.0341506708422088NN
report0NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.331249118203895
WordScorePoS
represent0VB
gender0.10561808200669NN
policy0NN
report0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.304209842084374
WordScorePoS
represent0VB
gender0.0519476926891779NN
policy0.0450489732120807NN
report0NN

HomeNet Thailand is network that helps organize informal home based subcontracted and own account workers mainly women

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.580980930138278
WordScorePoS
help0NN
organize0VB
base0NN
account0NN
worker0NN
woman0.221979360474357NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.436542259396587
WordScorePoS
help0NN
organize0VB
base0NN
account0NN
worker0.121575732851624NN
woman0.0452169560888236NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.356181188136524
WordScorePoS
help0NN
organize0.107490825192354VB
base0NN
account0.0285977592242194NN
worker0NN
woman0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.345294163059345
WordScorePoS
help0.0542519672965169NN
organize0VB
base0.0199423462679015NN
account0.0577345906651901NN
worker0NN
woman0NN

It drew attention to the plight of these workers following the financial crisis in

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.730194504912882
WordScorePoS
attention0NN
worker0.121575732851624NN
financial0.0370951943725875JJ

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.463848434341114
WordScorePoS
attention0.08955644059472NN
worker0NN
financial0.0112376090361851JJ

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.31952580684561
WordScorePoS
attention0.0396106020715138NN
worker0NN
financial0.0298222075472138JJ

Sources United Nations Research Institute for Social Development UNRISD Women in Informal Employment Globalizing and Organizing

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.453999246313127
WordScorePoS
source0NN
unite0VB
nation0NN
research0NN
social0.0285529457667019JJ
development0.0124956749436837NN
woman0.221979360474357NN
employment0.0393804437159645NN
organize0VB

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.41276699238266
WordScorePoS
source0NN
unite0VB
nation0NN
research0NN
social0.0504071033101074JJ
development0.0055149369084567NN
woman0.0452169560888236NN
employment0.173804667214358NN
organize0VB

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.410457989499226
WordScorePoS
source0.0135141354781442NN
unite0VB
nation0NN
research0.104016094894625NN
social0.0188543197850406JJ
development0.0330049940546426NN
woman0NN
employment0.104016094894625NN
organize0VB

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.302543427146015
WordScorePoS
source0.0269969049497485NN
unite0VB
nation0NN
research0NN
social0.112994637345193JJ
development0.0164833460638534NN
woman0.0450489732120807NN
employment0NN
organize0VB

northeastern Brazil

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Union activity among landless agricultural laborers in this case was an important factor behind improvements in work practices that led to higher quality critical for export crops higher productivity and better working conditions for landless workers

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.615185516181644
WordScorePoS
activity0NN
agricultural0.250032943963815JJ
improvement0NN
practice0.0252000451111224NN
lead0NN
quality0.0109267235789154NN
critical0JJ
export0.0881366997038154NN
crop0.0357189919948307NN
productivity0.0595900566394012NN
condition0NN
worker0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.516645820959472
WordScorePoS
activity0.0295821503613099NN
agricultural0JJ
improvement0NN
practice0NN
lead0.0504071033101074NN
quality0.030144637392549NN
critical0JJ
export0NN
crop0NN
productivity0.0410992516792148NN
condition0.121575732851624NN
worker0.121575732851624NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.402071009328139
WordScorePoS
activity0NN
agricultural0.0368585655748969JJ
improvement0.0454743001434393NN
practice0NN
lead0.0188543197850406NN
quality0.022550656390892NN
critical0.0454743001434393JJ
export0NN
crop0NN
productivity0.0922368138456871NN
condition0NN
worker0.0454743001434393NN

To effect this change however the union had to shift from defending the interests of its traditional base of support small farmers to representing the interests of larger group of landless laborers

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.68651703780151
WordScorePoS
effect0NN
change0.402565546215053NN
traditional0JJ
base0NN
support0NN
farmer0NN
represent0VB

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.592996060053405
WordScorePoS
effect0.0440683498519077NN
change0.0756001353333673NN
traditional0.0440683498519077JJ
base0NN
support0.00896409157262106NN
farmer0.175025014152344NN
represent0VB

Success was also facilitated by the fact that on the employer side the union was negotiating with large firms from southeastern Brazil

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.771040937748943
WordScorePoS
facilitate0.0260040237236563VB
employer0.0454743001434393NN
negotiate0VB
firm0.0602029956716497NN

These southeastern firms had experience in collective bargaining in contrast to the more traditional large farmers of the northeast which were accustomed to more repressive and conflictive labor relations

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.894553354563787
WordScorePoS
firm0NN
experience0NN
traditional0.0440683498519077JJ
farmer0.175025014152344NN
relation0NN

Collective organization of workers can also secure greater bargaining power and thus better working conditions for informal economy workers

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.945387509682114
WordScorePoS
organization0.0347609334428716NN
worker0.121575732851624NN
secure0.121575732851624JJ
power0NN
condition0.121575732851624NN
economy0.0821985033584295NN

Studies of informal worker associations in India South Africa and Thailand suggest that organizing informal workers decreases the workers invisibility to policymakers and legislators helps them gain access to information gives them voice and self identity and in some cases helps to provide them with range of social protection services box

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.373553749511936
WordScorePoS
study0NN
worker0NN
south0RB
africa0IN
suggest0VB
organize0VB
decrease0NN
help0NN
gain0NN
access0.00514687440545096NN
information0NN
voice0NN
identity0NN
provide0.0295703421524739VB
range0NN
social0.112994637345193JJ
protection0.122839698738001NN
service0.0443555132287109NN

Providing income security is another area in which the structural context and design specifics which pay attention to incentives and reward desirable behaviors are critical to policy outcomes box

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.584722754387968
WordScorePoS
provide0VB
income0.166475342664294NN
security0NN
context0NN
pay0.02794560829783NN
attention0.0396106020715138NN
incentive0NN
critical0JJ
policy0.0848203862485078NN
outcome0.0330412182586772NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.341544809903516
WordScorePoS
provide0.00740117451847634VB
income0.110649350233433NN
security0NN
context0NN
pay0NN
attention0NN
incentive0NN
critical0.0454743001434393JJ
policy0.011275328195446NN
outcome0.030745604615229NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.330734055555674
WordScorePoS
provide0.00601568197638796VB
income0.017987180284335NN
security0NN
context0.036961556179878NN
pay0NN
attention0NN
incentive0.036961556179878NN
critical0.036961556179878JJ
policy0.0641521854453136NN
outcome0NN

This is also true of minimum wage policies for which the key to avoiding large efficiency costs is to get the level right and to allow for enough flexibility across types of workers to accommodate different demand and supply elasticities for their labor

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.454714076366406
WordScorePoS
wage0NN
policy0NN
key0.0625160381065121NN
avoid0VB
efficiency0.134992154141495NN
cost0NN
level0NN
flexibility0NN
type0NN
worker0NN
demand0NN
supply0.0528748274225028NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.391547105519197
WordScorePoS
wage0.064698038783335NN
policy0.0848203862485078NN
key0NN
avoid0VB
efficiency0NN
cost0.0660824365173543NN
level0NN
flexibility0NN
type0NN
worker0NN
demand0NN
supply0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.370469618686888
WordScorePoS
wage0NN
policy0.0452169560888236NN
key0NN
avoid0VB
efficiency0.0295821503613099NN
cost0NN
level0.00761994916892276NN
flexibility0NN
type0NN
worker0.121575732851624NN
demand0NN
supply0NN

Design specifics and the broader structural context are equally critical to the success of legislation on other work standards health and safety or protection for specific vulnerable groups such as child laborers ethnic minorities or the disabled

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.530957535220057
WordScorePoS
context0NN
critical0JJ
legislation0NN
standard0NN
health0.191387734041787NN
safety0NN
protection0.020806307400253NN
specific0JJ
vulnerable0JJ
child0.10682408961305NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.46748787943378
WordScorePoS
context0NN
critical0JJ
legislation0NN
standard0NN
health0NN
safety0NN
protection0.122839698738001NN
specific0JJ
vulnerable0.112994637345193JJ
child0.0450489732120807NN

There is an international consensus that core labor standards freedom from forced and child labor freedom from discrimination at work freedom of association and the right to collective bargaining have such intrinsic value that they should always be pursued

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.769721171536125
WordScorePoS
international0.0189945307832458JJ
consensus0NN
standard0NN
freedom0.107490825192354NN
force0NN
child0.0603953832457135NN
discrimination0NN
pursue0VB

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.343430792245717
WordScorePoS
international0.00402768349408688JJ
consensus0NN
standard0NN
freedom0NN
force0.0465610847355851NN
child0.0170753354211044NN
discrimination0.111637082206855NN
pursue0VB

But even for these core standards there are questions about how to achieve them most effectively and with minimum cost

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.547382728521774
WordScorePoS
standard0NN
achieve0.018377882320743VB
effectively0RB
cost0.0660824365173543NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.545023058660297
WordScorePoS
standard0.0409791940864438NN
achieve0.0154106104202498VB
effectively0RB
cost0.0277064208763707NN

An example of government intervention to protect workers from abuse comes from Cambodia successful experience with implementing core labor standards in the garment industry

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.707756147235616
WordScorePoS
government0NN
intervention0NN
protect0VB
worker0.0454743001434393NN
abuse0NN
successful0JJ
experience0NN
implement0VB
standard0.0454743001434393NN
garment0.0602029956716497NN
industry0.181897200573757NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.369015841002076
WordScorePoS
government0.048933054487825NN
intervention0NN
protect0VB
worker0NN
abuse0NN
successful0.048933054487825JJ
experience0.0299586785922821NN
implement0.0458229896037954VB
standard0NN
garment0NN
industry0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.360808012107951
WordScorePoS
government0NN
intervention0NN
protect0.0180650490434051VB
worker0.121575732851624NN
abuse0NN
successful0JJ
experience0NN
implement0.030144637392549VB
standard0NN
garment0NN
industry0NN

Starting in Cambodia could earn higher quota for exports to the United States by demonstrating improvements in working conditions

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.69387011957689
WordScorePoS
quota0.048933054487825NN
export0.110884668539634NN
unite0.036961556179878VB
improvement0NN
condition0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.428692333009922
WordScorePoS
quota0NN
export0NN
unite0VB
improvement0NN
condition0.121575732851624NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.326041778516999
WordScorePoS
quota0NN
export0NN
unite0VB
improvement0.0924643738905717NN
condition0NN

A monitoring system developed and implemented by the ILO with support from the U

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.638750258354623
WordScorePoS
monitor0.0599173571845643NN
system0.0211360962287062NN
develop0VB
implement0.0458229896037954VB
support0.0451108483130998NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.42886840172771
WordScorePoS
monitor0NN
system0.0519476926891779NN
develop0VB
implement0.0450489732120807VB
support0.0184786920895884NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.354647537158245
WordScorePoS
monitor0NN
system0.0756001353333673NN
develop0VB
implement0.0109267235789154VB
support0.00896409157262106NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.302547292506584
WordScorePoS
monitor0NN
system0.0315914058171786NN
develop0VB
implement0.0273960270556257VB
support0.0224752180723703NN

Department of Labor the Government of Cambodia and the Garment Manufacturers Association of Cambodia has virtually eliminated the worst labor abuses such as child labor and sexual harassment

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.554434473170598
WordScorePoS
government0NN
garment0NN
eliminate0.078760887431929VB
worst0JJS
abuse0NN
child0.0170753354211044NN
sexual0.13773238606089JJ

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.545769779948278
WordScorePoS
government0NN
garment0NN
eliminate0VB
worst0JJS
abuse0.0615471563780609NN
child0.10682408961305NN
sexual0.0615471563780609JJ

A recent survey showed enforcement of core labor standards in the garment sector has boosted Cambodian exports to Europe and North America

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.595803620428828
WordScorePoS
survey0NN
standard0.0454743001434393NN
garment0.0602029956716497NN
sector0.0565629593551219NN
export0NN
north0RB

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.57604210700494
WordScorePoS
survey0NN
standard0NN
garment0NN
sector0.0459744293658165NN
export0.110884668539634NN
north0RB

But Markets and the macroeconomy BOX

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.79660429075857
WordScorePoS
market0.0913569596328122NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.32880761576271
WordScorePoS
market0.0377086395700813NN

Employment protection legislation Left to itself the labor market does poor job of protecting workers against sharp loss in income associated with unemployment

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.609100357385747
WordScorePoS
employment0.173804667214358NN
protection0NN
legislation0NN
market0.0252035516550537NN
poor0JJ
job0.135650868266471NN
protect0.0180650490434051VB
worker0.121575732851624NN
loss0NN
income0NN
unemployment0.0804764811724088NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.373547792394033
WordScorePoS
employment0NN
protection0.122839698738001NN
legislation0NN
market0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
job0.0225244866060403NN
protect0VB
worker0NN
loss0NN
income0.0442083771593746NN
unemployment0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.321065406498997
WordScorePoS
employment0NN
protection0.0660824365173543NN
legislation0.0396106020715138NN
market0.0202620733250388NN
poor0JJ
job0NN
protect0VB
worker0NN
loss0NN
income0.166475342664294NN
unemployment0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.426049180061571
WordScorePoS
employment0.104016094894625NN
protection0NN
legislation0NN
market0.0377086395700813NN
poor0JJ
job0.0902026255635679NN
protect0VB
worker0.0454743001434393NN
loss0NN
income0.110649350233433NN
unemployment0NN

As result most societies have developed ways to cope with the threat of job loss

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.631848278318485
WordScorePoS
result0NN
society0.0591643007226199NN
develop0VB
threat0NN
job0.135650868266471NN
loss0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.384453173426409
WordScorePoS
result0NN
society0.118536858482514NN
develop0VB
threat0NN
job0NN
loss0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.364330428266254
WordScorePoS
result0NN
society0.0221298700466866NN
develop0VB
threat0NN
job0.0902026255635679NN
loss0NN

Often this involves some combination of informal support mechanisms private savings and obligations on employers

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.829885863585866
WordScorePoS
involve0VB
support0.0451108483130998NN
mechanism0.147846224719512NN
private0.0898760357768464JJ
obligation0NN
employer0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.32300466972623
WordScorePoS
involve0VB
support0.0277502419802315NN
mechanism0NN
private0.0368585655748969JJ
obligation0NN
employer0.0454743001434393NN

When these mechanisms break down as they do when the shocks are large sudden protracted or affect an entire community the government needs to step in

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.699996739003034
WordScorePoS
mechanism0.147846224719512NN
shock0NN
affect0VB
community0NN
government0.048933054487825NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.493553058440673
WordScorePoS
mechanism0NN
shock0.120266261535276NN
affect0.0184786920895884VB
community0NN
government0NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.389320944159532
WordScorePoS
mechanism0.0414107553022249NN
shock0NN
affect0.0336940052321454VB
community0.0343390275626203NN
government0NN

Government intervention typically involves one or several of the following instruments job security regulations mandated severance pay unemployment insurance or mandatory self insurance mechanisms

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.748587165647007
WordScorePoS
government0NN
intervention0NN
typically0RB
involve0VB
job0.135650868266471NN
security0NN
regulation0NN
mandate0NN
pay0.0695218668857431NN
unemployment0.0804764811724088NN
insurance0.0804764811724088NN
mechanism0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.391792512028898
WordScorePoS
government0.048933054487825NN
intervention0NN
typically0RB
involve0VB
job0NN
security0NN
regulation0.036961556179878NN
mandate0NN
pay0NN
unemployment0NN
insurance0NN
mechanism0.147846224719512NN

Job security legislation is typically aimed at protecting jobs and preventing job destruction

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.718910864077636
WordScorePoS
job0.135650868266471NN
security0NN
legislation0NN
typically0RB
aim0.0410992516792148NN
protect0.0180650490434051VB
prevent0VB

Most evidence suggests that it is quite effective at doing so

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.836364681817924
WordScorePoS
evidence0.12939607756667NN
suggest0VB
effective0.0145231653596925JJ

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.349860507153779
WordScorePoS
evidence0NN
suggest0.0602029956716497VB
effective0JJ

Across countries more stringent employment protection legislation EPL appears strongly associated with more stable employment

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.768013774609911
WordScorePoS
country0NN
employment0.173804667214358NN
protection0NN
legislation0NN
stable0.0607878664258118JJ

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.391216166482294
WordScorePoS
country0NN
employment0.104016094894625NN
protection0NN
legislation0NN
stable0JJ

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.340644864952312
WordScorePoS
country0NN
employment0.0393804437159645NN
protection0.0465610847355851NN
legislation0.0558185411034276NN
stable0JJ

But EPL reduces job destruction at significant cost as the expectation of high separation costs makes firms more reluctant to expand employment and makes it less profitable to start new ventures or create new firms

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.617526948250393
WordScorePoS
reduce0.0055149369084567VB
job0.135650868266471NN
significant0JJ
cost0NN
firm0NN
expand0.0295821503613099VB
employment0.173804667214358NN
create0.0695218668857431VB

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.546775072152783
WordScorePoS
reduce0VB
job0.0902026255635679NN
significant0JJ
cost0NN
firm0.0602029956716497NN
expand0VB
employment0.104016094894625NN
create0.0520080474473126VB

So employment protection also reduces job creation

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.839825330128449
WordScorePoS
employment0.173804667214358NN
protection0NN
reduce0.0055149369084567VB
job0.135650868266471NN
creation0.160952962344818NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.342722776652207
WordScorePoS
employment0.104016094894625NN
protection0NN
reduce0VB
job0.0902026255635679NN
creation0NN

For example researchers found that strict new job security laws enacted in the reduced employment in many industries in Zim babwe Fallon and Lucas

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.638882070798836
WordScorePoS
researcher0NN
job0.0902026255635679NN
security0NN
law0NN
reduce0VB
employment0.104016094894625NN
industry0.181897200573757NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.535018531224207
WordScorePoS
researcher0NN
job0.135650868266471NN
security0NN
law0NN
reduce0.0055149369084567VB
employment0.173804667214358NN
industry0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.317278603151583
WordScorePoS
researcher0NN
job0NN
security0NN
law0.164686343640793NN
reduce0.0220985725470694VB
employment0NN
industry0NN

Overall the net effect of job security legislation on employment is ambiguous Bertola OECD Bertola Blau and Kahn Kugler

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.645775790733525
WordScorePoS
effect0NN
job0.135650868266471NN
security0NN
legislation0NN
employment0.173804667214358NN
oecd0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.500194477606673
WordScorePoS
effect0.0454743001434393NN
job0.0902026255635679NN
security0NN
legislation0NN
employment0.104016094894625NN
oecd0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.353882149299686
WordScorePoS
effect0.0440683498519077NN
job0.0109267235789154NN
security0.0893850849591018NN
legislation0NN
employment0.0252000451111224NN
oecd0NN

What is clear is that EPL changes the nature of unemployment

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.896404367540152
WordScorePoS
nature0.162755901889551NN
unemployment0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.4432371936728
WordScorePoS
nature0NN
unemployment0.0804764811724088NN

Lower job destruction reduces the incidence of unemployment

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.845567499066874
WordScorePoS
job0.135650868266471NN
reduce0.0055149369084567VB
incidence0NN
unemployment0.0804764811724088NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.344123902365477
WordScorePoS
job0.0902026255635679NN
reduce0VB
incidence0NN
unemployment0NN

But lower job creation increases the duration of unemployment and can lead to the emergence of long term unemployment

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.884116371408004
WordScorePoS
job0.135650868266471NN
creation0.160952962344818NN
increase0.00711043475673939NN
unemployment0.0804764811724088NN
lead0.0504071033101074NN
term0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.264538936446775
WordScorePoS
job0NN
creation0NN
increase0.00432344066632653NN
unemployment0NN
lead0NN
term0.149793392961411NN

Not surprisingly EPL appears to have different impact on different groups of workers

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.685049047578746
WordScorePoS
impact0NN
worker0.121575732851624NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.487980110255313
WordScorePoS
impact0.0866018859977851NN
worker0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.346487685739072
WordScorePoS
impact0.0160169090870187NN
worker0.0454743001434393NN

In both Colombia and Spain the reduction of dismissal costs and job security provisions was associated with moderate increases in the employment of young men and women Kugler Kugler Jimeno and Hernanz

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.554044670649682
WordScorePoS
reduction0NN
cost0NN
job0.135650868266471NN
security0NN
provision0NN
increase0.00711043475673939NN
employment0.173804667214358NN
woman0.0452169560888236NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.518053709508059
WordScorePoS
reduction0NN
cost0NN
job0.0170753354211044NN
security0NN
provision0.0558185411034276NN
increase0.00402768349408688NN
employment0.0393804437159645NN
woman0.221979360474357NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.321869940749181
WordScorePoS
reduction0NN
cost0NN
job0.0902026255635679NN
security0NN
provision0NN
increase0.0159575617614215NN
employment0.104016094894625NN
woman0NN

For Chile Montenegro and Pagés find that job security regulations reduce the employment rate of youth and the unskilled to the benefit of older and more skilled workers

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.736688984330913
WordScorePoS
job0.135650868266471NN
security0NN
regulation0NN
reduce0.0055149369084567VB
employment0.173804667214358NN
rate0NN
youth0.0821985033584295NN
benefit0NN
worker0.121575732851624NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.377326423728213
WordScorePoS
job0.0902026255635679NN
security0NN
regulation0NN
reduce0VB
employment0.104016094894625NN
rate0NN
youth0NN
benefit0.0260040237236563NN
worker0.0454743001434393NN

A study across the countries of the Organisation for Economic Co operation and Development arrives at similar conclusion consistent with the story that EPL protects insiders stricter EPL increases the employment of adult men and reduces that of young workers and women OECD

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.593127450120984
WordScorePoS
study0NN
country0NN
economic0.128463821595706JJ
development0.0055149369084567NN
conclusion0NN
consistent0JJ
protect0.0180650490434051VB
increase0.00711043475673939NN
employment0.173804667214358NN
adult0JJ
reduce0.0055149369084567VB
worker0.121575732851624NN
woman0.0452169560888236NN
oecd0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.411625891469935
WordScorePoS
study0NN
country0NN
economic0.0727679293221751JJ
development0.0124956749436837NN
conclusion0NN
consistent0JJ
protect0VB
increase0.00402768349408688NN
employment0.0393804437159645NN
adult0JJ
reduce0VB
worker0NN
woman0.221979360474357NN
oecd0NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.354059224527828
WordScorePoS
study0NN
country0NN
economic0JJ
development0.0279277626235394NN
conclusion0NN
consistent0JJ
protect0VB
increase0.0144029596227568NN
employment0.0352060273355634NN
adult0.163013873070017JJ
reduce0VB
worker0NN
woman0.0610612445035112NN
oecd0NN

Given the complex effects of EPL how can governments best intervene to help protect workers against temporary drops in income whether the system will survive the end of the U

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.413055504741628
WordScorePoS
effect0NN
government0NN
protect0VB
worker0NN
income0.166475342664294NN
system0NN
survive0VB

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.500201062057375
WordScorePoS
effect0.0454743001434393NN
government0NN
protect0VB
worker0.0454743001434393NN
income0.110649350233433NN
system0NN
survive0VB

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.48904532030289
WordScorePoS
effect0.0440683498519077NN
government0NN
protect0.0130963126055467VB
worker0NN
income0.0643370113878709NN
system0.0756001353333673NN
survive0VB

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.346474094752159
WordScorePoS
effect0NN
government0NN
protect0.0180650490434051VB
worker0.121575732851624NN
income0NN
system0NN
survive0VB

quota incentives remains to be seen see chapter

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.898687711814224
WordScorePoS
quota0.048933054487825NN
incentive0.036961556179878NN
remains0.036961556179878NNS

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.332642599805037
WordScorePoS
quota0NN
incentive0NN
remains0.0454743001434393NNS

How to reform bad set of labor market institutions Reforming labor market institutions is technically and politically difficult

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.774578586843804
WordScorePoS
reform0NN
bad0JJ
set0NN
market0NN
institution0.274477239401321NN

It is technically difficult because reforms need to be coordinated across variety of labor market institutions and often also with reforms outside the labor market

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.595425896019442
WordScorePoS
reform0NN
coordinate0NN
variety0NN
market0NN
institution0.274477239401321NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.302939207173059
WordScorePoS
reform0NN
coordinate0NN
variety0NN
market0.0202620733250388NN
institution0.0991236547760315NN

It is politically difficult because there usually are vested interests in maintaining the status quo

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.730062214735524
WordScorePoS
maintain0.0881366997038154VB
status0NN

Moreover the short term costs of reform can be large and unevenly distributed

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.566306179093842
WordScorePoS
term0.149793392961411NN
cost0NN
reform0NN
distribute0VB

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.644177410436213
WordScorePoS
term0.0396106020715138NN
cost0.0660824365173543NN
reform0NN
distribute0.064698038783335VB

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.344680564848731
WordScorePoS
term0NN
cost0NN
reform0.0911713013253052NN
distribute0VB

Take reforms to reduce employment protection those currently protected see themselves as having much more to lose from reform than to gain from such reduction

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.405474800085901
WordScorePoS
reform0NN
reduce0.0055149369084567VB
employment0.173804667214358NN
protection0NN
protect0.0180650490434051VB
lose0VB
gain0NN
reduction0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.551119110224143
WordScorePoS
reform0.0911713013253052NN
reduce0VB
employment0.0393804437159645NN
protection0.0465610847355851NN
protect0VB
lose0VB
gain0NN
reduction0NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.309602120368112
WordScorePoS
reform0NN
reduce0.00709051106978941VB
employment0NN
protection0NN
protect0.046452183350325VB
lose0.0781544824456958VB
gain0NN
reduction0.0190167691930804NN

And if they are also politically influential represented by unions and with political voice their power to block associated with unemployment

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.630668622175303
WordScorePoS
represent0VB
political0.0792212041430275JJ
voice0.064698038783335NN
power0NN
unemployment0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.489204941517739
WordScorePoS
represent0VB
political0.111637082206855JJ
voice0NN
power0NN
unemployment0NN

Some EPL may be efficient reducing excessive volatility in turnover

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.910279966691977
WordScorePoS
efficient0.108503934593034JJ
reduce0.022306853314744VB
excessive0.0542519672965169JJ
volatility0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.326300023948292
WordScorePoS
efficient0JJ
reduce0.00799614078871077VB
excessive0JJ
volatility0.0583416713841148NN

But too strong EPL as is typical of many formal sectors in the developing world slows the pace of creative destruction central to innovation and growth with disproportionate adverse effects on those without good jobs

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.703457496999723
WordScorePoS
strong0JJ
sector0.0252035516550537NN
develop0VB
world0.00172202218602071NN
slow0.0607878664258118JJ
pace0NN
central0JJ
innovation0.0821985033584295NN
growth0.208565600657229NN
adverse0JJ
effect0NN
job0.135650868266471NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.532629311509495
WordScorePoS
strong0.0454743001434393JJ
sector0.0565629593551219NN
develop0VB
world0.00257642711761688NN
slow0JJ
pace0NN
central0JJ
innovation0.122982418460916NN
growth0.0260040237236563NN
adverse0JJ
effect0.0454743001434393NN
job0.0902026255635679NN

Yet reducing EPL needs to be complemented by greater worker security that is not linked to specific jobs both on social welfare and political economy grounds

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.628784016324672
WordScorePoS
reduce0.0055149369084567VB
complement0NN
worker0.121575732851624NN
security0NN
specific0JJ
job0.135650868266471NN
social0.0504071033101074JJ
welfare0NN
political0JJ
economy0.0821985033584295NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.33648929352165
WordScorePoS
reduce0.0310356414389692VB
complement0NN
worker0NN
security0NN
specific0JJ
job0NN
social0.101310366625194JJ
welfare0NN
political0.0792212041430275JJ
economy0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.324177914039001
WordScorePoS
reduce0VB
complement0NN
worker0NN
security0NN
specific0JJ
job0.0170753354211044NN
social0.0285529457667019JJ
welfare0NN
political0.111637082206855JJ
economy0.0465610847355851NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.304397934071608
WordScorePoS
reduce0VB
complement0NN
worker0.0454743001434393NN
security0NN
specific0JJ
job0.0902026255635679NN
social0.0188543197850406JJ
welfare0NN
political0.0368585655748969JJ
economy0NN

The design of the optimal solution depends on the institutional and administrative capacity of government and on the structural characteristics of the labor market Blanchard

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.532311001318593
WordScorePoS
solution0NN
depend0VB
institutional0.036961556179878JJ
capacity0.0451108483130998NN
government0.048933054487825NN
characteristic0.036961556179878JJ
market0.030649619577211NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.484354740468255
WordScorePoS
solution0.0357189919948307NN
depend0.0357189919948307VB
institutional0JJ
capacity0.0179281831452421NN
government0NN
characteristic0JJ
market0.0913569596328122NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.469610796317564
WordScorePoS
solution0.0671298309154199NN
depend0VB
institutional0.0828215106044499JJ
capacity0.025270503924109NN
government0NN
characteristic0JJ
market0NN

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.393486933188134
WordScorePoS
solution0NN
depend0.0651400632663124VB
institutional0JJ
capacity0.0081738237776987NN
government0NN
characteristic0.0401833161726777JJ
market0.0333211986002325NN

Countries with significant administrative capacity and medium to high incomes can implement unemployment insurance systems with incentives for job search declining benefits with duration and provision of benefits conditional on acceptance of acceptable job offer

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.585516955537635
WordScorePoS
country0NN
significant0JJ
capacity0.0123650647908625NN
medium0.0607878664258118NN
income0NN
implement0.030144637392549VB
unemployment0.0804764811724088NN
insurance0.0804764811724088NN
system0NN
incentive0NN
job0.135650868266471NN
decline0NN
benefit0NN
provision0NN
offer0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.27011212902632
WordScorePoS
country0NN
significant0.0405241466500776JJ
capacity0NN
medium0NN
income0.166475342664294NN
implement0.0121171980355011VB
unemployment0NN
insurance0NN
system0NN
incentive0NN
job0NN
decline0.02794560829783NN
benefit0NN
provision0NN
offer0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.474502603511481
WordScorePoS
country0NN
significant0JJ
capacity0NN
medium0.0454743001434393NN
income0.110649350233433NN
implement0VB
unemployment0NN
insurance0NN
system0NN
incentive0NN
job0.0902026255635679NN
decline0NN
benefit0.0260040237236563NN
provision0NN
offer0.0454743001434393NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.311713826383556
WordScorePoS
country0NN
significant0JJ
capacity0.0179281831452421NN
medium0NN
income0.0643370113878709NN
implement0.0109267235789154VB
unemployment0NN
insurance0NN
system0.0756001353333673NN
incentive0NN
job0.0109267235789154NN
decline0NN
benefit0.0252000451111224NN
provision0NN
offer0.0440683498519077NN

Middle income countries reluctant to implement full blown unemployment insurance system can support self insurance mechanisms such as mandatory savings accounts but because of the limits to self insurance these are not as effective

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.41592094051471
WordScorePoS
middle0JJ
income0.017987180284335NN
country0NN
implement0.0458229896037954VB
full0JJ
unemployment0NN
insurance0NN
system0.0211360962287062NN
support0.0451108483130998NN
mechanism0.147846224719512NN
account0NN
limit0NN
effective0.0219686053934784JJ

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.291724634381866
WordScorePoS
middle0JJ
income0.166475342664294NN
country0NN
implement0.0121171980355011VB
full0JJ
unemployment0NN
insurance0NN
system0NN
support0NN
mechanism0NN
account0.0172128079963482NN
limit0NN
effective0.0145231653596925JJ

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.604653601464633
WordScorePoS
middle0JJ
income0NN
country0NN
implement0.030144637392549VB
full0.0410992516792148JJ
unemployment0.0804764811724088NN
insurance0.0804764811724088NN
system0NN
support0.024730129581725NN
mechanism0NN
account0NN
limit0NN
effective0.0180650490434051JJ

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.391442864922354
WordScorePoS
middle0.0602029956716497JJ
income0.110649350233433NN
country0NN
implement0VB
full0.030745604615229JJ
unemployment0NN
insurance0NN
system0NN
support0.0277502419802315NN
mechanism0NN
account0.0160169090870187NN
limit0.0368585655748969NN
effective0JJ

Lowincome countries can opt for public works schemes which if effectively designed are selftargeting and can be implemented even when levels of informality are high chapter

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

reforms may be an insurmountable barrier

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.944098500224771
WordScorePoS
reform0.0911713013253052NN
barrier0.0558185411034276NN

Several countries have implemented substantial labor market reforms more or less successfully Ireland the Republic of Korea the Netherlands New Zealand and the Slovak Republic among OECD countries Chile and Colombia among developing countries see box

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

for Colombia and the Slovak Republic

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

China is in the midst of large labor market transition and the Balkans are struggling through dramatic labor market reforms

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Experience suggests that effective change involves combination of factors designing and implementing consistent and comprehensive policy package tackling vested interests broadening societal accountability including increasing the voice of poorer groups and in some cases compensating losers

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.680273384062643
WordScorePoS
experience0.0335649154577099NN
suggest0VB
effective0.0123065238088614JJ
change0.402565546215053NN
involve0VB
implement0.0102677744436108VB
consistent0JJ
policy0.0102677744436108NN
tackle0VB
broaden0VB
accountability0NN
include0VB
increase0.0145316075945746NN
voice0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.411656317444668
WordScorePoS
experience0NN
suggest0VB
effective0.0145231653596925JJ
change0NN
involve0.0488696285210061VB
implement0.0121171980355011VB
consistent0JJ
policy0.0848203862485078NN
tackle0.064698038783335VB
broaden0VB
accountability0NN
include0VB
increase0.00285817158600878NN
voice0.064698038783335NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.354724722902637
WordScorePoS
experience0.0299586785922821NN
suggest0VB
effective0.0219686053934784JJ
change0NN
involve0VB
implement0.0458229896037954VB
consistent0.036961556179878JJ
policy0.0641521854453136NN
tackle0VB
broaden0VB
accountability0.048933054487825NN
include0VB
increase0.00432344066632653NN
voice0NN

Macroeconomic and financial shocks can facilitate change although not always positive one

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.802775621220127
WordScorePoS
macroeconomic0JJ
financial0JJ
shock0NN
facilitate0VB
change0.402565546215053NN
positive0JJ

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.316320828968793
WordScorePoS
macroeconomic0JJ
financial0JJ
shock0NN
facilitate0.0528748274225028VB
change0.105749654845006NN
positive0JJ

Reforming institutions in the BOX

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.88684610814083
WordScorePoS
reform0NN
institution0.274477239401321NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.320272193259299
WordScorePoS
reform0NN
institution0.0991236547760315NN

WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT Two cases of labor market reform one comprehensive one partial Comprehensive reform in the Slovak Republic In unemployment in the Slovak Republic reached percent of the labor force the highest in the OECD at that time

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.513608579528413
WordScorePoS
world0.00464349782489754NN
development0.022306853314744NN
report0.0409791940864438NN
market0.0169905820958638NN
reform0NN
unemployment0NN
reach0.0332151194779746NN
force0NN
oecd0.108503934593034NN
time0.0169905820958638NN

The main factor was the substantial job reallocation generated by the transition to market economy compounded by low labor mobility because of skill and regional mismatches

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.745073495448251
WordScorePoS
substantial0.0499016491051341JJ
job0.0152653111258778NN
generate0VB
market0NN
economy0NN
mobility0NN
skill0.407534682675042NN
regional0JJ

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.383100617154195
WordScorePoS
substantial0JJ
job0.135650868266471NN
generate0VB
market0.0252035516550537NN
economy0.0821985033584295NN
mobility0NN
skill0NN
regional0JJ

But the impact of the transition shock on the labor market was worsened by an inadequate set of institutions high rates of taxation of labor and overly generous unemployment benefit and social assistance systems which discouraged job search and encouraged informality

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.407544673771735
WordScorePoS
impact0NN
shock0NN
market0.0252035516550537NN
worsen0VB
inadequate0JJ
set0NN
institution0.0410992516792148NN
rate0NN
taxation0NN
unemployment0.0804764811724088NN
benefit0NN
social0.0504071033101074JJ
assistance0.0410992516792148NN
system0NN
job0.135650868266471NN
encouraged0JJ

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.392650429424653
WordScorePoS
impact0.0285977592242194NN
shock0NN
market0NN
worsen0VB
inadequate0JJ
set0NN
institution0.274477239401321NN
rate0.0571955184484387NN
taxation0NN
unemployment0NN
benefit0NN
social0JJ
assistance0NN
system0NN
job0NN
encouraged0JJ

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.485385234812367
WordScorePoS
impact0NN
shock0.120266261535276NN
market0NN
worsen0VB
inadequate0.0736315832425121JJ
set0NN
institution0NN
rate0.0639932865717261NN
taxation0NN
unemployment0NN
benefit0NN
social0.112994637345193JJ
assistance0NN
system0.0519476926891779NN
job0.0225244866060403NN
encouraged0JJ

Reforming these institutions in the midst of high unemployment was extremely difficult particularly for reformist government with small majority in parliament

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.670982776877992
WordScorePoS
reform0NN
institution0.274477239401321NN
unemployment0NN
government0NN
majority0NN
parliament0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.445751881418398
WordScorePoS
reform0.0911713013253052NN
institution0NN
unemployment0NN
government0NN
majority0NN
parliament0.0911713013253052NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.4359790594675
WordScorePoS
reform0NN
institution0.0991236547760315NN
unemployment0NN
government0NN
majority0.0792212041430275NN
parliament0NN

But in early bolstered by its reelection the reformist Slovak government undertook comprehensive and ambitious reform of social and labor market policy

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.530828374942284
WordScorePoS
government0NN
undertake0.0688661930304451VB
reform0.0911713013253052NN
social0.0285529457667019JJ
market0NN
policy0.0341506708422088NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.491867747522391
WordScorePoS
government0NN
undertake0VB
reform0NN
social0.101310366625194JJ
market0.0202620733250388NN
policy0.0848203862485078NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.376643685571986
WordScorePoS
government0NN
undertake0VB
reform0NN
social0.112994637345193JJ
market0NN
policy0.0450489732120807NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.342543599454981
WordScorePoS
government0.048933054487825NN
undertake0VB
reform0NN
social0JJ
market0.030649619577211NN
policy0.0641521854453136NN

The government multipronged strategy combined measures to reduce the taxation of labor increase the incentives to work through reform of unemployment insurance and social assistance invest in the skills of labor and employability improve the matching of workers and jobs through higher labor flexibility and mobility and strengthen state administration in labor and social policy

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.587279247514785
WordScorePoS
government0NN
strategy0.0295821503613099NN
measure0.0347609334428716NN
reduce0.0055149369084567VB
taxation0NN
increase0.00711043475673939NN
incentive0NN
reform0NN
unemployment0.0804764811724088NN
insurance0.0804764811724088NN
social0.0504071033101074JJ
assistance0.0410992516792148NN
invest0VB
skill0NN
improve0.0150723186962745VB
match0NN
worker0.121575732851624NN
job0.135650868266471NN
flexibility0NN
mobility0NN
strengthen0.00989353561471291VB
policy0.0452169560888236NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.388395109248559
WordScorePoS
government0NN
strategy0NN
measure0NN
reduce0VB
taxation0NN
increase0.0144029596227568NN
incentive0NN
reform0NN
unemployment0NN
insurance0NN
social0JJ
assistance0NN
invest0VB
skill0.407534682675042NN
improve0.0305306222517556VB
match0NN
worker0NN
job0.0152653111258778NN
flexibility0NN
mobility0NN
strengthen0VB
policy0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.380437000080643
WordScorePoS
government0NN
strategy0.0442083771593746NN
measure0.103895385378356NN
reduce0.0164833460638534VB
taxation0NN
increase0NN
incentive0NN
reform0NN
unemployment0NN
insurance0NN
social0.112994637345193JJ
assistance0NN
invest0VB
skill0NN
improve0VB
match0NN
worker0NN
job0.0225244866060403NN
flexibility0NN
mobility0NN
strengthen0VB
policy0.0450489732120807NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.364655959754457
WordScorePoS
government0NN
strategy0NN
measure0NN
reduce0.0310356414389692VB
taxation0NN
increase0.00285817158600878NN
incentive0NN
reform0NN
unemployment0NN
insurance0NN
social0.101310366625194JJ
assistance0.0330412182586772NN
invest0VB
skill0NN
improve0.0121171980355011VB
match0NN
worker0NN
job0NN
flexibility0NN
mobility0.064698038783335NN
strengthen0.00795378154685591VB
policy0.0848203862485078NN

The new strategy represented marked change in philosophy in labor and social policy in the Slovak Republic from system that mixed ingredients of insurance and redistribution toward one that separates social insurance from equity objectives and from tradition of entitlements based on subjective or moral norms to one that guarantees certain living standard to all citizens irrespective of the reason they may have for being poor but that rewards individual initiative and motivation

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.574768686290883
WordScorePoS
strategy0.0442083771593746NN
represent0VB
change0NN
social0.112994637345193JJ
policy0.0450489732120807NN
system0.0519476926891779NN
insurance0NN
objective0NN
base0.0442083771593746NN
guarantee0NN
live0.0739258553811849VB
standard0NN
irrespective0RB
poor0.150659516460257JJ
individual0JJ
initiative0NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.391307047985695
WordScorePoS
strategy0.0201523636533764NN
represent0VB
change0.402565546215053NN
social0JJ
policy0.0102677744436108NN
system0NN
insurance0NN
objective0NN
base0NN
guarantee0NN
live0VB
standard0NN
irrespective0RB
poor0JJ
individual0JJ
initiative0NN

The key ingredients in pushing the reform through were reformist government with strong popular mandate strong leadership and technical competency from the Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs accession into the European Union as disciplining device and widespread public perception built on analysis and dissemination of this analysis that institutional reforms were needed

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Moreover labor market reform was carried out not in isolation but as part of broader policy package to make the Slovak economy more competitive in light of EU accession

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.539430809377885
WordScorePoS
market0NN
reform0.0911713013253052NN
policy0.0341506708422088NN
economy0.0465610847355851NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.478973309927707
WordScorePoS
market0.0252035516550537NN
reform0NN
policy0.0452169560888236NN
economy0.0821985033584295NN

This package included substantial midst of widespread job loss and high unemployment as in the Republic of Korea following the financial crisis is particularly difficult even though it may be easier at such times to achieve societal consensus for reform

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.590462398481047
WordScorePoS
include0VB
substantial0JJ
job0.135650868266471NN
loss0NN
unemployment0.0804764811724088NN
financial0.0370951943725875JJ
time0NN
achieve0.0152398983378455VB
consensus0NN
reform0NN

Designing consistent and coherent policy package

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.633051280218249
WordScorePoS
consistent0.036961556179878JJ
policy0.0641521854453136NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.5310421040719
WordScorePoS
consistent0JJ
policy0.0848203862485078NN

One of the strongest lessons from country experience is that piecemeal reform does not work tinkering at the margin usually has perverse distributional effects

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Moreover reforms need to cover range of labor market policies and to be linked with reforms in social protection systems

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.552090865019724
WordScorePoS
reform0NN
cover0NN
range0NN
market0NN
policy0.0450489732120807NN
social0.112994637345193JJ
protection0.122839698738001NN
system0.0519476926891779NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.483710134419053
WordScorePoS
reform0.0911713013253052NN
cover0NN
range0NN
market0NN
policy0.0341506708422088NN
social0.0285529457667019JJ
protection0.0465610847355851NN
system0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.451974433248356
WordScorePoS
reform0NN
cover0NN
range0NN
market0.0202620733250388NN
policy0.0848203862485078NN
social0.101310366625194JJ
protection0.0660824365173543NN
system0NN

Reform is more effective and more equitable when different labor market instruments are coordinated measures to reduce insider power and increase flexibility by lowering the restrictions and costs of firing can be linked to setting up of unemployment insurance mechanisms and eliminating dual status contracts

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.566643112163502
WordScorePoS
reform0NN
effective0.0219686053934784JJ
equitable0.017987180284335JJ
market0.030649619577211NN
coordinate0.036961556179878NN
measure0NN
reduce0.00335331148065841VB
power0.036961556179878NN
increase0.00432344066632653NN
flexibility0NN
restriction0NN
cost0NN
set0.0978661089756501NN
unemployment0NN
insurance0NN
mechanism0.147846224719512NN
eliminate0VB
status0.036961556179878NN
contract0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.432702522141457
WordScorePoS
reform0NN
effective0.0180650490434051JJ
equitable0JJ
market0.0252035516550537NN
coordinate0NN
measure0.0347609334428716NN
reduce0.0055149369084567VB
power0NN
increase0.00711043475673939NN
flexibility0NN
restriction0NN
cost0NN
set0NN
unemployment0.0804764811724088NN
insurance0.0804764811724088NN
mechanism0NN
eliminate0VB
status0NN
contract0.0804764811724088NN

Reforms in other markets and the public sector are often key to the success of labor market reform

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.650827846153522
WordScorePoS
reform0.0911713013253052NN
market0NN
public0.0727679293221751NN
sector0.0571058915334038NN
key0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.481071013537258
WordScorePoS
reform0NN
market0.0913569596328122NN
public0NN
sector0.0182713919265625NN
key0.0297950283197006NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.308506079584714
WordScorePoS
reform0NN
market0.0377086395700813NN
public0.0160169090870187NN
sector0.0565629593551219NN
key0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.305029481811588
WordScorePoS
reform0NN
market0.030649619577211NN
public0.0390556786919513NN
sector0.0459744293658165NN
key0NN

The overhaul of personal income taxes as well as reform of the education system

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.563971581666911
WordScorePoS
personal0JJ
income0NN
tax0NN
reform0NN
education0.244244978014045NN
system0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.412377435439364
WordScorePoS
personal0JJ
income0.166475342664294NN
tax0NN
reform0NN
education0.0121171980355011NN
system0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.328801171016277
WordScorePoS
personal0JJ
income0NN
tax0NN
reform0.0911713013253052NN
education0.0512260062633133NN
system0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.323120559579297
WordScorePoS
personal0JJ
income0.0643370113878709NN
tax0NN
reform0NN
education0NN
system0.0756001353333673NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.307564229261836
WordScorePoS
personal0JJ
income0.110649350233433NN
tax0NN
reform0NN
education0.022550656390892NN
system0NN

Partial labor market reform in Colombia In Colombia introduced labor market reform that substantially reduced the costs of dismissing workers

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.432659000151275
WordScorePoS
market0.0252035516550537NN
reform0NN
introduce0VB
substantially0RB
reduce0.0055149369084567VB
cost0NN
worker0.121575732851624NN

The reform reduced severance payments widened the definition of just dismissals extended the use of temporary contracts and speeded up the process of mass dismissals

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.573322574697921
WordScorePoS
reform0.0911713013253052NN
reduce0VB
definition0NN
extend0VB
contract0NN
process0.0558185411034276NN

The joint effects of these reforms were to reduce the costs associated with firing workers in firms covered by the legislation

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.453499891108734
WordScorePoS
effect0.0454743001434393NN
reform0NN
reduce0VB
cost0NN
worker0.0454743001434393NN
firm0.0602029956716497NN
cover0NN
legislation0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.441013388663192
WordScorePoS
effect0NN
reform0.0911713013253052NN
reduce0VB
cost0NN
worker0NN
firm0NN
cover0NN
legislation0.0558185411034276NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.428454598064005
WordScorePoS
effect0NN
reform0NN
reduce0.0220985725470694VB
cost0.0548954478802642NN
worker0NN
firm0NN
cover0NN
legislation0.0658099748168827NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.410226839557009
WordScorePoS
effect0NN
reform0NN
reduce0.0310356414389692VB
cost0.0660824365173543NN
worker0NN
firm0NN
cover0NN
legislation0.0396106020715138NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.381309932797177
WordScorePoS
effect0NN
reform0NN
reduce0.0055149369084567VB
cost0NN
worker0.121575732851624NN
firm0NN
cover0NN
legislation0NN

But the reforms did not affect informal sector firms which did not comply with the legislation

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.729226335931746
WordScorePoS
reform0.0911713013253052NN
affect0VB
sector0.0571058915334038NN
firm0NN
legislation0.0558185411034276NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.450250527968472
WordScorePoS
reform0NN
affect0.00925008066007716VB
sector0.0565629593551219NN
firm0.0602029956716497NN
legislation0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.353156989834001
WordScorePoS
reform0NN
affect0.033031539117106VB
sector0NN
firm0NN
legislation0.0658099748168827NN

An analysis of the effects of the reforms suggests that they did increase the dynamism of the Colombian labor market by increasing exit rates into and out of unemployment greater churning

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.52330111155965
WordScorePoS
effect0.0440683498519077NN
reform0NN
suggest0VB
increase0.0128868286091919NN
market0.0913569596328122NN
rate0.0155217067874935NN
unemployment0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.5190973821692
WordScorePoS
effect0.0454743001434393NN
reform0NN
suggest0.0602029956716497VB
increase0.0159575617614215NN
market0.0377086395700813NN
rate0NN
unemployment0NN

There was an increase in worker turnover for formal sector worker greatest among young workers more educated workers and workers employed in larger firms

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.83416181717784
WordScorePoS
increase0.00711043475673939NN
worker0.121575732851624NN
sector0.0252035516550537NN
educate0VB
employ0VB
firm0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.528450988382182
WordScorePoS
increase0.0159575617614215NN
worker0.0454743001434393NN
sector0.0565629593551219NN
educate0VB
employ0.0454743001434393VB
firm0.0602029956716497NN

The reforms may have also contributed to increasing compliance with labor legislation by reducing the costs of formality

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.494388440360884
WordScorePoS
reform0.0911713013253052NN
contribute0VB
increase0.00402768349408688NN
legislation0.0558185411034276NN
reduce0VB
cost0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.467499676310238
WordScorePoS
reform0NN
contribute0VB
increase0NN
legislation0.0658099748168827NN
reduce0.0220985725470694VB
cost0.0548954478802642NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.456967662809709
WordScorePoS
reform0NN
contribute0VB
increase0.00285817158600878NN
legislation0.0396106020715138NN
reduce0.0310356414389692VB
cost0.0660824365173543NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.376519512159323
WordScorePoS
reform0NN
contribute0.0554128417527413VB
increase0.00958677785775002NN
legislation0NN
reduce0.022306853314744VB
cost0.0277064208763707NN

Source Kugler

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.73415387760794
WordScorePoS
source0.0613562156822703NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.32879500351909
WordScorePoS
source0.0274787313211514NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.323029740864511
WordScorePoS
source0.0269969049497485NN

depth and competitiveness of other markets including product and financial markets are critical

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.524924603860937
WordScorePoS
competitiveness0NN
market0.0913569596328122NN
include0VB
product0NN
financial0.00896409157262106JJ
critical0JJ

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.502943349275304
WordScorePoS
competitiveness0NN
market0.0377086395700813NN
include0VB
product0.0442597400933733NN
financial0.0185001613201543JJ
critical0.0454743001434393JJ

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.401657476154169
WordScorePoS
competitiveness0NN
market0.0252035516550537NN
include0VB
product0.0591643007226199NN
financial0.0370951943725875JJ
critical0JJ

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.359533610437275
WordScorePoS
competitiveness0NN
market0.030649619577211NN
include0VB
product0.017987180284335NN
financial0.0150369494376999JJ
critical0.036961556179878JJ

Tackling vested interests

Label: 10, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
tackle0.064698038783335VB

Reforms are often held hostage by politically more powerful groups

Label: 5, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
reform0.0911713013253052NN
hold0.18234260265061NN

For example policies to reduce employment protection allow for subminimum wages or streamline and improve public sector employment typically encounter sharp resistance from unions

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.603520815420246
WordScorePoS
policy0.0452169560888236NN
reduce0.0055149369084567VB
employment0.173804667214358NN
protection0NN
improve0.0150723186962745VB
public0NN
sector0.0252035516550537NN
typically0RB

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.401626189129184
WordScorePoS
policy0.011275328195446NN
reduce0VB
employment0.104016094894625NN
protection0NN
improve0VB
public0.0160169090870187NN
sector0.0565629593551219NN
typically0RB

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.398129974175347
WordScorePoS
policy0.0341506708422088NN
reduce0VB
employment0.0393804437159645NN
protection0.0465610847355851NN
improve0VB
public0.0727679293221751NN
sector0.0571058915334038NN
typically0RB

Building broad societal consensus for reform is often the only way to tackle these vested interests

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.58192453881573
WordScorePoS
building0.149940347231585NN
consensus0NN
reform0NN
tackle0VB

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.502191399131875
WordScorePoS
building0NN
consensus0.064698038783335NN
reform0NN
tackle0.064698038783335VB

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.42610289732711
WordScorePoS
building0.109790895760528NN
consensus0NN
reform0NN
tackle0VB

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.353839499884672
WordScorePoS
building0NN
consensus0NN
reform0.0911713013253052NN
tackle0VB

As first step this may require documenting the high costs of bad labor market policies through good data collection analysis and dissemination as in the Slovak Republic

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.621041895601817
WordScorePoS
require0.0211360962287062VB
document0NN
cost0NN
bad0JJ
market0.030649619577211NN
policy0.0641521854453136NN
datum0.0739231123597559NN
collection0.048933054487825NN
dissemination0.048933054487825NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.377086708537806
WordScorePoS
require0.104282800328615VB
document0NN
cost0NN
bad0JJ
market0.0252035516550537NN
policy0.0452169560888236NN
datum0NN
collection0NN
dissemination0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.369449256549574
WordScorePoS
require0VB
document0NN
cost0.0660824365173543NN
bad0JJ
market0.0202620733250388NN
policy0.0848203862485078NN
datum0NN
collection0NN
dissemination0NN

Broadening social accountability

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.544407052376038
WordScorePoS
broaden0VB
social0.112994637345193JJ
accountability0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.517889739507421
WordScorePoS
broaden0.107490825192354VB
social0JJ
accountability0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.488112350863739
WordScorePoS
broaden0VB
social0.101310366625194JJ
accountability0NN

Building societal consensus in support of labor market reform may require specific measures to empower the groups of so called outsiders or disenfranchised workers who bear the costs of nonreform

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.401379757345109
WordScorePoS
building0.149940347231585NN
consensus0NN
support0.0451108483130998NN
market0.030649619577211NN
reform0NN
require0.0211360962287062VB
specific0JJ
measure0NN
empower0VB
worker0NN
bear0NN
cost0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.504988279300383
WordScorePoS
building0NN
consensus0NN
support0.024730129581725NN
market0.0252035516550537NN
reform0NN
require0.104282800328615VB
specific0JJ
measure0.0347609334428716NN
empower0VB
worker0.121575732851624NN
bear0NN
cost0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.31001974115308
WordScorePoS
building0NN
consensus0.064698038783335NN
support0NN
market0.0202620733250388NN
reform0NN
require0VB
specific0JJ
measure0NN
empower0.0396106020715138VB
worker0NN
bear0NN
cost0.0660824365173543NN

It helps to have political parties and societal organizations with broad bases Markets and the macroeconomy of representation and support

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.493045701462516
WordScorePoS
help0NN
political0.111637082206855JJ
party0NN
organization0NN
basis0NN
market0NN
representation0.0688661930304451NN
support0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.481560373511842
WordScorePoS
help0NN
political0.0792212041430275JJ
party0NN
organization0.02794560829783NN
basis0NN
market0.0202620733250388NN
representation0.0488696285210061NN
support0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.456067779839774
WordScorePoS
help0NN
political0JJ
party0NN
organization0.0422721924574123NN
basis0.048933054487825NN
market0.030649619577211NN
representation0NN
support0.0451108483130998NN

When this is not the case it may be necessary to look for ways to open up institutions and give greater voice in bargaining at all levels to representatives of disenfranchised groups

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.923863925822772
WordScorePoS
institution0.274477239401321NN
voice0NN
level0.0610668815653026NN
representative0.107490825192354NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.341618543320016
WordScorePoS
institution0.0991236547760315NN
voice0.064698038783335NN
level0NN
representative0NN

This is easier when there are democratic local governments and strong autonomous associations independent private business associations worker associations that represent the interests of specific groups and so on

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.583934271658664
WordScorePoS
democratic0.0804764811724088JJ
local0.0214106369326177JJ
government0NN
strong0JJ
private0JJ
business0NN
worker0.121575732851624NN
represent0VB
specific0JJ

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.571634114709866
WordScorePoS
democratic0JJ
local0JJ
government0NN
strong0.0454743001434393JJ
private0.0368585655748969JJ
business0.0909486002868787NN
worker0.0454743001434393NN
represent0VB
specific0JJ

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.39674320693931
WordScorePoS
democratic0JJ
local0.0130185595639838JJ
government0.048933054487825NN
strong0JJ
private0.0898760357768464JJ
business0NN
worker0NN
represent0VB
specific0JJ

The independent private sector is also natural ally when it comes to reforming public sector employment and wage practices

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.33956395329075
WordScorePoS
private0JJ
sector0.0252035516550537NN
natural0JJ
reform0NN
public0NN
employment0.173804667214358NN
wage0NN
practice0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.668314296817954
WordScorePoS
private0.0558185411034276JJ
sector0.0571058915334038NN
natural0.0285529457667019JJ
reform0.0911713013253052NN
public0.0727679293221751NN
employment0.0393804437159645NN
wage0NN
practice0.0393804437159645NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.408935737669059
WordScorePoS
private0.0368585655748969JJ
sector0.0565629593551219NN
natural0JJ
reform0NN
public0.0160169090870187NN
employment0.104016094894625NN
wage0NN
practice0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.334518925860232
WordScorePoS
private0.0898760357768464JJ
sector0.0459744293658165NN
natural0JJ
reform0NN
public0.0390556786919513NN
employment0NN
wage0NN
practice0NN

Compensating losers

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

The short term costs of reforms can be high for certain groups of workers unemployment insurance and social assistance reform in the Slovak Republic disproportionately hurt Roma workers and those living in high unemployment regions

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.437799839970102
WordScorePoS
term0NN
cost0NN
reform0NN
worker0NN
unemployment0NN
insurance0NN
social0.112994637345193JJ
assistance0NN
live0.0739258553811849VB
region0.184259548107002NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.235629076243069
WordScorePoS
term0.149793392961411NN
cost0NN
reform0NN
worker0NN
unemployment0NN
insurance0NN
social0JJ
assistance0.0499801157438617NN
live0VB
region0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.691153273793303
WordScorePoS
term0NN
cost0NN
reform0NN
worker0.121575732851624NN
unemployment0.0804764811724088NN
insurance0.0804764811724088NN
social0.0504071033101074JJ
assistance0.0410992516792148NN
live0.00989353561471291VB
region0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.301890764565897
WordScorePoS
term0.0396106020715138NN
cost0.0660824365173543NN
reform0NN
worker0NN
unemployment0NN
insurance0NN
social0.101310366625194JJ
assistance0.0330412182586772NN
live0.0159075630937118VB
region0NN

So it may be necessary to compensate the losers

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

It is best to do this in ways that address the obstacles that losers face in reentering the labor market support for education or training or that facilitate labor mobility and reward work incentives transport vouchers for workers moving from social assistance to work

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.515187462449986
WordScorePoS
market0NN
support0NN
education0.244244978014045NN
training0.124876512346911NN
facilitate0VB
mobility0NN
incentive0NN
transport0NN
worker0NN
move0NN
social0JJ
assistance0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.445493745970357
WordScorePoS
market0.0252035516550537NN
support0.024730129581725NN
education0.0150723186962745NN
training0.0410992516792148NN
facilitate0VB
mobility0NN
incentive0NN
transport0NN
worker0.121575732851624NN
move0NN
social0.0504071033101074JJ
assistance0.0410992516792148NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.362012225465005
WordScorePoS
market0.0202620733250388NN
support0NN
education0.0121171980355011NN
training0NN
facilitate0.02794560829783VB
mobility0.064698038783335NN
incentive0NN
transport0NN
worker0NN
move0NN
social0.101310366625194JJ
assistance0.0330412182586772NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.334738451311688
WordScorePoS
market0.0377086395700813NN
support0.0277502419802315NN
education0.022550656390892NN
training0.030745604615229NN
facilitate0.0260040237236563VB
mobility0NN
incentive0NN
transport0.030745604615229NN
worker0.0454743001434393NN
move0NN
social0.0188543197850406JJ
assistance0NN

Such compensatory measures have been introduced as part of the Slovak Republic labor market reform package

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.578333521558858
WordScorePoS
measure0.0504000902222448NN
introduce0VB
market0.0913569596328122NN
reform0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.423867343183395
WordScorePoS
measure0.103895385378356NN
introduce0VB
market0NN
reform0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.371956243548239
WordScorePoS
measure0NN
introduce0VB
market0NN
reform0.0911713013253052NN

Product markets and trade reform Product markets are intimately related to equity with two way patterns of causation product markets shape the distribution of economic opportunities and inequalities in influence shape the functioning of product markets

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.652891282812488
WordScorePoS
product0NN
market0.0202620733250388NN
trade0.0237821918091848NN
reform0NN
related0JJ
pattern0NN
economic0.103276847978089JJ
opportunity0.029046330719385NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
influence0NN
function0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.429240854924481
WordScorePoS
product0.0591643007226199NN
market0.0252035516550537NN
trade0.0591643007226199NN
reform0NN
related0.0123650647908625JJ
pattern0NN
economic0.128463821595706JJ
opportunity0.0361300980868102NN
inequality0NN
influence0NN
function0NN

Both the design of external trade policy and the workings of internal product markets reflect patterns of influence

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.529121791455139
WordScorePoS
external0JJ
trade0NN
policy0.0203215381458133NN
product0.0199423462679015NN
market0.0169905820958638NN
reflect0.0409791940864438VB
pattern0.0819583881728876NN
influence0.0542519672965169NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.486780957326358
WordScorePoS
external0.048933054487825JJ
trade0.0539615408530051NN
policy0.0641521854453136NN
product0.017987180284335NN
market0.030649619577211NN
reflect0VB
pattern0NN
influence0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.425991963735324
WordScorePoS
external0JJ
trade0.0591643007226199NN
policy0.0452169560888236NN
product0.0591643007226199NN
market0.0252035516550537NN
reflect0VB
pattern0NN
influence0NN

Removing barriers and excessive regulation needs to be complemented by measures to expand skills infrastructure and safety nets to achieve genuine access and help losers

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.711086164575885
WordScorePoS
remove0VB
barrier0NN
excessive0JJ
regulation0NN
complement0NN
measure0NN
expand0.0299609328954485VB
skill0.407534682675042NN
infrastructure0NN
safety0NN
achieve0.0308700730580309VB
access0.00697628678506322NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.378989521493322
WordScorePoS
remove0VB
barrier0.0368585655748969NN
excessive0JJ
regulation0NN
complement0NN
measure0NN
expand0VB
skill0NN
infrastructure0.192202909044225NN
safety0NN
achieve0.0114006914853063VB
access0.0128821355880844NN

Market broadening and deepening are central to the expansion of opportunity directly for firms and the self employed indirectly for workers

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.519608201761577
WordScorePoS
market0.0377086395700813NN
broaden0VB
central0JJ
expansion0NN
opportunity0.0135141354781442NN
firm0.0602029956716497NN
employ0.0454743001434393VB
indirectly0RB
worker0.0454743001434393NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.469630689409533
WordScorePoS
market0.0252035516550537NN
broaden0VB
central0JJ
expansion0NN
opportunity0.0361300980868102NN
firm0NN
employ0VB
indirectly0RB
worker0.121575732851624NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.414963633991524
WordScorePoS
market0.0913569596328122NN
broaden0VB
central0.0440683498519077JJ
expansion0NN
opportunity0.0261926252110933NN
firm0NN
employ0VB
indirectly0RB
worker0NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.378514309890948
WordScorePoS
market0NN
broaden0VB
central0.0924643738905717JJ
expansion0NN
opportunity0.0549574626423028NN
firm0NN
employ0VB
indirectly0RB
worker0NN

How equitable this expansion of opportunity is depends on interactions among external trade opening domestic markets patterns of infrastructure labor markets safety nets and other measures to improve the business climate

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.450786967353221
WordScorePoS
equitable0.0221298700466866JJ
expansion0NN
opportunity0.0135141354781442NN
depend0VB
external0JJ
trade0NN
domestic0.0520080474473126JJ
market0.0377086395700813NN
pattern0NN
infrastructure0.192202909044225NN
safety0NN
measure0NN
improve0VB
business0.0909486002868787NN
climate0NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.418843809010526
WordScorePoS
equitable0JJ
expansion0NN
opportunity0NN
depend0VB
external0JJ
trade0NN
domestic0JJ
market0NN
pattern0.0414107553022249NN
infrastructure0NN
safety0NN
measure0.0710409787438328NN
improve0.0102677744436108VB
business0NN
climate0.291881734282273NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.416049164048056
WordScorePoS
equitable0.0214456704626236JJ
expansion0NN
opportunity0.0261926252110933NN
depend0.0357189919948307VB
external0JJ
trade0.0214456704626236NN
domestic0JJ
market0.0913569596328122NN
pattern0NN
infrastructure0.0155217067874935NN
safety0NN
measure0.0504000902222448NN
improve0.0218534471578307VB
business0NN
climate0.0365427838531249NN

Product market and trade reforms have great potential to bring expansion in opportunity but there can be costs in the short to medium term and these can hit particular groups from relatively powerful protected incumbents to middle and poorer groups

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.420462357308205
WordScorePoS
product0.017987180284335NN
market0.030649619577211NN
trade0.0539615408530051NN
reform0NN
potential0NN
bring0VB
expansion0NN
opportunity0NN
cost0NN
medium0NN
term0.149793392961411NN
protect0VB
middle0JJ

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.430663456322985
WordScorePoS
product0.0591643007226199NN
market0.0252035516550537NN
trade0.0591643007226199NN
reform0NN
potential0NN
bring0VB
expansion0NN
opportunity0.0361300980868102NN
cost0NN
medium0.0607878664258118NN
term0NN
protect0.0180650490434051VB
middle0JJ

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.410870666148325
WordScorePoS
product0.0442597400933733NN
market0.0377086395700813NN
trade0NN
reform0NN
potential0.0454743001434393NN
bring0VB
expansion0NN
opportunity0.0135141354781442NN
cost0NN
medium0.0454743001434393NN
term0NN
protect0VB
middle0.0602029956716497JJ

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.370524719887685
WordScorePoS
product0.0268848280079943NN
market0NN
trade0NN
reform0NN
potential0NN
bring0.0731385760866977VB
expansion0.0731385760866977NN
opportunity0.0164178645080222NN
cost0NN
medium0NN
term0NN
protect0.0328357290160445VB
middle0JJ

The costs are associated with how markets and investment processes work labor is typically not fully mobile new skills take time to acquire and new investments are often lumpy and can take time especially when firms face imperfect credit markets see earlier section and an uncertain investment environment

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.552316900442741
WordScorePoS
cost0NN
market0NN
investment0NN
process0NN
typically0RB
fully0RB
skill0.407534682675042NN
time0NN
acquire0.0615662203253227NN
firm0NN
credit0NN
environment0.0299609328954485NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.489724676453961
WordScorePoS
cost0NN
market0.0377086395700813NN
investment0.0377086395700813NN
process0.0737171311497939NN
typically0RB
fully0RB
skill0NN
time0.0188543197850406NN
acquire0NN
firm0.0602029956716497NN
credit0.0602029956716497NN
environment0.0221298700466866NN

The functioning of product markets is embedded in political and social structures

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.508439998237117
WordScorePoS
function0NN
product0NN
market0.0202620733250388NN
political0.0792212041430275JJ
social0.101310366625194JJ
structure0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.354982439297884
WordScorePoS
function0NN
product0NN
market0NN
political0.111637082206855JJ
social0.0285529457667019JJ
structure0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.34862987054144
WordScorePoS
function0NN
product0.0442597400933733NN
market0.0377086395700813NN
political0.0368585655748969JJ
social0.0188543197850406JJ
structure0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.342917448540808
WordScorePoS
function0.0440683498519077NN
product0NN
market0.0913569596328122NN
political0JJ
social0JJ
structure0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.341270653967891
WordScorePoS
function0NN
product0.0591643007226199NN
market0.0252035516550537NN
political0JJ
social0.0504071033101074JJ
structure0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.34065396064309
WordScorePoS
function0.036961556179878NN
product0.017987180284335NN
market0.030649619577211NN
political0JJ
social0JJ
structure0.048933054487825NN

Elite capture ranges from the apparent and egregious as in the granting of the Indonesian clove monopoly to son of President Suharto monopoly since disbanded to the less transparent shaping of trade policy to protect the profits of the influential

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

It is also true that policies with genuine or rhetorical equitable purpose can lead to outcomes that are bad for growth and mixed for equity

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.662319488977623
WordScorePoS
policy0.0452169560888236NN
equitable0JJ
lead0.0504071033101074NN
outcome0NN
bad0JJ
growth0.208565600657229NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.500009506132297
WordScorePoS
policy0.0848203862485078NN
equitable0JJ
lead0NN
outcome0.0330412182586772NN
bad0JJ
growth0.11178243319132NN

This is evident in the characteristically high levels of protection for relatively labor intensive manufacturing and for food production such as maize in Mexico rice in the Republic of Korea and the infamous agricultural subsidies in the European Union Japan and the United States

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.713413714622804
WordScorePoS
level0.00552410547653725NN
protection0NN
intensive0JJ
manufacture0NN
food0.292342270824999NN
production0.0548141757796873NN
maize0NN
rice0NN
agricultural0.250032943963815JJ
subsidy0.0357189919948307NN
unite0VB

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.421721355582475
WordScorePoS
level0.00513687014008325NN
protection0NN
intensive0JJ
manufacture0NN
food0.186896403054502NN
production0.118934074671047NN
maize0NN
rice0NN
agricultural0JJ
subsidy0.0664302389559493NN
unite0VB

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.352419154915559
WordScorePoS
level0NN
protection0NN
intensive0JJ
manufacture0.240811982686599NN
food0.0188543197850406NN
production0.0188543197850406NN
maize0NN
rice0NN
agricultural0.0368585655748969JJ
subsidy0NN
unite0VB

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.211850927841619
WordScorePoS
level0.010074208709011NN
protection0NN
intensive0JJ
manufacture0NN
food0.0166605993001162NN
production0NN
maize0NN
rice0NN
agricultural0JJ
subsidy0.162850158165781NN
unite0VB

While poorer groups sometimes gain it is more common that middle and elite groups are the main beneficiaries while food consumers lose out

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.832953231979898
WordScorePoS
gain0.0664302389559493NN
common0JJ
middle0JJ
food0.186896403054502NN
consumer0.325511803779102NN
lose0VB

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.484097619644066
WordScorePoS
gain0NN
common0JJ
middle0JJ
food0.292342270824999NN
consumer0NN
lose0.0440683498519077VB

While policies that reduce the power of incumbents in product markets will typically be good for efficiency and equity version of the liberalization paradox discussed earlier may often apply

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.344554528052692
WordScorePoS
policy0NN
reduce0.00838876601975825VB
power0NN
product0NN
market0NN
typically0RB
efficiency0.134992154141495NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.439708516086786
WordScorePoS
policy0.011275328195446NN
reduce0VB
power0.0454743001434393NN
product0.0442597400933733NN
market0.0377086395700813NN
typically0RB
efficiency0.0442597400933733NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.395742284262203
WordScorePoS
policy0.0452169560888236NN
reduce0.0055149369084567VB
power0NN
product0.0591643007226199NN
market0.0252035516550537NN
typically0RB
efficiency0.0295821503613099NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.367919425701143
WordScorePoS
policy0.0641521854453136NN
reduce0.00335331148065841VB
power0.036961556179878NN
product0.017987180284335NN
market0.030649619577211NN
typically0RB
efficiency0NN

Groups and individuals with economic capacity and political influence are best positioned to take advantage of market opening

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.377549701593587
WordScorePoS
individual0JJ
economic0.128463821595706JJ
capacity0.0123650647908625NN
political0JJ
influence0NN
market0.0252035516550537NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.608186877725053
WordScorePoS
individual0.064698038783335JJ
economic0.103276847978089JJ
capacity0NN
political0.0792212041430275JJ
influence0NN
market0.0202620733250388NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.419328041534232
WordScorePoS
individual0JJ
economic0.0727679293221751JJ
capacity0NN
political0.111637082206855JJ
influence0NN
market0NN

Under some conditions this can lead to market backlash

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.794859223411472
WordScorePoS
condition0.121575732851624NN
lead0.0504071033101074NN
market0.0252035516550537NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.36826031852889
WordScorePoS
condition0NN
lead0NN
market0.0913569596328122NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.302165544119578
WordScorePoS
condition0.0409791940864438NN
lead0.0169905820958638NN
market0.0169905820958638NN

Chua documents cases of market dominant minorities who benefit from free market reforms including trade liberalization

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.499246275302956
WordScorePoS
document0NN
market0.0913569596328122NN
dominant0JJ
benefit0.0252000451111224NN
free0JJ
reform0NN
include0VB
trade0.0214456704626236NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.482623741203898
WordScorePoS
document0.0911713013253052NN
market0NN
dominant0JJ
benefit0.0393804437159645NN
free0JJ
reform0.0911713013253052NN
include0VB
trade0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.446520553974249
WordScorePoS
document0NN
market0.030649619577211NN
dominant0JJ
benefit0NN
free0.0898760357768464JJ
reform0NN
include0VB
trade0.0539615408530051NN

Traditionally dominant ethnic minorities such as the Chinese in Southeast Asia the Lebanese in West WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT Africa and whites in Latin America and South Africa seem to be the primary beneficiaries of the marketization of their economies

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Such outcomes can fuel deepseated resentments and lead to violence

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.518122756065355
WordScorePoS
outcome0NN
fuel0NN
lead0NN
violence0.164686343640793NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.615071819329325
WordScorePoS
outcome0.0465610847355851NN
fuel0.0558185411034276NN
lead0NN
violence0.0931221694711702NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.35640118547926
WordScorePoS
outcome0NN
fuel0.0749457204978913NN
lead0.0383371018038178NN
violence0NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.342226205845376
WordScorePoS
outcome0.0416255041156371NN
fuel0NN
lead0.0255262687343935NN
violence0.0416255041156371NN

These political economy and reform backlash considerations are additional reasons for integrating attention to equity into the design of product market reforms and trade liberalization

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.598040367699081
WordScorePoS
political0.111637082206855JJ
economy0.0465610847355851NN
reform0.0911713013253052NN
additional0JJ
integrate0VB
attention0NN
product0NN
market0NN
trade0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.448367357163724
WordScorePoS
political0JJ
economy0.0821985033584295NN
reform0NN
additional0JJ
integrate0.0295821503613099VB
attention0NN
product0.0591643007226199NN
market0.0252035516550537NN
trade0.0591643007226199NN

Trade liberalization Trade liberalization changes relative prices in an economy causing shifts in output wages and employment

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.783082115544297
WordScorePoS
trade0.0591643007226199NN
relative0JJ
price0NN
economy0.0821985033584295NN
cause0NN
employment0.173804667214358NN

Analyses of trade liberalization are primarily about outcomes providing only indirect evidence on opportunities

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.726882854217806
WordScorePoS
trade0.0237821918091848NN
primarily0RB
outcome0.0330412182586772NN
provide0VB
evidence0.12939607756667NN
opportunity0.029046330719385NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.321778279186367
WordScorePoS
trade0.0591643007226199NN
primarily0RB
outcome0NN
provide0VB
evidence0NN
opportunity0.0361300980868102NN

They show that trade openness is positively associated with growth and on average there are no strong correlations with income distribution

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.776680397845515
WordScorePoS
trade0.0237821918091848NN
positively0RB
growth0.11178243319132NN
average0.146608885563018NN
strong0.0488696285210061JJ
income0.166475342664294NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.417955460846221
WordScorePoS
trade0.0591643007226199NN
positively0RB
growth0.208565600657229NN
average0NN
strong0JJ
income0NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.258586750708514
WordScorePoS
trade0NN
positively0RB
growth0NN
average0.1656430212089NN
strong0JJ
income0NN

Morley using data from Latin America found slightly negative effects of trade liberalization on income distribution while Behrman Birdsall and Székely found positive influences of trade liberalization on wage inequality

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.917201109981198
WordScorePoS
datum0NN
slightly0RB
effect0NN
trade0.0237821918091848NN
income0.166475342664294NN
positive0JJ
influence0NN
wage0.064698038783335NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN

Another study using panel data for countries found that trade openness is associated with increases in inequality after controlling for set of other structural and policy influences

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.884997897055825
WordScorePoS
study0NN
panel0NN
datum0NN
country0NN
trade0.0237821918091848NN
increase0.00285817158600878NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
control0NN
set0NN
policy0.0848203862485078NN
influence0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.348689901058352
WordScorePoS
study0NN
panel0NN
datum0.0739231123597559NN
country0NN
trade0.0539615408530051NN
increase0.00432344066632653NN
inequality0NN
control0NN
set0.0978661089756501NN
policy0.0641521854453136NN
influence0NN

These average effects mask great deal of diversity in impacts across groups especially over the short to medium term

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.533591070036837
WordScorePoS
average0.1656430212089NN
effect0NN
diversity0NN
impact0.0437569550806737NN
medium0NN
term0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.474522764659784
WordScorePoS
average0.146608885563018NN
effect0NN
diversity0NN
impact0NN
medium0NN
term0.0396106020715138NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.381702129345978
WordScorePoS
average0NN
effect0NN
diversity0NN
impact0NN
medium0NN
term0.149793392961411NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.336883676429642
WordScorePoS
average0NN
effect0.0440683498519077NN
diversity0.0881366997038154NN
impact0NN
medium0NN
term0NN

The impact of trade induced price changes depends not only on average pass through but also on exactly which prices change and how producers and consumers respond

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.70514816477878
WordScorePoS
impact0.0437569550806737NN
trade0NN
price0NN
depend0VB
average0.1656430212089NN
change0.402565546215053NN
producer0NN
consumer0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.522084339364294
WordScorePoS
impact0.0866018859977851NN
trade0NN
price0NN
depend0VB
average0NN
change0NN
producer0.0409791940864438NN
consumer0.325511803779102NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.196336151441898
WordScorePoS
impact0NN
trade0.0237821918091848NN
price0NN
depend0VB
average0.146608885563018NN
change0NN
producer0NN
consumer0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.33820959994365
WordScorePoS
impact0NN
trade0.0214456704626236NN
price0.0583416713841148NN
depend0.0357189919948307VB
average0NN
change0.0756001353333673NN
producer0.0440683498519077NN
consumer0NN

For example the effects of removing protection for agriculture will depend on whether agricultural prices subsequently rise or fall and whether the poor are net producers or consumers of disprotected products

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.718749327273028
WordScorePoS
effect0.0440683498519077NN
remove0VB
protection0NN
agriculture0.148975141598503NN
depend0.0357189919948307VB
agricultural0.250032943963815JJ
price0.0583416713841148NN
rise0.0214456704626236NN
fall0.0440683498519077NN
poor0.0548141757796873JJ
producer0.0440683498519077NN
consumer0NN
product0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.514701160957673
WordScorePoS
effect0NN
remove0.0542519672965169VB
protection0NN
agriculture0.0277064208763707NN
depend0VB
agricultural0JJ
price0NN
rise0NN
fall0NN
poor0.0339811641917276JJ
producer0.0409791940864438NN
consumer0.325511803779102NN
product0.0199423462679015NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.280210904220425
WordScorePoS
effect0NN
remove0VB
protection0.122839698738001NN
agriculture0NN
depend0VB
agricultural0JJ
price0NN
rise0NN
fall0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
producer0NN
consumer0NN
product0NN

Normally it is assumed that trade liberalization in agriculture will benefit poor small scale farmers and be good for equity

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.862113916647807
WordScorePoS
trade0.0214456704626236NN
agriculture0.148975141598503NN
benefit0.0252000451111224NN
poor0.0548141757796873JJ
scale0.0357189919948307NN
farmer0.175025014152344NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.281638268013095
WordScorePoS
trade0NN
agriculture0NN
benefit0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
scale0NN
farmer0NN

After all developing countries have traditionally taxed the agricultural sector while developed countries have protected it

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.792215976817504
WordScorePoS
develop0VB
country0NN
tax0NN
agricultural0.250032943963815JJ
sector0.0182713919265625NN
protect0.0130963126055467VB

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.317911633061661
WordScorePoS
develop0VB
country0NN
tax0NN
agricultural0.0558185411034276JJ
sector0.0571058915334038NN
protect0VB

But the impacts must be analyzed case by case at the microlevel

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.7540481934975
WordScorePoS
impact0.0866018859977851NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.380994623285423
WordScorePoS
impact0.0437569550806737NN

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.369701718692048
WordScorePoS
impact0.042459973210532NN

Cereal protection in Morocco offers an illustration

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.724548986112268
WordScorePoS
cereal0NN
protection0.122839698738001NN
offer0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.38977596713745
WordScorePoS
cereal0NN
protection0.0660824365173543NN
offer0NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.305144104980632
WordScorePoS
cereal0.0517339898971162NN
protection0NN
offer0NN

In simulation analysis of removal of wheat tariffs Ravallion finds that contrary to expectations rural families would tend to lose while urban ones would gain

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.733545737185879
WordScorePoS
removal0NN
wheat0NN
rural0.0373517915079663JJ
family0NN
lose0VB
urban0.27622591898666JJ
gain0.04477822029736NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.456144944767387
WordScorePoS
removal0NN
wheat0NN
rural0.148975141598503JJ
family0.0297950283197006NN
lose0.0440683498519077VB
urban0JJ
gain0NN

Although the results predict that there would be more gainers than losers among the rural poor aggregate losses outweigh aggregate gains

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.517568984166742
WordScorePoS
result0NN
predict0VB
rural0.148975141598503JJ
poor0.0548141757796873JJ
loss0NN
gain0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.38263385879388
WordScorePoS
result0NN
predict0VB
rural0JJ
poor0.150659516460257JJ
loss0NN
gain0NN

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.442851045893203
WordScorePoS
result0.0683326727248364NN
predict0VB
rural0JJ
poor0.0642010940957526JJ
loss0NN
gain0.041835863322702NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.374046972904374
WordScorePoS
result0NN
predict0VB
rural0JJ
poor0.0339811641917276JJ
loss0.0468670845659596NN
gain0.0664302389559493NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.346994837548532
WordScorePoS
result0NN
predict0VB
rural0.0373517915079663JJ
poor0.0229054731708393JJ
loss0.0315914058171786NN
gain0.04477822029736NN

Furthermore expected effects would be enormously varied with significant horizontal inequalities households with the same incomes were predicted to experience widely differing outcomes depending on their specific structure of production and consumption

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.762059934167132
WordScorePoS
expect0VB
effect0NN
significant0.0405241466500776JJ
inequality0.635305170773079NN
household0.0330412182586772NN
income0.166475342664294NN
predict0VB
experience0NN
widely0RB
outcome0.0330412182586772NN
depend0VB
specific0JJ
structure0NN
production0NN
consumption0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.498286557966842
WordScorePoS
expect0.0332151194779746VB
effect0NN
significant0JJ
inequality0NN
household0.0554128417527413NN
income0NN
predict0VB
experience0NN
widely0RB
outcome0NN
depend0VB
specific0.0542519672965169JJ
structure0NN
production0.118934074671047NN
consumption0.332151194779746NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.166289308201458
WordScorePoS
expect0VB
effect0NN
significant0JJ
inequality0NN
household0NN
income0NN
predict0VB
experience0NN
widely0RB
outcome0NN
depend0VB
specific0JJ
structure0NN
production0.0504071033101074NN
consumption0.147812295323721NN

Using similar simulation analysis China accession to the World Trade Organization WTO was found to have small aggregate poverty reducing effect but this masked considerable variation in impacts across households in rural versus urban areas and across different regions

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.572689729661532
WordScorePoS
world0.00257343720272548NN
trade0NN
organization0NN
poverty0.269969049497485NN
reduce0.0164833460638534VB
effect0NN
impact0NN
household0NN
rural0JJ
urban0JJ
region0.184259548107002NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.454683861544497
WordScorePoS
world0.00626002771693937NN
trade0NN
organization0NN
poverty0.0164178645080222NN
reduce0.0200483235258943VB
effect0NN
impact0.0194583992186006NN
household0NN
rural0.0373517915079663JJ
urban0.27622591898666JJ
region0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.388119494716031
WordScorePoS
world0.0124838525528648NN
trade0.0214456704626236NN
organization0NN
poverty0.0261926252110933NN
reduce0.00799614078871077VB
effect0.0440683498519077NN
impact0NN
household0.0297950283197006NN
rural0.148975141598503JJ
urban0JJ
region0.0297950283197006NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.312886003463501
WordScorePoS
world0.00276879546803864NN
trade0.0237821918091848NN
organization0.02794560829783NN
poverty0.05809266143877NN
reduce0.0310356414389692VB
effect0NN
impact0NN
household0.0330412182586772NN
rural0.0330412182586772JJ
urban0.0488696285210061JJ
region0NN

While aggregate effects of trade reform on poverty and equity are not always clear whether diverse impacts translate into inequalities in opportunities depends on how new activities open up and whether labor can move into them we do know that there will be winners and losers

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.8243784967171
WordScorePoS
effect0NN
trade0.0237821918091848NN
reform0NN
poverty0.05809266143877NN
impact0NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
opportunity0.029046330719385NN
depend0VB
activity0NN
move0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.298242855898997
WordScorePoS
effect0NN
trade0NN
reform0NN
poverty0.269969049497485NN
impact0NN
inequality0NN
opportunity0NN
depend0VB
activity0NN
move0NN

Outcomes depend on the ability and willingness of governments to mitigate losses to particularly hard hit sectors possibly by redistributing some of the gains accruing to winners

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.52854089751923
WordScorePoS
outcome0NN
depend0VB
ability0.0409791940864438NN
government0NN
loss0.0468670845659596NN
sector0.0169905820958638NN
gain0.0664302389559493NN

Domestic product markets and equity Lack of competition among traders remote geography poor infrastructure and high transport costs can all prevent the transmission of border price changes to intended reform beneficiaries

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.587556964816236
WordScorePoS
domestic0.0520080474473126JJ
product0.0442597400933733NN
market0.0377086395700813NN
lack0.0565629593551219NN
poor0JJ
infrastructure0.192202909044225NN
transport0.030745604615229NN
cost0NN
prevent0VB
border0NN
price0NN
reform0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.321125653925677
WordScorePoS
domestic0JJ
product0NN
market0NN
lack0.0753297582301286NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
infrastructure0NN
transport0NN
cost0NN
prevent0VB
border0NN
price0NN
reform0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.355002135051438
WordScorePoS
domestic0JJ
product0NN
market0.0913569596328122NN
lack0NN
poor0.0548141757796873JJ
infrastructure0.0155217067874935NN
transport0NN
cost0NN
prevent0.0297950283197006VB
border0NN
price0.0583416713841148NN
reform0NN

Addressing such problems can improve the impact of trade reforms on equity

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.411392750816987
WordScorePoS
address0.064698038783335NN
improve0.0121171980355011VB
impact0NN
trade0.0237821918091848NN
reform0NN

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.37432575675829
WordScorePoS
address0NN
improve0.00996343157341984VB
impact0.042459973210532NN
trade0.0391100714971453NN
reform0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.372844643837489
WordScorePoS
address0NN
improve0VB
impact0NN
trade0NN
reform0.0911713013253052NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.354158039548976
WordScorePoS
address0NN
improve0VB
impact0.0866018859977851NN
trade0NN
reform0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.303590335166737
WordScorePoS
address0NN
improve0.0150723186962745VB
impact0NN
trade0.0591643007226199NN
reform0NN

The case of public or private marketing agencies for export crops is typical example

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.735852016263663
WordScorePoS
public0.0390556786919513NN
private0.0898760357768464JJ
agency0NN
export0.110884668539634NN
crop0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.394554418425954
WordScorePoS
public0.0727679293221751NN
private0.0558185411034276JJ
agency0NN
export0NN
crop0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.380038508290633
WordScorePoS
public0NN
private0JJ
agency0NN
export0.0881366997038154NN
crop0.0357189919948307NN

Small farmers in many countries traditionally have had no option but to sell to marketing agency at prices substantially lower than the free on board f

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.865637866797435
WordScorePoS
farmer0.175025014152344NN
country0NN
agency0NN
price0.0583416713841148NN
substantially0RB
free0JJ

export price

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.797311635018629
WordScorePoS
export0.0881366997038154NN
price0.0583416713841148NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.603567855890222
WordScorePoS
export0.110884668539634NN
price0NN

Legitimate transport and marketing costs account for some of the price differ Markets and the macroeconomy ence but monopsonistic profits often do as well

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.537699531945875
WordScorePoS
legitimate0.064698038783335JJ
transport0NN
cost0.0660824365173543NN
account0.0172128079963482NN
price0NN
market0.0202620733250388NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.478397154460511
WordScorePoS
legitimate0JJ
transport0NN
cost0NN
account0NN
price0.0583416713841148NN
market0.0913569596328122NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.415886607697171
WordScorePoS
legitimate0JJ
transport0.0277064208763707NN
cost0.0277064208763707NN
account0.0577345906651901NN
price0NN
market0.0169905820958638NN

Marketing agencies can thus prevent trade induced price changes from reaching farmers at all

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.806805641566642
WordScorePoS
agency0NN
prevent0.0297950283197006VB
trade0.0214456704626236NN
price0.0583416713841148NN
reach0NN
farmer0.175025014152344NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.342175998816195
WordScorePoS
agency0NN
prevent0.0548954478802642VB
trade0NN
price0NN
reach0.0658099748168827NN
farmer0NN

study found that the Vietnamese rice marketing system was controlled by small number of state enterprises

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.569713656417496
WordScorePoS
study0.0517339898971162NN
rice0.0517339898971162NN
system0NN
control0.0264204925485796NN
enterprise0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.497249954057246
WordScorePoS
study0NN
rice0NN
system0.0519476926891779NN
control0.0614198493690006NN
enterprise0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.398916537248491
WordScorePoS
study0NN
rice0NN
system0NN
control0NN
enterprise0.0909486002868787NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.331595473790432
WordScorePoS
study0NN
rice0NN
system0.0756001353333673NN
control0NN
enterprise0NN

These enterprises limited the transmission of border price changes to farmers and pushed up transaction costs

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.708034139366354
WordScorePoS
enterprise0NN
limited0JJ
border0NN
price0.0583416713841148NN
farmer0.175025014152344NN
transaction0NN
cost0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.396787746556823
WordScorePoS
enterprise0NN
limited0JJ
border0NN
price0NN
farmer0NN
transaction0.064698038783335NN
cost0.0660824365173543NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.364887639318314
WordScorePoS
enterprise0NN
limited0.120266261535276JJ
border0NN
price0NN
farmer0NN
transaction0NN
cost0NN

more extreme example was when marketing boards became instruments for extraction of surplus from agricultural exporters such as for cocoa farmers in the post independence period in Ghana

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.856996411535665
WordScorePoS
extreme0.0714379839896614JJ
agricultural0.250032943963815JJ
farmer0.175025014152344NN
post0NN
period0.0440683498519077NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.466934302197356
WordScorePoS
extreme0.294526332970048JJ
agricultural0JJ
farmer0NN
post0NN
period0NN

Malawi has faced similar issues cartels by companies buying tea sugar and tobacco have forced down the returns to farmers

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.67113359869856
WordScorePoS
face0NN
issue0NN
company0NN
tobacco0NN
force0.0297950283197006NN
return0NN
farmer0.175025014152344NN

Abolishing marketing boards does not guarantee efficient marketing however they may play useful role when markets are thin or tradition of trading has not developed as in the raw cashew export market in Mozambique

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.534004755647862
WordScorePoS
guarantee0NN
efficient0JJ
market0.030649619577211NN
trading0.048933054487825NN
develop0VB
export0.110884668539634NN

Although the state trading company was privatized in the late there was insufficient competition among private marketers when raw cashew export restrictions were lifted in the early s

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.726637295710384
WordScorePoS
trading0.048933054487825NN
company0NN
insufficient0JJ
private0.0898760357768464JJ
export0.110884668539634NN
restriction0NN
lift0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.426268754001233
WordScorePoS
trading0NN
company0NN
insufficient0JJ
private0JJ
export0.0881366997038154NN
restriction0.0583416713841148NN
lift0NN

Indeed raw cashews had to move through three tiers of intermediaries with near monopsony power before reaching world markets

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.493413814738785
WordScorePoS
move0NN
power0NN
reach0NN
world0.0124838525528648NN
market0.0913569596328122NN

As result the trading margin from the farm to the factory was percent and the expected liberalization price increases never reached farmers

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.962339706195104
WordScorePoS
result0NN
trading0NN
farm0.291708356920574NN
expect0.0357189919948307VB
price0.0583416713841148NN
increase0.0128868286091919NN
reach0NN
farmer0.175025014152344NN

Trade reforms in Mexico show how infrastructure and transportation costs can shape opportunities through their impact on price transmission

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.502967306289893
WordScorePoS
trade0NN
reform0NN
infrastructure0.192202909044225NN
transportation0NN
cost0NN
opportunity0.0135141354781442NN
impact0.0160169090870187NN
price0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.400113580694934
WordScorePoS
trade0NN
reform0NN
infrastructure0.028867295332595NN
transportation0.0332151194779746NN
cost0.0277064208763707NN
opportunity0NN
impact0.0866018859977851NN
price0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.30825123775078
WordScorePoS
trade0NN
reform0.0911713013253052NN
infrastructure0.024255976440725NN
transportation0NN
cost0NN
opportunity0.02046578088155NN
impact0NN
price0NN

Mexico trade liberalization in the and entry into North American Free Trade Agreement NAFTA in appear to have led to wage increases in states bordering the United States relative to the rest of the country

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.553644270709262
WordScorePoS
trade0.0539615408530051NN
north0RB
free0.0898760357768464JJ
agreement0NN
lead0NN
wage0NN
increase0.00432344066632653NN
border0NN
unite0.036961556179878VB
relative0JJ
country0NN

different study on Mexico found that tariff reductions translate into domestic price reductions less and less as distance from the main port of entry increases

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

This effect can be substantial figure

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.710464876533606
WordScorePoS
effect0.0454743001434393NN
substantial0JJ
figure0.0602029956716497NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.495022637491599
WordScorePoS
effect0NN
substantial0.0736315832425121JJ
figure0NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.335487094903882
WordScorePoS
effect0NN
substantial0.0499016491051341JJ
figure0NN

Studies of Rwanda and Indonesia have also documented the isolation of remote households from border price changes

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.720109969467138
WordScorePoS
study0NN
document0.0911713013253052NN
household0.0465610847355851NN
border0NN
price0NN

Even when trade liberalization is intended to be pro poor incomplete transmission of Figure

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.681847121469409
WordScorePoS
trade0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
figure0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.345132905412823
WordScorePoS
trade0.0214456704626236NN
poor0.0548141757796873JJ
figure0NN

It better for household welfare to be close to economic opportunities Changes in household welfare > percent percent percent percent Source Nicita

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.353151437231651
WordScorePoS
household0NN
welfare0NN
economic0.128463821595706JJ
opportunity0.0361300980868102NN
source0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.563498094531111
WordScorePoS
household0.0554128417527413NN
welfare0.0542519672965169NN
economic0.0433009429988926JJ
opportunity0NN
source0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.425697548871177
WordScorePoS
household0.0330412182586772NN
welfare0NN
economic0.103276847978089JJ
opportunity0.029046330719385NN
source0NN

Note Welfare changes were calculated from the effects of trade liberalization related price changes that affected both the purchasing power and incomes of households

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.48431761703042
WordScorePoS
welfare0NN
effect0NN
trade0.0237821918091848NN
related0JJ
price0NN
affect0VB
power0NN
income0.166475342664294NN
household0.0330412182586772NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.492240842104768
WordScorePoS
welfare0NN
effect0.0440683498519077NN
trade0.0214456704626236NN
related0.00896409157262106JJ
price0.0583416713841148NN
affect0VB
power0NN
income0.0643370113878709NN
household0.0297950283197006NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.477375676017912
WordScorePoS
welfare0NN
effect0.0454743001434393NN
trade0NN
related0.00925008066007716JJ
price0NN
affect0.00925008066007716VB
power0.0454743001434393NN
income0.110649350233433NN
household0NN

border price changes for both exports and imports means that benefits are not evenly distributed

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.66192360768616
WordScorePoS
border0NN
price0NN
export0.110884668539634NN
import0.0978661089756501NN
means0NNS
benefit0NN
distribute0VB

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.544371608886596
WordScorePoS
border0NN
price0.0583416713841148NN
export0.0881366997038154NN
import0NN
means0NNS
benefit0.0252000451111224NN
distribute0VB

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.381349850122252
WordScorePoS
border0NN
price0NN
export0NN
import0NN
means0.120266261535276NNS
benefit0NN
distribute0VB

In other words ease of access to international markets matters

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.721295132457768
WordScorePoS
access0.00749031153171887NN
international0.00515473144367677JJ
market0.0913569596328122NN

Unfortunately those who could benefit most from favorable price changes the poor in remote rural areas are those least likely to be affected by them

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.742479829746865
WordScorePoS
benefit0.0252000451111224NN
price0.0583416713841148NN
poor0.0548141757796873JJ
rural0.148975141598503JJ
affect0VB

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.437062807295293
WordScorePoS
benefit0NN
price0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
rural0JJ
affect0.0184786920895884VB

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.328326491419597
WordScorePoS
benefit0.0446918591208085NN
price0NN
poor0.016202004209163JJ
rural0.0264204925485796JJ
affect0.0397441667210336VB

Many of the factors responsible for transmitting trade related price changes are also important to the functioning of domestic product markets

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.51134956791304
WordScorePoS
responsible0JJ
trade0.0591643007226199NN
related0.0123650647908625JJ
price0NN
function0NN
domestic0.0695218668857431JJ
product0.0591643007226199NN
market0.0252035516550537NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.508531390470366
WordScorePoS
responsible0JJ
trade0.0214456704626236NN
related0.00896409157262106JJ
price0.0583416713841148NN
function0.0440683498519077NN
domestic0JJ
product0NN
market0.0913569596328122NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.460421060175216
WordScorePoS
responsible0JJ
trade0.0539615408530051NN
related0JJ
price0NN
function0.036961556179878NN
domestic0.0634082886861185JJ
product0.017987180284335NN
market0.030649619577211NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.324900675268026
WordScorePoS
responsible0JJ
trade0NN
related0.00925008066007716JJ
price0NN
function0NN
domestic0.0520080474473126JJ
product0.0442597400933733NN
market0.0377086395700813NN

For instance competition among traders infrastructure quality and transportation costs all influence how profits are allocated across product life cycle or value chain

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.545311313276658
WordScorePoS
infrastructure0.192202909044225NN
quality0.022550656390892NN
transportation0NN
cost0NN
influence0NN
product0.0442597400933733NN
life0NN
cycle0NN
chain0.0454743001434393NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.715961395863618
WordScorePoS
infrastructure0.028867295332595NN
quality0.0203215381458133NN
transportation0.0332151194779746NN
cost0.0277064208763707NN
influence0.0542519672965169NN
product0.0199423462679015NN
life0.0250071479597636NN
cycle0.108503934593034NN
chain0.0819583881728876NN

And the percentage of good final price that goes to the primary producer intermediary producer distributor and retailer can vary tremendously

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.745772989908131
WordScorePoS
percentage0NN
final0.108503934593034JJ
price0NN
primary0JJ
producer0.0409791940864438NN
retailer0.108503934593034NN
tremendously0RB

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.549643717650638
WordScorePoS
percentage0.0583416713841148NN
final0JJ
price0.0583416713841148NN
primary0.0155217067874935JJ
producer0.0440683498519077NN
retailer0NN
tremendously0RB

The cashmere sector in Mongolia shows how product market reforms could be both equity and efficiency enhancing

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.358306316274505
WordScorePoS
sector0NN
product0NN
market0NN
reform0NN
efficiency0.134992154141495NN
enhance0.0188084899376888VB

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.46894421859781
WordScorePoS
sector0.0565629593551219NN
product0.0442597400933733NN
market0.0377086395700813NN
reform0NN
efficiency0.0442597400933733NN
enhance0.0185001613201543VB

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.378073310859534
WordScorePoS
sector0.0571058915334038NN
product0NN
market0NN
reform0.0911713013253052NN
efficiency0NN
enhance0.0140083044329373VB

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.360539041944604
WordScorePoS
sector0.0459744293658165NN
product0.017987180284335NN
market0.030649619577211NN
reform0NN
efficiency0NN
enhance0.0601477977507998VB

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.352989928047309
WordScorePoS
sector0.0252035516550537NN
product0.0591643007226199NN
market0.0252035516550537NN
reform0NN
efficiency0.0295821503613099NN
enhance0.0123650647908625VB

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.318049400831514
WordScorePoS
sector0.0182713919265625NN
product0NN
market0.0913569596328122NN
reform0NN
efficiency0NN
enhance0.0268922747178632VB

If properly developed cashmere could be pillar of Mongolia successful transition from command to market economy

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.520502394372962
WordScorePoS
develop0VB
successful0JJ
market0.0252035516550537NN
economy0.0821985033584295NN

It is the country single largest employer and principal source of livelihood for the poor

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.523681786130454
WordScorePoS
country0NN
single0JJ
largest0JJS
employer0NN
source0.0269969049497485NN
livelihood0.0519476926891779NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.666356217593745
WordScorePoS
country0NN
single0.0583416713841148JJ
largest0.0714379839896614JJS
employer0.0440683498519077NN
source0.0130963126055467NN
livelihood0.0504000902222448NN
poor0.0548141757796873JJ

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.353690663415119
WordScorePoS
country0NN
single0JJ
largest0JJS
employer0NN
source0.0613562156822703NN
livelihood0.0295155485671997NN
poor0.0642010940957526JJ

It provided jobs for more than percent of the workforce and accounted for more than

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.5867773512978
WordScorePoS
job0.135650868266471NN
workforce0NN
account0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.65617351164899
WordScorePoS
job0.0902026255635679NN
workforce0.0454743001434393NN
account0.0160169090870187NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.337643017708582
WordScorePoS
job0.0203215381458133NN
workforce0NN
account0.0577345906651901NN

percent of GDP WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT during

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.499043929629046
WordScorePoS
gdp0NN
world0.00464349782489754NN
development0.022306853314744NN
report0.0409791940864438NN

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.451054318120996
WordScorePoS
gdp0.0531983120572613NN
world0.0045533140757086NN
development0.0036456034155327NN
report0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.375660024077296
WordScorePoS
gdp0NN
world0.00418824502414673NN
development0.0469463607292177NN
report0NN

But unsatisfactory public sector policies have meant that the industry has not lived up to its potential

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.688948298215945
WordScorePoS
public0.0160169090870187NN
sector0.0565629593551219NN
policy0.011275328195446NN
industry0.181897200573757NN
live0.00740117451847634VB
potential0.0454743001434393NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.354659477077623
WordScorePoS
public0.0727679293221751NN
sector0.0571058915334038NN
policy0.0341506708422088NN
industry0NN
live0VB
potential0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.322567158449283
WordScorePoS
public0.0390556786919513NN
sector0.0459744293658165NN
policy0.0641521854453136NN
industry0NN
live0VB
potential0NN

One significant bottleneck is in marketing and distribution

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.489142915977019
WordScorePoS
significant0.0405241466500776JJ

Mongolia major cashmere market is in Ulaanbataar km from most regional production centers

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.583860365311451
WordScorePoS
major0JJ
market0.0913569596328122NN
regional0.0252000451111224JJ
production0.0548141757796873NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.463094316747282
WordScorePoS
major0JJ
market0.0169905820958638NN
regional0JJ
production0.118934074671047NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.335874603406918
WordScorePoS
major0.0160169090870187JJ
market0.0377086395700813NN
regional0.0260040237236563JJ
production0.0188543197850406NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.330550835661763
WordScorePoS
major0.0214106369326177JJ
market0.0252035516550537NN
regional0JJ
production0.0504071033101074NN

Herders generally have to sell to traders at the farmgate or at informal provincial marketplaces at discounts of to percent from prices in Ulaanbataar

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

With little knowledge of market demand individual herders can incur costs traveling to markets with no certainty of sale

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.632902855072529
WordScorePoS
knowledge0.0595900566394012NN
market0.0913569596328122NN
demand0.0297950283197006NN
individual0JJ
incur0VB
cost0NN
travel0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.548942684332519
WordScorePoS
knowledge0NN
market0.0202620733250388NN
demand0NN
individual0.064698038783335JJ
incur0.064698038783335VB
cost0.0660824365173543NN
travel0NN

Policies that encourage regional market centers and herder cooperatives as well as infrastructure improvements could reduce marketing costs and increase herder margins

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.588317691319193
WordScorePoS
policy0.011275328195446NN
encourage0.0260040237236563VB
regional0.0260040237236563JJ
market0.0377086395700813NN
infrastructure0.192202909044225NN
improvement0.0454743001434393NN
reduce0VB
cost0NN
increase0.0159575617614215NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.386548809727096
WordScorePoS
policy0.0848203862485078NN
encourage0.02794560829783VB
regional0JJ
market0.0202620733250388NN
infrastructure0NN
improvement0NN
reduce0.0310356414389692VB
cost0.0660824365173543NN
increase0.00285817158600878NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.302285620366381
WordScorePoS
policy0NN
encourage0VB
regional0JJ
market0NN
infrastructure0.0651354046449052NN
improvement0.0924643738905717NN
reduce0.00838876601975825VB
cost0NN
increase0.0162235147372888NN

Soybean farming in India offers another illustration of how product marketing channels can improve equity

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.920587196303517
WordScorePoS
farm0.291708356920574NN
offer0.0440683498519077NN
product0NN
improve0.0218534471578307VB

Ninety percent of the soybean crop is sold by small farmers to traders who act as purchasing agents for buyers at local governmentmandated marketplace called mandi

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.934976124099084
WordScorePoS
crop0.0357189919948307NN
farmer0.175025014152344NN
local0.0155217067874935JJ

Farmers have only general information about price trends and no choice but to accept prices offered to them by traders or the auction price on the day they bring their goods to the mandi

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.780385863281776
WordScorePoS
farmer0.175025014152344NN
information0.0130963126055467NN
price0.0583416713841148NN
choice0NN
offer0.0440683498519077NN
day0NN
bring0VB

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.497762555285853
WordScorePoS
farmer0NN
information0NN
price0NN
choice0NN
offer0NN
day0.25973846344589NN
bring0VB

As result traders can exploit farmers and buyers using practices that create systemwide inefficiencies

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.769868563139053
WordScorePoS
result0NN
farmer0.175025014152344NN
practice0.0252000451111224NN
create0VB

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.360409383181491
WordScorePoS
result0NN
farmer0NN
practice0.0703006268489394NN
create0.0234335422829798VB

Under the Choupal Initiative ITC one of India leading private companies placed computers with Internet access in rural farming villages

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.808361649021417
WordScorePoS
initiative0NN
lead0NN
private0JJ
company0NN
internet0NN
access0.00749031153171887NN
rural0.148975141598503JJ
farm0.291708356920574NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.367773535164758
WordScorePoS
initiative0.036961556179878NN
lead0NN
private0.0898760357768464JJ
company0NN
internet0.0739231123597559NN
access0.00314118376811005NN
rural0JJ
farm0NN

Each computer placed in farmer home and serving about villages becomes social gathering place for the exchange of information and an commerce hub

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.551574736554665
WordScorePoS
farmer0.175025014152344NN
serve0VB
social0JJ
information0.0130963126055467NN
commerce0NN
hub0NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.563205374742523
WordScorePoS
farmer0NN
serve0VB
social0.0458109463416786JJ
information0NN
commerce0.0731385760866977NN
hub0.0731385760866977NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.331302082543655
WordScorePoS
farmer0NN
serve0VB
social0.112994637345193JJ
information0NN
commerce0NN
hub0NN

Farmers can use the computers to check prices learn about farming techniques purchase inputs and sell their soybean crops at the previous day market price

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.89479251835319
WordScorePoS
farmer0.175025014152344NN
price0.0583416713841148NN
learn0VB
farm0.291708356920574NN
input0.0583416713841148NN
crop0.0357189919948307NN
previous0JJ
day0NN
market0.0913569596328122NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.302291433511249
WordScorePoS
farmer0NN
price0NN
learn0VB
farm0NN
input0NN
crop0NN
previous0JJ
day0.25973846344589NN
market0NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.284580670410538
WordScorePoS
farmer0NN
price0NN
learn0.244520809605025VB
farm0NN
input0NN
crop0NN
previous0JJ
day0NN
market0NN

Farmers then have to transport their crop to an ITC processing center where it is electronically weighed and the farmer is immediately paid

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.873400964081991
WordScorePoS
farmer0.175025014152344NN
transport0NN
crop0.0357189919948307NN
processing0NN
pay0NN

Farmers selling to ITC through an Choupal receive on average

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.596120972064044
WordScorePoS
farmer0.175025014152344NN
receive0VB
average0NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.564166666672724
WordScorePoS
farmer0NN
receive0VB
average0.1656430212089NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.499337947768891
WordScorePoS
farmer0NN
receive0VB
average0.146608885563018NN

percent more for their crops and ITC saves an additional

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.8034367209398
WordScorePoS
crop0.0357189919948307NN
save0IN
additional0.0440683498519077JJ

percent on procurement costs by cutting traders out of the loop

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.671210703939517
WordScorePoS
procurement0.108503934593034NN
cost0.0277064208763707NN
cut0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.592642180450067
WordScorePoS
procurement0NN
cost0NN
cut0.120266261535276NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.325637787083045
WordScorePoS
procurement0NN
cost0.0660824365173543NN
cut0NN

Farmers also benefit from accurate weighing prompt payment and information about prices and price trends that allows them to optimize their sales decisions

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.873311719849556
WordScorePoS
farmer0.175025014152344NN
benefit0.0252000451111224NN
information0.0130963126055467NN
price0.0583416713841148NN
decision0NN

The eChoupal system continues to grow rapidly reaching more than

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.49072384808963
WordScorePoS
system0.0315914058171786NN
continue0.0537696560159885VB
grow0.0229054731708393VB
rapidly0RB
reach0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.425477707228173
WordScorePoS
system0.0756001353333673NN
continue0VB
grow0.0182713919265625VB
rapidly0RB
reach0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.394960490780063
WordScorePoS
system0NN
continue0.0199423462679015VB
grow0.0339811641917276VB
rapidly0RB
reach0.0332151194779746NN

million farmers by late

Label: 2, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
farmer0.175025014152344NN

The initiative illustrates how improvements in technology and communications infrastructure can be good for both equity and efficiency in product markets

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.65300346862969
WordScorePoS
initiative0NN
improvement0.0454743001434393NN
technology0.0810848128688654NN
communication0.0922368138456871NN
infrastructure0.192202909044225NN
efficiency0.0442597400933733NN
product0.0442597400933733NN
market0.0377086395700813NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.601641313539183
WordScorePoS
initiative0.0924643738905717NN
improvement0.0924643738905717NN
technology0.109914925284606NN
communication0NN
infrastructure0.0651354046449052NN
efficiency0.134992154141495NN
product0NN
market0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.314135865179382
WordScorePoS
initiative0.036961556179878NN
improvement0NN
technology0.109843026967392NN
communication0.0499801157438617NN
infrastructure0.0130185595639838NN
efficiency0NN
product0.017987180284335NN
market0.030649619577211NN

In addition to better marketing channels and new technology there are other ways to improve product market competition that can be good for equity

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.521812252737768
WordScorePoS
addition0.0368585655748969NN
technology0.0810848128688654NN
improve0VB
product0.0442597400933733NN
market0.0377086395700813NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.461509194344399
WordScorePoS
addition0NN
technology0.109843026967392NN
improve0.0183291958415182VB
product0.017987180284335NN
market0.030649619577211NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.422921604326262
WordScorePoS
addition0.0357189919948307NN
technology0.0130963126055467NN
improve0.0218534471578307VB
product0NN
market0.0913569596328122NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.346744382010369
WordScorePoS
addition0NN
technology0.109914925284606NN
improve0.0229264916384433VB
product0NN
market0NN

Measures that facilitate the entry of new firms often mean that small and medium enterprises benefit at the expense of large politically connected incumbents

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.709346732526425
WordScorePoS
measure0NN
facilitate0.0260040237236563VB
firm0.0602029956716497NN
medium0.0454743001434393NN
enterprise0.0909486002868787NN
benefit0.0260040237236563NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.446024793827452
WordScorePoS
measure0.0347609334428716NN
facilitate0VB
firm0NN
medium0.0607878664258118NN
enterprise0.0607878664258118NN
benefit0NN

Product market competition can also drive consumer prices down and make goods more affordable for the poor

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.741000306708863
WordScorePoS
product0.0199423462679015NN
market0.0169905820958638NN
drive0NN
consumer0.325511803779102NN
price0NN
affordable0JJ
poor0.0339811641917276JJ

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.28161315629954
WordScorePoS
product0NN
market0NN
drive0NN
consumer0NN
price0NN
affordable0JJ
poor0.150659516460257JJ

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.382275865334171
WordScorePoS
product0NN
market0.0913569596328122NN
drive0NN
consumer0NN
price0.0583416713841148NN
affordable0JJ
poor0.0548141757796873JJ

Of course measures to improve competition benefit efficiency and growth as well improving the welfare of the poor

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.489647119930298
WordScorePoS
measure0.103895385378356NN
improve0VB
benefit0NN
efficiency0NN
growth0.0519476926891779NN
welfare0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.484136803017002
WordScorePoS
measure0.0347609334428716NN
improve0.0150723186962745VB
benefit0NN
efficiency0.0295821503613099NN
growth0.208565600657229NN
welfare0NN
poor0JJ

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.288905550136479
WordScorePoS
measure0NN
improve0.0229264916384433VB
benefit0NN
efficiency0.134992154141495NN
growth0NN
welfare0NN
poor0JJ

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.346378001551646
WordScorePoS
measure0NN
improve0.0511916925627245VB
benefit0NN
efficiency0.0502364757923669NN
growth0NN
welfare0NN
poor0.0642010940957526JJ

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.318421696945499
WordScorePoS
measure0.0504000902222448NN
improve0.0218534471578307VB
benefit0.0252000451111224NN
efficiency0NN
growth0.0252000451111224NN
welfare0NN
poor0.0548141757796873JJ

Licensing restrictions even when designed in the name of equity are one way to hamper competition

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

India reserves the production of more than manufactured products including apparel and textiles to small companies

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.771412150417417
WordScorePoS
reserve0NN
production0.0188543197850406NN
manufacture0.240811982686599NN
product0.0442597400933733NN
include0VB
textile0.0602029956716497NN
company0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.524078532588554
WordScorePoS
reserve0NN
production0.118934074671047NN
manufacture0NN
product0.0199423462679015NN
include0VB
textile0NN
company0.108503934593034NN

This licensing regime could cost the country jobs by preventing small producers from growing and competing with larger manufacturers in for example China

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.438508973641524
WordScorePoS
regime0NN
cost0NN
country0NN
job0.135650868266471NN
prevent0VB
producer0NN
grow0VB

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.397575640159816
WordScorePoS
regime0NN
cost0.0277064208763707NN
country0NN
job0.0203215381458133NN
prevent0VB
producer0.0409791940864438NN
grow0.0339811641917276VB

High regulatory administrative and fiscal burdens can also harm product markets by keeping firms in the informal sector

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.538530687825125
WordScorePoS
fiscal0JJ
burden0NN
harm0NN
product0.0442597400933733NN
market0.0377086395700813NN
firm0.0602029956716497NN
sector0.0565629593551219NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.461639883417365
WordScorePoS
fiscal0JJ
burden0NN
harm0.0607878664258118NN
product0.0591643007226199NN
market0.0252035516550537NN
firm0NN
sector0.0252035516550537NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.416487621308557
WordScorePoS
fiscal0JJ
burden0.0440683498519077NN
harm0NN
product0NN
market0.0913569596328122NN
firm0NN
sector0.0182713919265625NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.362652092226229
WordScorePoS
fiscal0.064698038783335JJ
burden0NN
harm0.0488696285210061NN
product0NN
market0.0202620733250388NN
firm0NN
sector0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.356536190562514
WordScorePoS
fiscal0JJ
burden0.036961556179878NN
harm0NN
product0.017987180284335NN
market0.030649619577211NN
firm0NN
sector0.0459744293658165NN

Informal firms face number of constraints including limited access to financing which tend to leave them significantly less productive than their formal sector counterparts

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.582749413928254
WordScorePoS
firm0.0602029956716497NN
constraint0.0602029956716497NN
include0VB
limited0JJ
access0.0128821355880844NN
financing0NN
leave0NN
significantly0RB
productive0JJ
sector0.0565629593551219NN

For example informal Turkish brake manufacturers achieve only percent of U

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

productivity while their formal sector competitors achieve percent

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.681462222359138
WordScorePoS
productivity0.0922368138456871NN
sector0.0565629593551219NN
achieve0.0114006914853063VB

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.378204734198185
WordScorePoS
productivity0.0595900566394012NN
sector0.0182713919265625NN
achieve0.0110482109530745VB

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.353081779314
WordScorePoS
productivity0NN
sector0.0571058915334038NN
achieve0.0258977780207001VB

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.346867100588773
WordScorePoS
productivity0.0410992516792148NN
sector0.0252035516550537NN
achieve0.0152398983378455VB

Affordable access to titled land and reliable infrastructure chapter can also enhance firm and product market competitiveness

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.681723702725186
WordScorePoS
affordable0.0565629593551219JJ
access0.0128821355880844NN
land0NN
reliable0.0737171311497939JJ
infrastructure0.192202909044225NN
enhance0.0185001613201543VB
firm0.0602029956716497NN
product0.0442597400933733NN
market0.0377086395700813NN
competitiveness0NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.493104657061136
WordScorePoS
affordable0.0766742036076356JJ
access0.0157161992303584NN
land0.0325677023224526NN
reliable0.149891440995783JJ
infrastructure0.0651354046449052NN
enhance0.0188084899376888VB
firm0NN
product0NN
market0NN
competitiveness0NN

As discussed improving transportation and logistical infrastructure can reduce the cost of moving goods

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.552287868401076
WordScorePoS
improve0VB
transportation0NN
infrastructure0.192202909044225NN
reduce0VB
cost0NN
move0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.439854949682544
WordScorePoS
improve0VB
transportation0.0332151194779746NN
infrastructure0.028867295332595NN
reduce0.022306853314744VB
cost0.0277064208763707NN
move0.0409791940864438NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.320911089342095
WordScorePoS
improve0.0273960270556257VB
transportation0.04477822029736NN
infrastructure0.0194583992186006NN
reduce0.0200483235258943VB
cost0NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.313883478828339
WordScorePoS
improve0.0121171980355011VB
transportation0NN
infrastructure0NN
reduce0.0310356414389692VB
cost0.0660824365173543NN
move0NN

Better transportation links with other regions can also provide insurance against regional price fluctuations

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.716566620200532
WordScorePoS
transportation0NN
region0.184259548107002NN
provide0.0295703421524739VB
insurance0NN
regional0.0519476926891779JJ
price0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.363584319781759
WordScorePoS
transportation0NN
region0.124837844401518NN
provide0.0100171139310145VB
insurance0NN
regional0JJ
price0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.363581174154711
WordScorePoS
transportation0NN
region0.0297950283197006NN
provide0.0215170467912497VB
insurance0NN
regional0.0252000451111224JJ
price0.0583416713841148NN

For example if there is drought or food shortage in one area efficient regional con Markets and the macroeconomy nections would allow consumers to import reasonably priced food from other parts of the country

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.687832840654761
WordScorePoS
drought0.0714379839896614NN
food0.292342270824999NN
shortage0NN
efficient0JJ
regional0.0252000451111224JJ
market0.0913569596328122NN
consumer0NN
import0NN
price0.0583416713841148NN
country0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.682682854536372
WordScorePoS
drought0NN
food0.186896403054502NN
shortage0NN
efficient0.108503934593034JJ
regional0JJ
market0.0169905820958638NN
consumer0.325511803779102NN
import0NN
price0NN
country0NN

Finally better transport and logistics systems reduce inventory costs by making the timing of delivery more reliable again benefiting producers and consumers

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.793764373428613
WordScorePoS
transport0.0277064208763707NN
system0NN
reduce0.022306853314744VB
cost0.0277064208763707NN
reliable0JJ
benefit0NN
producer0.0409791940864438NN
consumer0.325511803779102NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.282832429175187
WordScorePoS
transport0NN
system0NN
reduce0.00838876601975825VB
cost0NN
reliable0.149891440995783JJ
benefit0NN
producer0NN
consumer0NN

Interactions between product and labor markets Changes in product markets whether induced by internal developments or external trade related changes can have powerful influences on the opportunities facing workers

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.561580060235802
WordScorePoS
product0.0591643007226199NN
market0.0252035516550537NN
development0.0055149369084567NN
external0JJ
trade0.0591643007226199NN
related0.0123650647908625JJ
influence0NN
opportunity0.0361300980868102NN
face0NN
worker0.121575732851624NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.536667053033052
WordScorePoS
product0.0442597400933733NN
market0.0377086395700813NN
development0.0330049940546426NN
external0JJ
trade0NN
related0.00925008066007716JJ
influence0NN
opportunity0.0135141354781442NN
face0.120405991343299NN
worker0.0454743001434393NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.343939226654231
WordScorePoS
product0.017987180284335NN
market0.030649619577211NN
development0.0469463607292177NN
external0.048933054487825JJ
trade0.0539615408530051NN
related0JJ
influence0NN
opportunity0NN
face0NN
worker0NN

Standard trade theory predicts that countries should export products that use relatively abundant factors intensively

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.656286570728538
WordScorePoS
standard0NN
trade0.0539615408530051NN
predict0VB
country0NN
export0.110884668539634NN
product0.017987180284335NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.424744474730812
WordScorePoS
standard0NN
trade0.0591643007226199NN
predict0VB
country0NN
export0NN
product0.0591643007226199NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.393349584864666
WordScorePoS
standard0NN
trade0.0214456704626236NN
predict0VB
country0NN
export0.0881366997038154NN
product0NN

Labor abundant countries that open up should see relative gains in unskilled wages as indeed occurred among the East Asian tigers in the and s

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.702952365654767
WordScorePoS
country0NN
relative0.0731385760866977JJ
gain0.04477822029736NN
occur0VB

The Latin American experience stands in sharp contrast

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.883547041505649
WordScorePoS
experience0.0299586785922821NN
stand0.048933054487825VB

Many countries including Argentina Chile Colombia Costa Rica Mexico and Uruguay saw wider wage differentials with increasing trade openness during the late and s

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Some argue that this was due to the massive insertion of lowincome Asian countries into global markets

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.51145966004959
WordScorePoS
due0JJ
country0NN
global0.0119942111830662JJ
market0.0913569596328122NN

Others interpret the evidence as supporting generalized skill biased technical change in which trade opening facilitated processes of restructuring including the destruction of jobs in inefficient industries and rising demand and relative wages for skilled workers

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.493354684906362
WordScorePoS
evidence0NN
support0NN
skill0.407534682675042NN
technical0.124876512346911JJ
change0NN
trade0NN
facilitate0VB
process0NN
restructuring0NN
include0VB
job0.0152653111258778NN
inefficient0JJ
industry0NN
rise0NN
demand0NN
relative0JJ
worker0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.476230296763699
WordScorePoS
evidence0NN
support0.0277502419802315NN
skill0NN
technical0.030745604615229JJ
change0NN
trade0NN
facilitate0.0260040237236563VB
process0.0737171311497939NN
restructuring0NN
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job0.0902026255635679NN
inefficient0JJ
industry0.181897200573757NN
rise0.0221298700466866NN
demand0.030745604615229NN
relative0JJ
worker0.0454743001434393NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.471557887603369
WordScorePoS
evidence0NN
support0NN
skill0NN
technical0JJ
change0.402565546215053NN
trade0NN
facilitate0VB
process0NN
restructuring0NN
include0VB
job0NN
inefficient0JJ
industry0NN
rise0.120914181920259NN
demand0NN
relative0JJ
worker0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.344309396546467
WordScorePoS
evidence0NN
support0.024730129581725NN
skill0NN
technical0.0410992516792148JJ
change0NN
trade0.0591643007226199NN
facilitate0VB
process0NN
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job0.135650868266471NN
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industry0NN
rise0NN
demand0NN
relative0JJ
worker0.121575732851624NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.184582263818772
WordScorePoS
evidence0.12939607756667NN
support0NN
skill0NN
technical0JJ
change0NN
trade0.0237821918091848NN
facilitate0.02794560829783VB
process0NN
restructuring0NN
include0VB
job0NN
inefficient0JJ
industry0NN
rise0.0237821918091848NN
demand0NN
relative0JJ
worker0NN

Whatever the reason the question is whether this was source of rising inequality in opportunity

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.952692950092465
WordScorePoS
source0NN
rise0.0237821918091848NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
opportunity0.029046330719385NN

Over the short to medium term this was almost certainly the case because unskilled workers cannot increase skills quickly

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.827356740600791
WordScorePoS
medium0NN
term0NN
worker0NN
increase0.0144029596227568NN
skill0.407534682675042NN
quickly0RB

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.30220010816661
WordScorePoS
medium0NN
term0.149793392961411NN
worker0NN
increase0.00432344066632653NN
skill0NN
quickly0RB

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.371530300954654
WordScorePoS
medium0.0607878664258118NN
term0NN
worker0.121575732851624NN
increase0.00711043475673939NN
skill0NN
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Over the longer term rising wage differentials provide incentives for investment in education if education systems provide equal opportunities chapter

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.632587375749964
WordScorePoS
term0NN
rise0NN
wage0NN
differential0JJ
provide0.0100202166857628VB
incentive0NN
investment0NN
education0.244244978014045NN
system0NN
equal0.051052537468787JJ
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.335234577066401
WordScorePoS
term0.149793392961411NN
rise0NN
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differential0JJ
provide0.00601568197638796VB
incentive0.036961556179878NN
investment0.0766240489430275NN
education0NN
system0.0211360962287062NN
equal0JJ
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.306089989974068
WordScorePoS
term0.0396106020715138NN
rise0.0237821918091848NN
wage0.064698038783335NN
differential0.0488696285210061JJ
provide0VB
incentive0NN
investment0.0202620733250388NN
education0.0121171980355011NN
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equal0.0202620733250388JJ
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Effects of economic restructuring on workers also depend on the extent of labor mobility

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.645545617687007
WordScorePoS
effect0NN
economic0.128463821595706JJ
restructuring0NN
worker0.121575732851624NN
depend0VB
extent0NN
mobility0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.433673193307303
WordScorePoS
effect0NN
economic0.103276847978089JJ
restructuring0NN
worker0NN
depend0VB
extent0NN
mobility0.064698038783335NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.317512808985258
WordScorePoS
effect0.0454743001434393NN
economic0.0320338181740375JJ
restructuring0NN
worker0.0454743001434393NN
depend0VB
extent0NN
mobility0NN

One study from India shows that the effects of trade liberalization in the early on poverty varied by state depending on the flexibility of labor laws

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.597607802264784
WordScorePoS
study0NN
effect0NN
trade0NN
poverty0.269969049497485NN
depend0VB
flexibility0NN
law0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.364552322087996
WordScorePoS
study0NN
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trade0NN
poverty0NN
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flexibility0NN
law0.164686343640793NN

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.351050220221145
WordScorePoS
study0NN
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trade0.0391100714971453NN
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depend0.0651400632663124VB
flexibility0NN
law0.0543366405761884NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.306158845116688
WordScorePoS
study0.0517339898971162NN
effect0NN
trade0NN
poverty0.0232260916751625NN
depend0.0633470357346975VB
flexibility0NN
law0NN

In states with less flexible laws where liberalization did not produce any measurable effect on the allocation of labor across sectors the adverse impact of trade opening on poverty was felt the most

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.47790590291487
WordScorePoS
law0NN
produce0VB
effect0NN
sector0NN
adverse0JJ
impact0NN
trade0NN
poverty0.269969049497485NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.342156309661174
WordScorePoS
law0.164686343640793NN
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effect0NN
sector0NN
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impact0.0285977592242194NN
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Label: 14, with a score of: 0.413554214742018
WordScorePoS
law0.0543366405761884NN
produce0.0651400632663124VB
effect0NN
sector0NN
adverse0.0325700316331562JJ
impact0.042459973210532NN
trade0.0391100714971453NN
poverty0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.38133491634721
WordScorePoS
law0NN
produce0.0332151194779746VB
effect0NN
sector0.0169905820958638NN
adverse0.0664302389559493JJ
impact0.0866018859977851NN
trade0NN
poverty0.0121782716594324NN

In states with more flexible labor laws movements of labor across sectors eased the shock of relative price changes

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.604215024327243
WordScorePoS
law0.164686343640793NN
sector0NN
shock0NN
relative0JJ
price0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.441242913849499
WordScorePoS
law0NN
sector0NN
shock0.120266261535276NN
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price0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.380342068465134
WordScorePoS
law0.0465610847355851NN
sector0.0571058915334038NN
shock0NN
relative0JJ
price0NN

While greater mobility is desirable the design of measures that increase flexibility needs to be balanced with the levels of worker protection that are appropriate for the institutional setting see the earlier discussion on labor markets

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.473594375442854
WordScorePoS
mobility0NN
measure0.103895385378356NN
increase0NN
flexibility0NN
level0.0113874611101829NN
worker0NN
protection0.122839698738001NN
institutional0JJ
set0NN
market0NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.417506884436946
WordScorePoS
mobility0NN
measure0.0710409787438328NN
increase0.0145316075945746NN
flexibility0NN
level0.0415277415054218NN
worker0NN
protection0NN
institutional0.0828215106044499JJ
set0NN
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.390356373120623
WordScorePoS
mobility0NN
measure0.0347609334428716NN
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flexibility0NN
level0.00761994916892276NN
worker0.121575732851624NN
protection0NN
institutional0JJ
set0NN
market0.0252035516550537NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.365356027468454
WordScorePoS
mobility0NN
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increase0.00432344066632653NN
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level0.0138997399903163NN
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institutional0.036961556179878JJ
set0.0978661089756501NN
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.318553021714986
WordScorePoS
mobility0NN
measure0.0504000902222448NN
increase0.0128868286091919NN
flexibility0NN
level0.00552410547653725NN
worker0NN
protection0NN
institutional0JJ
set0NN
market0.0913569596328122NN

Safety nets and opportunity Safety nets complement product market deepening and are often an essential element of strategy to ensure that market expansion leads to more equal opportunities

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.448008353546818
WordScorePoS
safety0NN
opportunity0.0361300980868102NN
complement0NN
product0.0591643007226199NN
market0.0252035516550537NN
essential0JJ
strategy0.0295821503613099NN
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expansion0NN
lead0.0504071033101074NN
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Label: 11, with a score of: 0.407717626683482
WordScorePoS
safety0.0731385760866977NN
opportunity0.0164178645080222NN
complement0NN
product0.0268848280079943NN
market0NN
essential0JJ
strategy0NN
ensure0.00501208088147356VB
expansion0.0731385760866977NN
lead0NN
equal0JJ

General questions of the design of safety nets were discussed in chapter here we highlight the links with product market change

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.819033226494142
WordScorePoS
safety0NN
product0NN
market0NN
change0.402565546215053NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.339679859495949
WordScorePoS
safety0NN
product0NN
market0.0913569596328122NN
change0.0756001353333673NN

As discussed above trade opening creates winners and losers

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.753054234496621
WordScorePoS
trade0.0591643007226199NN
create0.0695218668857431VB

How this affects equity depends partly on how governments can offer support to the losers

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.498460277302691
WordScorePoS
affect0.0397441667210336VB
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government0NN
offer0NN
support0.00794883334420673NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.422164398012582
WordScorePoS
affect0VB
depend0VB
government0.048933054487825NN
offer0NN
support0.0451108483130998NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.398406428767109
WordScorePoS
affect0VB
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government0NN
offer0.0440683498519077NN
support0.00896409157262106NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.370229737833396
WordScorePoS
affect0.00925008066007716VB
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government0NN
offer0.0454743001434393NN
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Rodrik finds that openness is associated with higher government spending

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.775999676336373
WordScorePoS
government0NN
spending0.0602029956716497NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.630733305229591
WordScorePoS
government0.048933054487825NN
spending0NN

The argument is that open economies are more subject to external shocks and spend more on social insurance to mitigate external risk

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.668892304271324
WordScorePoS
economy0NN
external0JJ
shock0.120266261535276NN
social0.112994637345193JJ
insurance0NN
risk0.0519476926891779NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.49973588786532
WordScorePoS
economy0.0821985033584295NN
external0JJ
shock0NN
social0.0504071033101074JJ
insurance0.0804764811724088NN
risk0NN

In more advanced economies with the capacity to manage social welfare systems exposure to external risk is strongly correlated with spending on social security and welfare

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.596376457543167
WordScorePoS
advance0NN
economy0NN
capacity0NN
manage0VB
social0.112994637345193JJ
welfare0NN
system0.0519476926891779NN
exposure0.120266261535276NN
external0JJ
risk0.0519476926891779NN
spending0NN
security0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.355987818364774
WordScorePoS
advance0NN
economy0NN
capacity0NN
manage0.0660824365173543VB
social0.101310366625194JJ
welfare0NN
system0NN
exposure0NN
external0JJ
risk0NN
spending0NN
security0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.315189879315979
WordScorePoS
advance0NN
economy0NN
capacity0.0179281831452421NN
manage0.0297950283197006VB
social0JJ
welfare0NN
system0.0756001353333673NN
exposure0NN
external0JJ
risk0.0252000451111224NN
spending0NN
security0.0893850849591018NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.311317426460846
WordScorePoS
advance0.0373517915079663NN
economy0NN
capacity0.0112376090361851NN
manage0VB
social0.0458109463416786JJ
welfare0NN
system0.0315914058171786NN
exposure0NN
external0JJ
risk0.0631828116343571NN
spending0NN
security0NN

In less developed economies governments rely on broader set of tools such as public employment to reduce risk

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.531674736862165
WordScorePoS
develop0VB
economy0.0821985033584295NN
government0NN
rely0VB
set0NN
tool0NN
public0NN
employment0.173804667214358NN
reduce0.0055149369084567VB
risk0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.384666271355058
WordScorePoS
develop0VB
economy0NN
government0.048933054487825NN
rely0VB
set0.0978661089756501NN
tool0NN
public0.0390556786919513NN
employment0NN
reduce0.00335331148065841VB
risk0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.322661440204226
WordScorePoS
develop0VB
economy0.0465610847355851NN
government0NN
rely0VB
set0NN
tool0NN
public0.0727679293221751NN
employment0.0393804437159645NN
reduce0VB
risk0NN

The specific design of safety nets can expand opportunities to those who suffer adverse effects

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.551323637814924
WordScorePoS
specific0JJ
safety0.0731385760866977NN
expand0.0268848280079943VB
opportunity0.0164178645080222NN
suffer0VB
adverse0.04477822029736JJ
effect0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.412697952490594
WordScorePoS
specific0.0542519672965169JJ
safety0NN
expand0VB
opportunity0NN
suffer0VB
adverse0.0664302389559493JJ
effect0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.362420581856854
WordScorePoS
specific0JJ
safety0NN
expand0VB
opportunity0.0261926252110933NN
suffer0.0357189919948307VB
adverse0JJ
effect0.0440683498519077NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.341816429499884
WordScorePoS
specific0JJ
safety0NN
expand0.0449973847138318VB
opportunity0.0549574626423028NN
suffer0VB
adverse0JJ
effect0NN

For instance trade adjustment assistance programs in the United States extended unemployment benefits training and relocation subsidies to displaced workers

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.446781699070898
WordScorePoS
trade0.0391100714971453NN
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unite0VB
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unemployment0NN
benefit0.0229784274580034NN
training0NN
subsidy0.162850158165781NN
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.682103944423235
WordScorePoS
trade0.0591643007226199NN
assistance0.0410992516792148NN
unite0VB
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unemployment0.0804764811724088NN
benefit0NN
training0.0410992516792148NN
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worker0.121575732851624NN

While the United States was offering the programs in response to the NAFTA the Mexican government established Procampo cash transfer program for grain farmers to ease the pain of NAFTA induced competition from the United States

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.45074809841065
WordScorePoS
unite0VB
response0NN
government0NN
establish0VB
transfer0NN
grain0NN
farmer0.175025014152344NN

It was designed to provide consumption support to compensate for price declines and to allow farmers to diversify into other activities

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.706031830376698
WordScorePoS
provide0.0200087191734851VB
consumption0.332151194779746NN
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price0NN
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.461248078956941
WordScorePoS
provide0.0215170467912497VB
consumption0NN
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price0.0583416713841148NN
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farmer0.175025014152344NN
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.353345995709242
WordScorePoS
provide0VB
consumption0.147812295323721NN
support0.024730129581725NN
price0NN
decline0NN
farmer0NN
activity0.0295821503613099NN

While the size of the transfers was hurt by the Tequila Crisis there is evidence of gains to farmers WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT and of the use of proceeds for investment purposes

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.52256105120305
WordScorePoS
size0NN
transfer0NN
evidence0NN
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farmer0.175025014152344NN
world0.0124838525528648NN
development0.0159922815774215NN
report0NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.494284736957131
WordScorePoS
size0.0396106020715138NN
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evidence0.12939607756667NN
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world0.00276879546803864NN
development0.0177346522508396NN
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.38812905542182
WordScorePoS
size0NN
transfer0.036961556179878NN
evidence0NN
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farmer0NN
world0.00418824502414673NN
development0.0469463607292177NN
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While the ideal policy mix may be one that combines reduced barriers and extensive safety nets in practice this is not always feasible

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.442833490009464
WordScorePoS
policy0.0848203862485078NN
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barrier0NN
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Label: 7, with a score of: 0.402799826185933
WordScorePoS
policy0NN
mix0.122412709674631NN
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barrier0NN
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.39832898322521
WordScorePoS
policy0.0341506708422088NN
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barrier0.0558185411034276NN
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.347762047063544
WordScorePoS
policy0.0203215381458133NN
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Many countries phase liberalization to seek to ensure that processes of job creation precede or accompany job destruction this has been central feature of the East Asian experience see discussion of China in chapter

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.706005410953838
WordScorePoS
country0NN
phase0NN
seek0VB
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process0NN
job0.135650868266471NN
creation0.160952962344818NN
central0JJ
feature0NN
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This carries risks of slowing restructuring and extending protection beyond periods justified by equity concerns because of capture by influential beneficiaries

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.58019508029279
WordScorePoS
risk0.0519476926891779NN
slow0JJ
restructuring0NN
extend0VB
protection0.122839698738001NN
period0NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.434117059292721
WordScorePoS
risk0NN
slow0JJ
restructuring0NN
extend0.064698038783335VB
protection0.0660824365173543NN
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Credibility political supportability and the design of product market reform While technocrats can design trade and other product market reforms that appear to be good for growth and equity the expected gains will never materialize if there is not enough political support

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.529181122091742
WordScorePoS
political0JJ
product0.0591643007226199NN
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reform0NN
trade0.0591643007226199NN
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.465409194646303
WordScorePoS
political0.111637082206855JJ
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reform0.0911713013253052NN
trade0NN
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expect0VB
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.383844800512645
WordScorePoS
political0.0792212041430275JJ
product0NN
market0.0202620733250388NN
reform0NN
trade0.0237821918091848NN
growth0.11178243319132NN
expect0VB
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Because of the nature of trade policy concentrated set of winners from trade barriers versus diffuse set of winners from liberalization consumers in general it is easy for vested interests to capture policy

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.681225634547893
WordScorePoS
nature0.162755901889551NN
trade0NN
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.556354702351703
WordScorePoS
nature0NN
trade0.0539615408530051NN
policy0.0641521854453136NN
set0.0978661089756501NN
barrier0NN
consumer0NN
capture0NN

Steel tariffs in the United States and agricultural subsidies in the United States Japan and Europe are obvious examples

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.737897321934334
WordScorePoS
unite0VB
agricultural0.250032943963815JJ
subsidy0.0357189919948307NN

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.420528019115514
WordScorePoS
unite0VB
agricultural0JJ
subsidy0.162850158165781NN

Even after trade liberalization laws have been passed they are still not immune to capture

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.729074899950131
WordScorePoS
trade0NN
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capture0NN

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.413693392842191
WordScorePoS
trade0.0391100714971453NN
law0.0543366405761884NN
capture0NN

If economic actors do not believe that reforms are credible that is that politicians will recant at the behest of vested interests the anticipated adjustments will never take place

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.421099563798798
WordScorePoS
economic0.128463821595706JJ
actor0NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.550615345750795
WordScorePoS
economic0.103276847978089JJ
actor0NN
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credible0.064698038783335JJ

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.537386617163129
WordScorePoS
economic0.0727679293221751JJ
actor0NN
reform0.0911713013253052NN
credible0JJ

Cashews in Mozambique again provide an apt example

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.624501700324943
WordScorePoS
provide0.0445201436316848VB

In the early the Mozambican government working with the World Bank implemented new pricing regime that liberalized the export of raw cashews

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.808686913377603
WordScorePoS
government0.048933054487825NN
world0.00418824502414673NN
bank0.036961556179878NN
implement0.0458229896037954VB
regime0.048933054487825NN
export0.110884668539634NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.546056639129627
WordScorePoS
government0NN
world0.0124838525528648NN
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implement0.0109267235789154VB
regime0NN
export0.0881366997038154NN

But there was no credible political commitment to the new pricing regime so neither cashew farmers nor cashew processors adjusted to the new price signals

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.717448295884036
WordScorePoS
credible0JJ
political0JJ
commitment0NN
regime0NN
farmer0.175025014152344NN
price0.0583416713841148NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.442456537209155
WordScorePoS
credible0.064698038783335JJ
political0.0792212041430275JJ
commitment0NN
regime0NN
farmer0NN
price0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.377701501570459
WordScorePoS
credible0JJ
political0JJ
commitment0.0739231123597559NN
regime0.048933054487825NN
farmer0NN
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Efficiency gains from the reallocation of resources never materialized

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.449554682712271
WordScorePoS
efficiency0.134992154141495NN
gain0NN
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.492852169780666
WordScorePoS
efficiency0.039884692535803NN
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Label: 11, with a score of: 0.477882131277233
WordScorePoS
efficiency0.0537696560159885NN
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resource0.0449504361447405NN

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.341586604426567
WordScorePoS
efficiency0.0502364757923669NN
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resource0.0104991907358033NN

While this section has emphasized the heterogeneity of effects of product market changes the policy message is not necessarily one of detailed fine tuning of reforms

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.432688925493372
WordScorePoS
effect0.0454743001434393NN
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market0.0377086395700813NN
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reform0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.422418347043756
WordScorePoS
effect0.0440683498519077NN
product0NN
market0.0913569596328122NN
policy0NN
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That brings risks of greater capture

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.757811923843244
WordScorePoS
bring0.0731385760866977VB
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capture0NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.411810994743751
WordScorePoS
bring0VB
risk0.0223459295604043NN
capture0.0517339898971162NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.391300095228404
WordScorePoS
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The ideal balance is combination of gradual but committed liberalization with extensive engagement in the complementary measures that broaden opportunities for all education infrastructure competition and safety nets

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.535637352238724
WordScorePoS
measure0NN
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education0.244244978014045NN
infrastructure0NN
safety0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.500598652684557
WordScorePoS
measure0NN
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opportunity0.0135141354781442NN
education0.022550656390892NN
infrastructure0.192202909044225NN
safety0NN

Societal debate and information can ensure that governments remain accountable to all groups not just those with access and connections

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.702618760195733
WordScorePoS
information0.0241291244414115NN
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government0NN
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accountable0.162386273072618JJ
access0.00690021170452351NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.372553068320922
WordScorePoS
information0.0182963616752599NN
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government0NN
remain0.0499016491051341VB
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access0.00697628678506322NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.321885654393639
WordScorePoS
information0NN
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Of particular importance for external opening is the role of external commitments

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.972153940222206
WordScorePoS
external0.048933054487825JJ
commitment0.0739231123597559NN

Entry into international agreements such as the WTO the European Union or NAFTA can effectively lock politicians into trade reforms

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.587470174271816
WordScorePoS
international0.00540783824576293JJ
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When trade regulations are bound by international agreements reform commitments are more credible and less susceptible to capture by domestic special interests asymmetries in power among the international parties to such agreements remain as we will read in chapter

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.567268164813962
WordScorePoS
trade0.0237821918091848NN
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power0NN
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remain0.0396106020715138VB

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.483778638865866
WordScorePoS
trade0.0539615408530051NN
regulation0.036961556179878NN
international0.00648516099948979JJ
agreement0NN
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domestic0.0634082886861185JJ
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Macroeconomic management and equity Macroeconomic instability is both cause and consequence of inequity Macroeconomic stability is public good and might be expected to equally affect all

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.669963738362827
WordScorePoS
macroeconomic0.048933054487825JJ
management0NN
stability0.048933054487825NN
public0.0390556786919513NN
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affect0VB

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.394720370333327
WordScorePoS
macroeconomic0JJ
management0.0687164195125178NN
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public0.0583751976558017NN
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affect0.0112376090361851VB

There is well established association between macroeconomic stability and long term growth and growth typically brings expansion in opportunities to everyone

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.680313452082805
WordScorePoS
establish0VB
macroeconomic0JJ
stability0NN
term0NN
growth0.208565600657229NN
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expansion0NN
opportunity0.0361300980868102NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.445164646066214
WordScorePoS
establish0.048933054487825VB
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term0.149793392961411NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.438604445674503
WordScorePoS
establish0VB
macroeconomic0JJ
stability0NN
term0.0396106020715138NN
growth0.11178243319132NN
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expansion0NN
opportunity0.029046330719385NN

But the fact that stability is public good does not mean that the incidence of benefits is equal

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.775744365721991
WordScorePoS
stability0NN
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equal0.114211783066808JJ

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.301540541346779
WordScorePoS
stability0.048933054487825NN
public0.0390556786919513NN
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As discussed in chapter the distribution of income gains from economic growth is typically as unequal as the initial income distributions

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.703295102526319
WordScorePoS
income0.166475342664294NN
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typically0RB

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.432530713980419
WordScorePoS
income0NN
gain0NN
economic0.128463821595706JJ
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typically0RB

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.358489871009214
WordScorePoS
income0.110649350233433NN
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typically0RB

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.303328198157478
WordScorePoS
income0.0442083771593746NN
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economic0.0959899298575892JJ
growth0.0519476926891779NN
typically0RB

Moreover macroeconomic instability whether in the form of volatility or high inflation can have differential and potentially inequitable effects because the pattern of power and wealth can influence the distribution of losses and different groups have differential capacities to manage the consequent shocks

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.336549034908615
WordScorePoS
macroeconomic0JJ
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capacity0.016515769558553NN
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shock0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.402326366146291
WordScorePoS
macroeconomic0JJ
form0.0884167543187491NN
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pattern0NN
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loss0NN
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shock0.120266261535276NN

As in many other areas there are twoway patterns of causation between macroeconomic conditions and equity

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.666687332000828
WordScorePoS
pattern0.0819583881728876NN
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condition0.0409791940864438NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.659302057851737
WordScorePoS
pattern0NN
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condition0.121575732851624NN

Unequal patterns of power and associated institutional structures are at the center of causative influences from inequity to insta Markets and the macroeconomy bility and in regressive effects of crises

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

By emphasizing these links we are not arguing against the large body of literature on economic causes of crises

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.597058956635145
WordScorePoS
economic0.128463821595706JJ

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.479997919510947
WordScorePoS
economic0.103276847978089JJ

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.446130643292091
WordScorePoS
economic0.0959899298575892JJ

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.338202175662583
WordScorePoS
economic0.0727679293221751JJ

Depending on the type of crisis this literature sees the causes as fiscal imbalances herdlike movements of investors behind exchange rate crises and interactions among external liabilities exchange rates and financial corporate conditions especially under crony capitalism

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Some of the processes in this literature complement the diagnosis here others are manifestations of underlying distributional and institutional conditions

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.614611926974394
WordScorePoS
process0NN
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underlie0.0607878664258118VB
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condition0.121575732851624NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.454403682637508
WordScorePoS
process0NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.405328031718381
WordScorePoS
process0NN
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Figure

Label: 9, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
figure0.0602029956716497NN

shows the bivariate correlation between macroeconomic volatility and measure of constraints on the executive branch of government which would be expected to be closely linked to restraints on elite power

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Weaker constraints are associated with greater volatility and higher propensity for macroeconomic crises

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.620201534904967
WordScorePoS
constraint0.0602029956716497NN
volatility0NN
macroeconomic0JJ

The correlation says nothing about causation

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

But there is evidence supporting the view that weak and unequal institutions have causative influence on economic instability

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.632163070797132
WordScorePoS
evidence0.12939607756667NN
support0NN
view0NN
institution0.0991236547760315NN
influence0NN
economic0.103276847978089JJ

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.522954077332863
WordScorePoS
evidence0NN
support0NN
view0NN
institution0.274477239401321NN
influence0NN
economic0JJ

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.370181596308547
WordScorePoS
evidence0NN
support0.024730129581725NN
view0NN
institution0.0410992516792148NN
influence0NN
economic0.128463821595706JJ

A tradition of work interprets instability as consequence of distributional struggles that are ineffectively managed by institutions

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.82998862807691
WordScorePoS
manage0VB
institution0.274477239401321NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.499564835909983
WordScorePoS
manage0.0660824365173543VB
institution0.0991236547760315NN

As discussed in chapter the seminal work by Bates on Ghana interprets exchange rate overvaluation and internal pricing policies as mechanisms for governments to severely tax cocoa farmers in the early postindependence period to provide resources to buy off urban groups

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.524843129035635
WordScorePoS
rate0NN
policy0.0136980135278128NN
mechanism0NN
government0NN
severely0RB
tax0NN
farmer0NN
period0NN
provide0.0269743071558856VB
resource0.0449504361447405NN
urban0.27622591898666JJ

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.495329969371126
WordScorePoS
rate0NN
policy0.0641521854453136NN
mechanism0.147846224719512NN
government0.048933054487825NN
severely0RB
tax0.036961556179878NN
farmer0NN
period0NN
provide0.00601568197638796VB
resource0.0375923735942499NN
urban0JJ

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.423514468232672
WordScorePoS
rate0.0155217067874935NN
policy0NN
mechanism0NN
government0NN
severely0RB
tax0NN
farmer0.175025014152344NN
period0.0440683498519077NN
provide0.0215170467912497VB
resource0.0358563662904843NN
urban0JJ

A combination of predatory governments and weak or absent balancing institutions created the preconditions for fights over rents and systematic political instability until the early s

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.703721793223583
WordScorePoS
government0NN
institution0.274477239401321NN
create0VB
fight0NN
political0JJ

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.457251625688432
WordScorePoS
government0NN
institution0.0991236547760315NN
create0VB
fight0NN
political0.0792212041430275JJ

Analyses of hyperinflation in settings as diverse as Bolivia and Israel interpret macroeconomic instability as consequence of failures to manage societal conflicts

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.724224909055652
WordScorePoS
setting0VBG
macroeconomic0JJ
manage0VB
conflict0.147263166485024NN

Macroeconomic instability can interact with unequal influence in the fallout from crises Crises whatever the causes are systematically bad for growth more so in the presence of distributional struggles

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.78823738058279
WordScorePoS
macroeconomic0JJ
influence0NN
bad0JJ
growth0.208565600657229NN

Rodrik Figure

Label: 9, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
figure0.0602029956716497NN

Weaker institutions are associated with macroeconomic volatility and crises Standard deviation of GDP growth Constraints on the executive index Source Authors calculations using World Bank statistics and the Polity IV database for constraints on the executive index

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.497993987579315
WordScorePoS
institution0.274477239401321NN
macroeconomic0JJ
volatility0NN
standard0NN
gdp0NN
growth0NN
constraint0NN
source0NN
world0NN
bank0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.456100303040066
WordScorePoS
institution0.0410992516792148NN
macroeconomic0JJ
volatility0NN
standard0NN
gdp0NN
growth0.208565600657229NN
constraint0NN
source0NN
world0.00172202218602071NN
bank0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.387678072978401
WordScorePoS
institution0.0991236547760315NN
macroeconomic0JJ
volatility0NN
standard0NN
gdp0NN
growth0.11178243319132NN
constraint0NN
source0NN
world0.00276879546803864NN
bank0NN

Note higher value for the constraints on the executive index denotes greater accountability

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.775999676336373
WordScorePoS
constraint0.0602029956716497NN
accountability0NN

argues in cross country empirical analysis that the effects of external shocks in the were significantly worse for subsequent growth in societies in which latent distributional conflicts proxied by income inequality or ethnolinguistic fragmentation were more severe and conflictmanagement mechanisms proxied by institutional strength and indicators of democracy were weaker

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.828209830118133
WordScorePoS
country0NN
effect0NN
external0JJ
shock0NN
significantly0RB
growth0.11178243319132NN
society0.0237821918091848NN
conflict0NN
income0.166475342664294NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
mechanism0NN
institutional0JJ

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.321341512378637
WordScorePoS
country0NN
effect0NN
external0JJ
shock0.120266261535276NN
significantly0RB
growth0.0519476926891779NN
society0NN
conflict0.147263166485024NN
income0.0442083771593746NN
inequality0NN
mechanism0NN
institutional0JJ

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.254205122936462
WordScorePoS
country0NN
effect0NN
external0.048933054487825JJ
shock0NN
significantly0RB
growth0NN
society0.0359743605686701NN
conflict0NN
income0.017987180284335NN
inequality0NN
mechanism0.147846224719512NN
institutional0.036961556179878JJ

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.236558047880722
WordScorePoS
country0NN
effect0NN
external0JJ
shock0NN
significantly0RB
growth0.208565600657229NN
society0.0591643007226199NN
conflict0NN
income0NN
inequality0NN
mechanism0NN
institutional0JJ

High inflation and macroeconomic crises can be particularly harmful to the poor who are least equipped to manage adverse shocks

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.758185649651855
WordScorePoS
macroeconomic0JJ
harmful0JJ
poor0.150659516460257JJ
manage0VB
adverse0JJ
shock0.120266261535276NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.373953754482965
WordScorePoS
macroeconomic0JJ
harmful0.0332151194779746JJ
poor0.0339811641917276JJ
manage0VB
adverse0.0664302389559493JJ
shock0NN

For the impacts on distributional outcomes household survey evidence does not display systematic disequalizing or equalizing biases across countries the Mexican crisis was slightly equalizing although strongly poverty increasing the Argentine crisis was disequalizing

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.652690689972553
WordScorePoS
impact0NN
outcome0.0330412182586772NN
household0.0330412182586772NN
survey0.064698038783335NN
evidence0.12939607756667NN
country0NN
slightly0RB
poverty0.05809266143877NN
increase0.00285817158600878NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.548711486247805
WordScorePoS
impact0NN
outcome0NN
household0NN
survey0NN
evidence0NN
country0NN
slightly0RB
poverty0.269969049497485NN
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There is some evidence that high inflation is worse for poorer groups for example in the Philippines and Brazil

Label: 10, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
evidence0.12939607756667NN

Mechanisms for crisis resolution tend to be inequitable as result of unequal influence

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.837202454452493
WordScorePoS
mechanism0.147846224719512NN
result0NN
influence0NN

Many of the results are not fully reflected in household income and spending surveys

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.73306222856303
WordScorePoS
result0NN
fully0RB
reflect0VB
household0.0330412182586772NN
income0.166475342664294NN
spending0NN
survey0.064698038783335NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.474029071760687
WordScorePoS
result0NN
fully0RB
reflect0VB
household0NN
income0.110649350233433NN
spending0.0602029956716497NN
survey0NN

The reason is that the big action usually takes place elsewhere notably in changes in capital income and fiscal positions that the surveys typically fail to capture

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.851809354849659
WordScorePoS
action0.0145231653596925NN
notably0RB
income0.166475342664294NN
fiscal0.064698038783335JJ
survey0.064698038783335NN
typically0RB
capture0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.340739251165106
WordScorePoS
action0.0135141354781442NN
notably0RB
income0.110649350233433NN
fiscal0JJ
survey0NN
typically0RB
capture0NN

WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT Figure

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.635258118363613
WordScorePoS
world0.00257642711761688NN
development0.0330049940546426NN
report0NN
figure0.0602029956716497NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.45051999587721
WordScorePoS
world0.00464349782489754NN
development0.022306853314744NN
report0.0409791940864438NN
figure0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.339133175358608
WordScorePoS
world0.00418824502414673NN
development0.0469463607292177NN
report0NN
figure0NN

Labor shares fall during crises and don fully recover afterward Mexico Peru Labor share Labor share Crisis year Crisis year Source Authors calculations based on national accounts

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Note Crisis years are defined as years in which at least two out of three of the following occur percent or higher nominal devaluation negative growth and percent or higher rate of inflation

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.70274585313823
WordScorePoS
occur0VB
growth0.208565600657229NN
rate0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.43463960755533
WordScorePoS
occur0VB
growth0.11178243319132NN
rate0.0172128079963482NN

Table

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Fiscal costs of selected banking crises Country and episode Fiscal cost percent of GDP Argentina

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.844268431727822
WordScorePoS
fiscal0.064698038783335JJ
cost0.0660824365173543NN
banking0NN
country0NN
gdp0NN

Brazil

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Chile

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Ecuador

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

México

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Venezuela

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Korea Rep

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Indonesia

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

United States

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.91318849194418
WordScorePoS
unite0.0828215106044499VB

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.407537456169018
WordScorePoS
unite0.036961556179878VB

Source Honohan and Klingebiel

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.73415387760794
WordScorePoS
source0.0613562156822703NN

Note Costs refer to both fiscal and quasi fiscal outlays and the present value of the future stream of costs

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.845294729642855
WordScorePoS
cost0.0660824365173543NN
fiscal0.064698038783335JJ
future0NN

Banking crises in Ecuador Mexico the Republic of Korea and Indonesia were ongoing at the time of the study

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

There is evidence that crises lead to reductions in measured labor share strongly influenced by formal sector earnings and employment

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.590417223692378
WordScorePoS
evidence0NN
lead0.0504071033101074NN
reduction0NN
measure0.0347609334428716NN
share0.0252035516550537NN
influence0NN
sector0.0252035516550537NN
employment0.173804667214358NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.337709513479975
WordScorePoS
evidence0.12939607756667NN
lead0NN
reduction0.0475643836183697NN
measure0NN
share0NN
influence0NN
sector0NN
employment0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.414391572442182
WordScorePoS
evidence0NN
lead0.0188543197850406NN
reduction0NN
measure0NN
share0.0377086395700813NN
influence0NN
sector0.0565629593551219NN
employment0.104016094894625NN

Diwan finds that labor shares systematically fall during crises and don fully recover afterward crosscountry result illustrated for Mexico and Peru in figure

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

The flip side of this pattern is that the shares of corporate and financial sector capital income rise relative to wages

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.453642271873632
WordScorePoS
pattern0NN
share0NN
financial0.0298222075472138JJ
sector0NN
income0.166475342664294NN
rise0.0237821918091848NN
relative0JJ

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.506145198297724
WordScorePoS
pattern0NN
share0.0377086395700813NN
financial0.0185001613201543JJ
sector0.0565629593551219NN
income0.110649350233433NN
rise0.0221298700466866NN
relative0JJ

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.334594418492314
WordScorePoS
pattern0.0414107553022249NN
share0NN
financial0JJ
sector0NN
income0NN
rise0.120914181920259NN
relative0JJ

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.320779154018592
WordScorePoS
pattern0NN
share0.0766240489430275NN
financial0.0150369494376999JJ
sector0.0459744293658165NN
income0.017987180284335NN
rise0NN
relative0JJ

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.30828447978441
WordScorePoS
pattern0NN
share0.0365427838531249NN
financial0.00896409157262106JJ
sector0.0182713919265625NN
income0.0643370113878709NN
rise0.0214456704626236NN
relative0JJ

There are also significant interactions with structural variables

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.489142915977019
WordScorePoS
significant0.0405241466500776JJ

In particular closed trade capital controls and fiscal deficits are associated with higher labor shares in normal times but with larger falls in labor shares when crises occur

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.471631427969243
WordScorePoS
trade0.0149758277542848NN
control0.020806307400253NN
fiscal0JJ
share0NN
time0.0127591822694525NN
fall0.123094312756122NN
occur0.0307735781890304VB

Crises are mechanisms for the resolution of distributional conflicts that are not tackled during good economic times

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.584594145573107
WordScorePoS
mechanism0NN
conflict0.147263166485024NN
tackle0VB
economic0.0959899298575892JJ
time0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.355309094583441
WordScorePoS
mechanism0.147846224719512NN
conflict0NN
tackle0VB
economic0JJ
time0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.308728641698453
WordScorePoS
mechanism0NN
conflict0NN
tackle0VB
economic0.128463821595706JJ
time0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.549766501408266
WordScorePoS
mechanism0NN
conflict0NN
tackle0.064698038783335VB
economic0.103276847978089JJ
time0.0607862199751165NN

Labor is relatively immobile and so typically bears higher proportion of the cost

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.66272743847929
WordScorePoS
typically0RB
bear0.0814816979556159NN
proportion0.025518364538905NN
cost0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.409295498157855
WordScorePoS
typically0RB
bear0NN
proportion0NN
cost0.0660824365173543NN

Pre crisis labor shares may in some cases have been too high for competitiveness and stability but the point is that crises are high cost form of conflict resolution

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.628040332175413
WordScorePoS
share0NN
competitiveness0NN
stability0NN
cost0.0548954478802642NN
form0.158049144643351NN
conflict0.0658099748168827NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.530992181261285
WordScorePoS
share0NN
competitiveness0NN
stability0NN
cost0NN
form0.0884167543187491NN
conflict0.147263166485024NN

And the interaction between shocks and weak conflict resolution mechanisms is associated with weaker long run growth

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.733381971892633
WordScorePoS
shock0.120266261535276NN
conflict0.147263166485024NN
mechanism0NN
growth0.0519476926891779NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.478776856193297
WordScorePoS
shock0NN
conflict0NN
mechanism0NN
growth0.208565600657229NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.339391301577047
WordScorePoS
shock0NN
conflict0NN
mechanism0.147846224719512NN
growth0NN

In addition to any effects through the distribution of labor and capital income important mechanisms work through the financial sector and associated fiscal action

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.521061493759346
WordScorePoS
addition0NN
effect0NN
income0.166475342664294NN
mechanism0NN
financial0.0298222075472138JJ
sector0NN
fiscal0.064698038783335JJ
action0.0145231653596925NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.449782735710922
WordScorePoS
addition0NN
effect0NN
income0.017987180284335NN
mechanism0.147846224719512NN
financial0.0150369494376999JJ
sector0.0459744293658165NN
fiscal0JJ
action0.0109843026967392NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.532485708498951
WordScorePoS
addition0.0368585655748969NN
effect0.0454743001434393NN
income0.110649350233433NN
mechanism0NN
financial0.0185001613201543JJ
sector0.0565629593551219NN
fiscal0JJ
action0.0135141354781442NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.324075987887094
WordScorePoS
addition0.0357189919948307NN
effect0.0440683498519077NN
income0.0643370113878709NN
mechanism0NN
financial0.00896409157262106JJ
sector0.0182713919265625NN
fiscal0JJ
action0NN

Major crises lead to large financial losses typically financed by both explicit and implicit fiscal outlays

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.552116108628374
WordScorePoS
major0.0137637438743113JJ
lead0.016202004209163NN
financial0.00794883334420673JJ
loss0.0670377886812128NN
typically0RB
finance0.0390772412228479NN
fiscal0JJ

Case study evidence indicates that these are highly regressive through gainers and losers from capital flights transfers from those outside to within the financial system and the patterns of bailout among financial sector participants

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.521497838061482
WordScorePoS
study0NN
evidence0.12939607756667NN
highly0RB
transfer0NN
financial0.0298222075472138JJ
system0NN
pattern0NN
sector0NN

The fiscal costs of crises are large table

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.888438979508419
WordScorePoS
fiscal0.064698038783335JJ
cost0.0660824365173543NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.372924594304043
WordScorePoS
fiscal0JJ
cost0.0548954478802642NN

For example the post Tequila Crisis Mexican bailout is estimated at billion with large additional amount spent trying to prevent crises through liquidity support sovereign bond swaps and the financing of large investors who withdraw money from projects

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.717192669811264
WordScorePoS
post0.0811931365363091NN
estimate0NN
additional0JJ
amount0.0548954478802642NN
prevent0.0548954478802642VB
support0NN
financing0NN
money0.107490825192354NN
project0NN

Halac and Schmukler use the billion decline in the central bank reserves between February and December as proxy calculating total fiscal and quasi fiscal cost of the crisis of billion

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.563285846880777
WordScorePoS
decline0NN
central0.0440683498519077JJ
bank0.0881366997038154NN
reserve0.0583416713841148NN
december0NNP
total0.0252000451111224NN
fiscal0JJ
cost0NN

This represents about onequarter of Mexico GDP in and some four times the billion in capital receipts from privatization during the s

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.780624322151357
WordScorePoS
represent0.0401833161726777VB
gdp0.0531983120572613NN
time0.0166605993001162NN

What is the pattern of gainers and losers

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.892539381531446
WordScorePoS
pattern0.0819583881728876NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.450969458406513
WordScorePoS
pattern0.0414107553022249NN

Some wealthy individuals undoubtedly lose their shirts

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.706536387374558
WordScorePoS
individual0JJ
lose0.0781544824456958VB

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.584886716177263
WordScorePoS
individual0.064698038783335JJ
lose0VB

But there are strong tendencies for the poor to lose sometimes to lose lot

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.521736783300889
WordScorePoS
strong0JJ
poor0.150659516460257JJ
lose0VB

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.597408781186319
WordScorePoS
strong0JJ
poor0.016202004209163JJ
lose0.0781544824456958VB

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.495041612352997
WordScorePoS
strong0JJ
poor0.0548141757796873JJ
lose0.0440683498519077VB

First the wealthy with information and access to international banking systems get their money out first

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.623173743951222
WordScorePoS
information0.0241291244414115NN
access0.00690021170452351NN
international0.0189945307832458JJ
banking0NN
system0NN
money0.107490825192354NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.400936290196609
WordScorePoS
information0.0130963126055467NN
access0.00749031153171887NN
international0.00515473144367677JJ
banking0NN
system0.0756001353333673NN
money0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.346079375123101
WordScorePoS
information0NN
access0.00344404437204141NN
international0.00355521737836969JJ
banking0.0804764811724088NN
system0NN
money0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.328816752873525
WordScorePoS
information0.0675706773907211NN
access0.0128821355880844NN
international0.00265959362690358JJ
banking0NN
system0NN
money0NN

And they may actually experience capital gains when domestic asset prices tumble and the exchange rate goes against the currency

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.521635458299739
WordScorePoS
experience0NN
gain0NN
domestic0JJ
asset0.0811931365363091NN
price0NN
rate0.0571955184484387NN

In Argentina the ratio of foreign assets to domestic GDP rose from about quarter to more than percent between and early because of combination of capital flight and currency depreciation figure

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Second the recipients of fiscal bailouts are those within the financial system depositors creditors and equity owners who are systematically better off than those outside

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

There are of course small middleincome depositors but as noted below it is possible to protect them without providing blanket protection for all

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.687768273281328
WordScorePoS
protect0VB
provide0.0295703421524739VB
protection0.122839698738001NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.410523347931937
WordScorePoS
protect0.046452183350325VB
provide0.0445201436316848VB
protection0NN

Case study evidence finds biases toward wealthy and more influential individuals and groups within financial systems

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.836179157445826
WordScorePoS
study0NN
evidence0.12939607756667NN
individual0.064698038783335JJ
financial0.0298222075472138JJ
system0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.315791375874697
WordScorePoS
study0NN
evidence0NN
individual0JJ
financial0.00896409157262106JJ
system0.0756001353333673NN

Owners of large deposits enjoyed the greatest compensation and Markets and the macroeconomy sometimes capital gains in crises in Argentina Ecuador and Uruguay often through getting their money out of the country while small depositors suffered capital losses

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

In addition there is evidence that large borrowers with close connections to banks were especially favored in crises in Chile Ecuador and Mexico

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.683769710539366
WordScorePoS
addition0NN
evidence0.12939607756667NN
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.65449256309799
WordScorePoS
addition0.0357189919948307NN
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Crisis costs are paid for by some combination of higher taxes and lower spending

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.629007677268221
WordScorePoS
cost0.0548954478802642NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.434601934620966
WordScorePoS
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.364036433147792
WordScorePoS
cost0NN
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.321333256544817
WordScorePoS
cost0NN
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Who pays depends on the marginal pattern of taxation and spending

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.627549963550959
WordScorePoS
pay0NN
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.362868093742332
WordScorePoS
pay0.078760887431929NN
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.320301968817213
WordScorePoS
pay0.0695218668857431NN
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Label: 14, with a score of: 0.300114071265776
WordScorePoS
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As first approximation on the tax side many developingcountry tax systems are roughly proportional everyone pays the same proportion of their income primarily through indirect taxation

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.473438657508669
WordScorePoS
tax0NN
system0NN
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.385257030032814
WordScorePoS
tax0NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.325870283579744
WordScorePoS
tax0NN
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On the spending side work on Latin America and Asia in the finds that marginal spending was generally progressive as the expansion of social and infrastructure programs crowded in poorer groups

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.817313963583941
WordScorePoS
spending0.0602029956716497NN
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Thus the forgone spending hurt poorer groups the most

Label: 9, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
spending0.0602029956716497NN

The net effect is regressive workout financed largely by regressive fiscal adjustment

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

While case study evidence indicates strong pattern of regressive consequences of Figure

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.352513968150193
WordScorePoS
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In Argentina the wealthy had way out during the crisis Net private foreign assets US billions Net private foreign assets percent of GDP ligh

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

al pit Ca

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

illio

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Dec

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Mar

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Jun

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Sep

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Dec

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Mar

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Source Ministry of the Economy Argentina

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.535207977403011
WordScorePoS
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Label: 7, with a score of: 0.500159410074175
WordScorePoS
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.456830493707501
WordScorePoS
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Label: 6, with a score of: 0.340996358290518
WordScorePoS
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Note The sharp increase between December and March was because of the exchange rate devaluation

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

crises this is contingent on initial structures patterns of influence and policy specifics

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.679188350925086
WordScorePoS
structure0NN
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.490674301896321
WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.368033740156276
WordScorePoS
structure0NN
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For example the Russian crisis while undoubtedly costly in social terms may have led to surprisingly positive shift to more equitable structures of resource management box

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.493573462317286
WordScorePoS
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Label: 11, with a score of: 0.416748196995757
WordScorePoS
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.36276580981604
WordScorePoS
social0.112994637345193JJ
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Policy directions need to take account of policy design and accountability structures Macroeconomic instability is thus both product and cause of underlying inequalities and associated weak institutions

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.851182611299601
WordScorePoS
policy0.0848203862485078NN
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WordScorePoS
policy0.0201317944152378NN
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WordScorePoS
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The costs are large to equity and growth

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.720863430873578
WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.614752767503575
WordScorePoS
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As in other areas it helps to answer this question in terms of the com BOX

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.83004658119135
WordScorePoS
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Label: 7, with a score of: 0.41529494622118
WordScorePoS
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.300625141650805
WordScorePoS
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Did the Russian crisis have equitable consequences

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.70649270686921
WordScorePoS
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The Russian crisis was at first glance typical of crises of the driven by interactions between private capital movements and domestic institutional structures that encouraged moral hazard and with large adverse effects for welfare

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.689419761796982
WordScorePoS
drive0NN
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The social costs were severe with fall in GDP of percent in

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.622463333168811
WordScorePoS
social0.101310366625194JJ
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Label: 3, with a score of: 0.457735904852792
WordScorePoS
social0JJ
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.420179465733624
WordScorePoS
social0.112994637345193JJ
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Between and household per capita expenditures fell percent expenditure poverty rose from to percent and government transfers fell by percent albeit with better targeting Lokshin and Ravallion

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.467659271646917
WordScorePoS
household0NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.423214594053597
WordScorePoS
household0.0330412182586772NN
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.32350998625376
WordScorePoS
household0NN
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There was also major capital flight with many of the rich getting their assets out fast leaving the rest of the society to share the costs

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.838235744516483
WordScorePoS
major0.0285977592242194JJ
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This fact alone is sign of great inequity the rich had more opportunity to protect their assets by shifting money out of the country

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.824782393057894
WordScorePoS
opportunity0NN
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This individually rational behavior imposed costs on less wealthy groups

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.699218736404889
WordScorePoS
cost0.0660824365173543NN

But the transition appears to have had additional effects that were at least to some degree more equitable

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.732379609321653
WordScorePoS
additional0JJ
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degree0.164469921319675NN
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.487966996074901
WordScorePoS
additional0.0440683498519077JJ
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.301039335065554
WordScorePoS
additional0JJ
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Russia before the crisis was in particularly inefficient and inequitable equilibrium in which firms did not pay their energy or tax bills and the energy sector didn pay its taxes

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.86480640136853
WordScorePoS
inefficient0JJ
firm0NN
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energy0.494617163780726NN
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.29650371498772
WordScorePoS
inefficient0.0542519672965169JJ
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energy0.133960988253756NN
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Firms were not allowed to go under for fear of employment effects but this was highly ineffective safety net

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.588857097407195
WordScorePoS
firm0NN
employment0.173804667214358NN
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.710449514261345
WordScorePoS
firm0.0602029956716497NN
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Subsidies were estimated at to percent of GDP in the three years before the crisis fueling corruption and delaying enterprise restructuring

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.690686427163414
WordScorePoS
subsidy0NN
estimate0NN
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corruption0.322472475577062NN
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Label: 14, with a score of: 0.504626459903309
WordScorePoS
subsidy0.162850158165781NN
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gdp0.0531983120572613NN
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corruption0NN
enterprise0NN
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.343909592427453
WordScorePoS
subsidy0.0664302389559493NN
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There was extensive asset stripping at the cost of the broader society

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.83929139610817
WordScorePoS
asset0.0811931365363091NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.457293139255344
WordScorePoS
asset0.0488696285210061NN
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The crisis triggered major changes in economic relationships

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.627518463839313
WordScorePoS
major0.0214106369326177JJ
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.432416100980469
WordScorePoS
major0JJ
economic0.103276847978089JJ

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.40190606137799
WordScorePoS
major0JJ
economic0.0959899298575892JJ

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.304676458373254
WordScorePoS
major0JJ
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The strategy of devalue and default led to large relative price movements and cut Russia off from international capital markets

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.575903437794071
WordScorePoS
strategy0.0442083771593746NN
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cut0.120266261535276NN
international0.00531301439641424JJ
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.525247756073297
WordScorePoS
strategy0NN
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price0.0583416713841148NN
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international0.00515473144367677JJ
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The cutoff combined with the authorities recognition of the unpopularity of hyperinflation finally forced hard budget constraints on the system which had powerful ripple effects in inducing the demise of the nonpayments system making economic transactions more transparent and laying the basis for recovery in taxes

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.311020101289397
WordScorePoS
force0.0410992516792148NN
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.495020530218678
WordScorePoS
force0NN
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transparent0.0811931365363091JJ
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Real exchange rate depreciation made many firms competitive again and this fed through into employment

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.637137951582661
WordScorePoS
rate0NN
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employment0.173804667214358NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.6019988798409
WordScorePoS
rate0NN
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Furthermore the big Moscow banks were allowed to fail with total costs largely incurred before the meltdown relatively low percent of GDP

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.597883923119878
WordScorePoS
bank0NN
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.51813711081714
WordScorePoS
bank0.0881366997038154NN
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And the default meant that external holders of Russian paper took an immediate loss effectively allowing degree of international burdensharing

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.867096202090179
WordScorePoS
external0JJ
loss0.0236803262479443NN
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While there were undoubtedly reputational costs there may have been an advantage in taking this upfront rather than after protracted negotiations

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Overall while serious analysis of impacts on equality of opportunity is not feasible the effective shift in regime from system in which influence played dominant role in resource allocation to one of hard budget constraints and greater transparency was probably good for efficiency and equity

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.476879288339108
WordScorePoS
impact0NN
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efficiency0.134992154141495NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.38959891141045
WordScorePoS
impact0NN
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.33956118156402
WordScorePoS
impact0.0866018859977851NN
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Source Pinto and others forthcoming

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.73415387760794
WordScorePoS
source0.0613562156822703NN

WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT plementary role of specific policy design and the deepening of accountability structures and societal mechanisms to manage conflict

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.697091959290447
WordScorePoS
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.408154941331771
WordScorePoS
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conflict0.147263166485024NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.330986766136936
WordScorePoS
world0.00276879546803864NN
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The Israeli hyperinflation provides an illustration

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Its resolution involved both full set of financial and macroeconomic policies and an intensive process of societal interaction to manage underlying conflicts between organized labor the corporate sector and other interest groups

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.31969506711198
WordScorePoS
involve0VB
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.439644276404184
WordScorePoS
involve0VB
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.42233174127972
WordScorePoS
involve0.0488696285210061VB
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.412471177000362
WordScorePoS
involve0VB
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sector0.0459744293658165NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.318417341706422
WordScorePoS
involve0VB
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.314923184512934
WordScorePoS
involve0VB
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There is an extensive body of literature on design specifics

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Thus we conclude with some comments on the principles of macroeconomic management that emerge from focus on equity

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.508175843130471
WordScorePoS
principle0NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.4682715855807
WordScorePoS
principle0.0977392570420122NN
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.411523544862973
WordScorePoS
principle0.036961556179878NN
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Some of the principles are fairly familiar especially the need to build stronger regulatory and supervisory structures for the financial system and comprehensive insurance mechanisms while out of crisis

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.785697893558078
WordScorePoS
principle0.036961556179878NN
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mechanism0.147846224719512NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.323830110850898
WordScorePoS
principle0NN
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Once crisis hits it is particularly difficult to design and implement such measures and politically difficult to implement more equitable outcomes

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.604678669296376
WordScorePoS
implement0.0450489732120807VB
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By contrast ex ante insurance design whether for depositors bankruptcy or unemployment is more likely to be broad based and if already in place reduces the case for ex post deals tailored to the influential

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.699601055743224
WordScorePoS
insurance0.0804764811724088NN
unemployment0.0804764811724088NN
base0NN
reduce0.0055149369084567VB
post0NN

Less obvious is heightened emphasis on fiscal prudence

Label: 10, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
fiscal0.064698038783335JJ

In public debates adopting less stringent macroeconomic stance is often portrayed as distributionally progressive approach whether in good times or bad

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

While there will always be specific judgments about the distributional impacts of range of fiscal and monetary policy options the analysis here suggests that taking superprudent position over the course of the cycle provides greater hope for supporting more equal development pattern

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.65042920394109
WordScorePoS
specific0.0542519672965169JJ
impact0.0866018859977851NN
range0NN
fiscal0JJ
policy0.0203215381458133NN
suggest0VB
cycle0.108503934593034NN
support0.00833571598658786NN
equal0JJ
development0.022306853314744NN
pattern0.0819583881728876NN

On one level this sharply reinforces the common prescription to break procyclical policy positions

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.617543731851606
WordScorePoS
level0.0610668815653026NN
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common0JJ
policy0.0201317944152378NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.437373372150257
WordScorePoS
level0.0138997399903163NN
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common0JJ
policy0.0641521854453136NN

Macroeconomic restraint in good times will facilitate automatic stabilizers and sensible easing of policies to be applied in disciplined fashion when adverse shocks occur

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.509637181720286
WordScorePoS
macroeconomic0JJ
time0.0607862199751165NN
facilitate0.02794560829783VB
policy0.0848203862485078NN
adverse0JJ
shock0NN
occur0VB

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.485449238227123
WordScorePoS
macroeconomic0JJ
time0NN
facilitate0VB
policy0.0450489732120807NN
adverse0JJ
shock0.120266261535276NN
occur0VB

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.424975761636036
WordScorePoS
macroeconomic0JJ
time0.0169905820958638NN
facilitate0VB
policy0.0203215381458133NN
adverse0.0664302389559493JJ
shock0NN
occur0.0409791940864438VB

Thus the priority is to build fiscal rules and institutions that help overcome the political pressures to deplete potential surpluses in good times as well as informational asymmetry problems

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.708621176881339
WordScorePoS
priority0NN
build0VB
fiscal0JJ
rule0.162386273072618NN
institution0.274477239401321NN
overcome0VBN
political0JJ
pressure0NN
deplete0VB
potential0NN
time0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.4928306914904
WordScorePoS
priority0NN
build0VB
fiscal0.064698038783335JJ
rule0NN
institution0.0991236547760315NN
overcome0VBN
political0.0792212041430275JJ
pressure0NN
deplete0VB
potential0NN
time0.0607862199751165NN

These insi tutions should also improve the credibility of countercyclical fiscal policies during downturns

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.741863792570468
WordScorePoS
improve0.0121171980355011VB
fiscal0.064698038783335JJ
policy0.0848203862485078NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.378567231509391
WordScorePoS
improve0.0183291958415182VB
fiscal0JJ
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This strategy would in particular provide the macroeconomic foundation for broad based self expanding safety nets

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.462114197936841
WordScorePoS
strategy0NN
provide0.0269743071558856VB
macroeconomic0JJ
foundation0NN
base0NN
expand0.0268848280079943VB
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.429326732866202
WordScorePoS
strategy0.0442083771593746NN
provide0.0295703421524739VB
macroeconomic0JJ
foundation0NN
base0.0442083771593746NN
expand0VB
safety0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.330847332960051
WordScorePoS
strategy0.017987180284335NN
provide0.00601568197638796VB
macroeconomic0.048933054487825JJ
foundation0NN
base0.017987180284335NN
expand0VB
safety0NN

Finally there is case for different forms of accountability

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.699700205980253
WordScorePoS
form0.158049144643351NN
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.445102488068033
WordScorePoS
form0.100540298425703NN
accountability0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.391430281692047
WordScorePoS
form0.0884167543187491NN
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Over the long term the most effective approach is to move to new fiscal and social contracts built on deeper accountability structures to better political equilibrium

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.574471490155747
WordScorePoS
term0.149793392961411NN
effective0.0219686053934784JJ
approach0NN
move0NN
fiscal0JJ
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contract0NN
build0.0499801157438617VB
accountability0.048933054487825NN
structure0.048933054487825NN
political0JJ

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.538082917952053
WordScorePoS
term0.0396106020715138NN
effective0.0145231653596925JJ
approach0NN
move0NN
fiscal0.064698038783335JJ
social0.101310366625194JJ
contract0NN
build0VB
accountability0NN
structure0NN
political0.0792212041430275JJ

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.313496784042781
WordScorePoS
term0NN
effective0JJ
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fiscal0JJ
social0.112994637345193JJ
contract0NN
build0.0614198493690006VB
accountability0NN
structure0NN
political0JJ

There is then need for an appropriate mix of stronger regulatory accountability shielded from short run political pressures from all sides more independent central banks and stronger financial sector supervision and greater transparency and debate about the overall design of macropolicy and the incidence of workouts

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

There are important interactions with external actors and rules for crisis management that will be taken up in chapter

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.656836043844773
WordScorePoS
external0JJ
actor0NN
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.496940763940136
WordScorePoS
external0.048933054487825JJ
actor0NN
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.356894089174996
WordScorePoS
external0JJ
actor0.0542519672965169NN
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In sum we have explored policies that by leveling the playing field in the markets for capital labor and goods and by managing the macroeconomy can lead to greater equity and prosperity

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.496517471085246
WordScorePoS
policy0NN
level0.00552410547653725NN
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market0.0913569596328122NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.459341628256315
WordScorePoS
policy0.0848203862485078NN
level0NN
field0NN
market0.0202620733250388NN
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prosperity0NN

Financial markets are typically biased toward incumbents reflecting the historical political influence of the powerful

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.458486014748132
WordScorePoS
financial0.0298222075472138JJ
market0.0202620733250388NN
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historical0JJ
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.445508190044369
WordScorePoS
financial0.0140083044329373JJ
market0NN
typically0RB
reflect0VB
historical0JJ
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.397911194019444
WordScorePoS
financial0JJ
market0.0169905820958638NN
typically0RB
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historical0JJ
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.355714213956872
WordScorePoS
financial0.00896409157262106JJ
market0.0913569596328122NN
typically0RB
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historical0JJ
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Yet rapid and ill designed liberalizations can lead to further concentration of influence

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.507000815913847
WordScorePoS
rapid0JJ
lead0.0169905820958638NN
concentration0NN
influence0.0542519672965169NN

Greater societal controls are needed as well as more measured tackling of barriers especially to small and medium firms backed by regulatory structures and more information to reduce the power of connections

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.612113010108659
WordScorePoS
control0NN
measure0NN
tackle0VB
barrier0.0368585655748969NN
medium0.0454743001434393NN
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structure0NN
information0.0675706773907211NN
reduce0VB
power0.0454743001434393NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.435405396594927
WordScorePoS
control0.0614198493690006NN
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tackle0VB
barrier0NN
medium0NN
firm0NN
structure0NN
information0NN
reduce0.0164833460638534VB
power0NN

Labor market outcomes may reflect the weak bargaining position of workers but labor policies often lead to patterns of job protection that create economic rigidities and help those in good jobs to the detriment of those in the informal economy

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.701743491727463
WordScorePoS
market0.0252035516550537NN
outcome0NN
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worker0.121575732851624NN
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job0.135650868266471NN
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.361090585270982
WordScorePoS
market0.0377086395700813NN
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worker0.0454743001434393NN
policy0.011275328195446NN
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pattern0NN
job0.0902026255635679NN
protection0NN
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economy0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.318988905988556
WordScorePoS
market0NN
outcome0NN
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worker0NN
policy0.0450489732120807NN
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economy0NN

Support for unions and security for workers are important objectives but designs need to be adapted to economic conditions in ways that reach poorer informal workers and minimize impediments to economic restructuring

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.757228315535625
WordScorePoS
support0.024730129581725NN
security0NN
worker0.121575732851624NN
objective0NN
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minimize0VB
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.323963193543047
WordScorePoS
support0.00833571598658786NN
security0NN
worker0NN
objective0NN
economic0.0433009429988926JJ
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minimize0.0664302389559493VB
restructuring0.0409791940864438NN

Both the design of external trade policy and the workings of internal product mar Markets and the macroeconomy kets reflect patterns of influence

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.529121791455139
WordScorePoS
external0JJ
trade0NN
policy0.0203215381458133NN
product0.0199423462679015NN
market0.0169905820958638NN
reflect0.0409791940864438VB
pattern0.0819583881728876NN
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.486780957326358
WordScorePoS
external0.048933054487825JJ
trade0.0539615408530051NN
policy0.0641521854453136NN
product0.017987180284335NN
market0.030649619577211NN
reflect0VB
pattern0NN
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.425991963735324
WordScorePoS
external0JJ
trade0.0591643007226199NN
policy0.0452169560888236NN
product0.0591643007226199NN
market0.0252035516550537NN
reflect0VB
pattern0NN
influence0NN

Removing biases and ensuring access to all need to be complemented by measures to expand skills infrastructure and safety nets to achieve genuine access and to manage losses especially horizontal inequities

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.710974412982103
WordScorePoS
remove0VB
ensure0.0390988676729552VB
access0.00697628678506322NN
complement0NN
measure0NN
expand0.0299609328954485VB
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infrastructure0NN
safety0NN
achieve0.0308700730580309VB
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.318378303505253
WordScorePoS
remove0VB
ensure0.00412562425683033VB
access0.0128821355880844NN
complement0NN
measure0NN
expand0VB
skill0NN
infrastructure0.192202909044225NN
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achieve0.0114006914853063VB
manage0VB
loss0NN

Imprudent macroeconomic policy is typically inequitable high inflation hurts those least capable of managing its consequences and financial crises are particularly pernicious because the powerful can benefit or be bailed out at the expense of the rest of society

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.516921593342124
WordScorePoS
macroeconomic0JJ
policy0.0848203862485078NN
typically0RB
manage0.0660824365173543VB
financial0.0298222075472138JJ
benefit0NN
society0.0237821918091848NN

Prudent macroeconomic management backed by strong countercyclical policy and independence in policy design is an ally not foe of greater equity

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.607318020266956
WordScorePoS
macroeconomic0JJ
management0NN
strong0.0488696285210061JJ
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We now turn to policies that can help level the global playing field

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.407175693031255
WordScorePoS
policy0.0641521854453136NN
level0.0138997399903163NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.406966576515188
WordScorePoS
policy0.0848203862485078NN
level0NN
global0.0133009891881297JJ
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Label: 13, with a score of: 0.370649343035148
WordScorePoS
policy0.0102677744436108NN
level0.0415277415054218NN
global0.0375696197697663JJ
field0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.367330161167849
WordScorePoS
policy0.0201317944152378NN
level0.0610668815653026NN
global0.00736619084902312JJ
field0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.314635618296762
WordScorePoS
policy0NN
level0.00552410547653725NN
global0.0119942111830662JJ
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.310640105523315
WordScorePoS
policy0.0452169560888236NN
level0.00761994916892276NN
global0.0220597476338268JJ
field0NN

focus on regional inequality The role of public policy in addressing spatial inequalities The persistence of regional disparities within countries is major policy concern confronting many governments in rich and poor countries alike

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.93027505322719
WordScorePoS
focus0NN
regional0JJ
inequality0.635305170773079NN
public0.0172128079963482NN
policy0.0848203862485078NN
address0.064698038783335NN
disparity0.0488696285210061NN
country0NN
major0JJ
government0NN
poor0JJ

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.204083704578125
WordScorePoS
focus0NN
regional0.0519476926891779JJ
inequality0NN
public0NN
policy0.0450489732120807NN
address0NN
disparity0NN
country0NN
major0JJ
government0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ

Clarity on the causal factors of weak regional performance and careful consideration of potential tradeoffs are needed to guide policy choice over regional interventions

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

he average income in Brazil northeast is less than half the national average

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.778103968588196
WordScorePoS
average0.146608885563018NN
income0.166475342664294NN
national0.00886732612541978JJ

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.568859175271934
WordScorePoS
average0.1656430212089NN
income0NN
national0.0112708859309299JJ

Poverty rates are far higher than the national average in India densely populated states of Bihar Uttar Pradesh and Orissa and the regional income gap appears to be widening

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.642711736298248
WordScorePoS
poverty0.269969049497485NN
rate0.0639932865717261NN
national0.0164833460638534JJ
average0NN
regional0.0519476926891779JJ
income0.0442083771593746NN
gap0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.571698947401069
WordScorePoS
poverty0.05809266143877NN
rate0.0172128079963482NN
national0.00886732612541978JJ
average0.146608885563018NN
regional0JJ
income0.166475342664294NN
gap0NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.254599638108512
WordScorePoS
poverty0NN
rate0NN
national0.0112708859309299JJ
average0.1656430212089NN
regional0JJ
income0NN
gap0NN

In children in the northwest region of Nigeria were four times less likely to receive any immunizations and percent more likely to die by age five than those near the capital in the southwest by they were five times less likely to receive any immunizations and percent more likely to die before age five

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.455140640481067
WordScorePoS
child0.0450489732120807NN
region0.184259548107002NN
time0NN
receive0VB
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age0.112994637345193NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.748172500985179
WordScorePoS
child0.10682408961305NN
region0.124837844401518NN
time0.0127591822694525NN
receive0.0814816979556159VB
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age0.0893142758861673NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.344654385232083
WordScorePoS
child0.0242343960710022NN
region0NN
time0.0607862199751165NN
receive0VB
die0.0792212041430275VB
age0.0202620733250388NN

Chronic regional underperformance can give rise to many concerns and threaten national unity lost economic potential unfairness in regional opportunities potential instability loss of social cohesion and adverse social consequences including higher crime and disease

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.279961208842102
WordScorePoS
chronic0JJ
regional0JJ
rise0NN
threaten0VB
national0.0055149369084567JJ
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economic0.128463821595706JJ
potential0NN
opportunity0.0361300980868102NN
loss0NN
social0.0504071033101074JJ
adverse0JJ
include0VB
crime0NN
disease0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.252601283508459
WordScorePoS
chronic0JJ
regional0JJ
rise0NN
threaten0VB
national0.0294647633960925JJ
lose0VB
economic0JJ
potential0NN
opportunity0NN
loss0NN
social0JJ
adverse0JJ
include0VB
crime0.214981650384708NN
disease0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.228371516785102
WordScorePoS
chronic0JJ
regional0JJ
rise0NN
threaten0VB
national0.00558382296134999JJ
lose0VB
economic0JJ
potential0NN
opportunity0NN
loss0NN
social0JJ
adverse0JJ
include0VB
crime0NN
disease0.215415047323213NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.457115245312916
WordScorePoS
chronic0JJ
regional0.0519476926891779JJ
rise0NN
threaten0VB
national0.0164833460638534JJ
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economic0.0959899298575892JJ
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social0.112994637345193JJ
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crime0NN
disease0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.379856553268367
WordScorePoS
chronic0JJ
regional0JJ
rise0.0237821918091848NN
threaten0VB
national0.00886732612541978JJ
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economic0.103276847978089JJ
potential0NN
opportunity0.029046330719385NN
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social0.101310366625194JJ
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include0VB
crime0NN
disease0NN

The geographic and historical factors underlying interregional inequality are complex and overlapping

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.989783664016054
WordScorePoS
geographic0JJ
historical0JJ
underlie0.0488696285210061VB
inequality0.635305170773079NN

Weak resource endowments and distance from markets can constrain development in lagging regions

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.651517280419928
WordScorePoS
resource0.0739147683583536NN
market0NN
development0.0164833460638534NN
region0.184259548107002NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.41037596665868
WordScorePoS
resource0.0358563662904843NN
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development0.0159922815774215NN
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Label: 3, with a score of: 0.315996822385833
WordScorePoS
resource0NN
market0NN
development0.00837573444202498NN
region0.124837844401518NN

In many cases economic differences are linked with long standing unequal relations of power between advantaged and lagging regions and institutional weaknesses within the latter

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.668224916525725
WordScorePoS
economic0.0959899298575892JJ
relation0NN
power0NN
region0.184259548107002NN
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.306308247515139
WordScorePoS
economic0.128463821595706JJ
relation0NN
power0NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.400518157963359
WordScorePoS
economic0.103276847978089JJ
relation0.064698038783335NN
power0NN
region0NN
institutional0JJ

When actors in advantaged regions control the assets decision making and policy formation processes and the terms of the policy debates on which lagging regions depend regional catch up is much more difficult

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.674301151831278
WordScorePoS
actor0NN
region0.184259548107002NN
control0.0614198493690006NN
asset0NN
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term0NN
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regional0.0519476926891779JJ

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.369075191219103
WordScorePoS
actor0NN
region0NN
control0NN
asset0NN
decision0.0211360962287062NN
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regional0.0422721924574123JJ

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.327659018613563
WordScorePoS
actor0NN
region0.0465610847355851NN
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asset0NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.309160228682613
WordScorePoS
actor0NN
region0NN
control0NN
asset0.0488696285210061NN
decision0.02794560829783NN
policy0.0848203862485078NN
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depend0VB
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When historically disadvantaged ethnic racial and social groups are concentrated in particular regions group based inequities become reflected in regional inequalities

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.861567698491463
WordScorePoS
disadvantaged0.064698038783335JJ
social0.101310366625194JJ
region0NN
base0NN
reflect0VB
regional0JJ
inequality0.635305170773079NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.422992419319231
WordScorePoS
disadvantaged0JJ
social0.112994637345193JJ
region0.184259548107002NN
base0.0442083771593746NN
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regional0.0519476926891779JJ
inequality0NN

This is the case in parts of Latin America where indigenous groups are both poorer and concentrated in poorer regions and in Vietnam and in India where tribal groups adivasis are spatially concentrated

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.737043431630083
WordScorePoS
indigenous0JJ
region0.184259548107002NN

In the absence of redistributive fiscal transfers recent reforms in many countries toward greater decentralization may aggravate regional disparities

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.549304156943607
WordScorePoS
fiscal0.064698038783335JJ
transfer0NN
reform0NN
country0NN
regional0JJ
disparity0.0488696285210061NN

The positive effects of decentralization may be lost in regions that have weaker fiscal capacity such as in Argentina experience with decentralizing reforms in education

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.508186068679951
WordScorePoS
positive0JJ
effect0NN
lose0VB
region0NN
fiscal0JJ
capacity0NN
experience0NN
reform0NN
education0.244244978014045NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.430243301299553
WordScorePoS
positive0JJ
effect0NN
lose0VB
region0.184259548107002NN
fiscal0JJ
capacity0NN
experience0NN
reform0NN
education0.0225244866060403NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.39315454229646
WordScorePoS
positive0JJ
effect0NN
lose0VB
region0.0465610847355851NN
fiscal0JJ
capacity0NN
experience0NN
reform0.0911713013253052NN
education0.0512260062633133NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.356416443050236
WordScorePoS
positive0JJ
effect0NN
lose0VB
region0.124837844401518NN
fiscal0JJ
capacity0.00625975725959118NN
experience0.0249430985430622NN
reform0NN
education0.0152605842304358NN

In poor regions where regional elites have particularly concentrated power decentralization may also deepen both intra and inter regional inequalities

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.760793417910146
WordScorePoS
poor0JJ
region0NN
regional0JJ
power0NN
inter0NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.525490993243828
WordScorePoS
poor0.150659516460257JJ
region0.184259548107002NN
regional0.0519476926891779JJ
power0NN
inter0NN
inequality0NN

Trends in inter regional inequality have varied considerably across countries

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.98251043858332
WordScorePoS
inter0NN
regional0JJ
inequality0.635305170773079NN
country0NN

The United States has experienced convergence and lower interregional income disparities

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.708084387983112
WordScorePoS
unite0VB
experienced0JJ
income0.166475342664294NN
disparity0.0488696285210061NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.452595414564292
WordScorePoS
unite0.0828215106044499VB
experienced0.0548233071065585JJ
income0NN
disparity0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.363830541338027
WordScorePoS
unite0VB
experienced0JJ
income0.110649350233433NN
disparity0NN

Indonesia shows convergence of provincial incomes since the s

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.756711939782219
WordScorePoS
income0.166475342664294NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.502955471427553
WordScorePoS
income0.110649350233433NN

Brazil has seen divergence over many decades but recently has shown convergence

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.913727336148196
WordScorePoS
decade0.124232265906675NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.406327891210439
WordScorePoS
decade0.055245183797332NN

Evidence on India also suggests divergence

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.906670803599693
WordScorePoS
evidence0.12939607756667NN
suggest0VB

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.421838895669765
WordScorePoS
evidence0NN
suggest0.0602029956716497VB

China pattern of growth has reduced gaps in the and which widened in the s

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.699150272656512
WordScorePoS
pattern0NN
growth0.208565600657229NN
reduce0.0055149369084567VB
gap0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.466419306273499
WordScorePoS
pattern0NN
growth0.11178243319132NN
reduce0.0310356414389692VB
gap0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.340512373724341
WordScorePoS
pattern0.0819583881728876NN
growth0NN
reduce0.022306853314744VB
gap0NN

And in Mexico long run trend of slow convergence in incomes shifted to one of slow divergence after an opening that started in the late s

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.643304171701039
WordScorePoS
slow0JJ
income0.166475342664294NN

Characteristics of lagging regions The reasons for regions to lag varies and we present simple taxonomy

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.786831438418751
WordScorePoS
characteristic0JJ
region0.184259548107002NN
simple0JJ

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.533086842384424
WordScorePoS
characteristic0JJ
region0.124837844401518NN
simple0JJ

Low poverty density low market access

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.777924991924082
WordScorePoS
poverty0.269969049497485NN
density0NN
market0NN
access0.00514687440545096NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.35356608588209
WordScorePoS
poverty0.0261926252110933NN
density0NN
market0.0913569596328122NN
access0.00749031153171887NN

These regions are sparsely populated remote and face particular geographic challenges

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.701298912984849
WordScorePoS
region0.184259548107002NN
geographic0JJ
challenge0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.475137627751673
WordScorePoS
region0.124837844401518NN
geographic0JJ
challenge0NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.360714309573551
WordScorePoS
region0NN
geographic0JJ
challenge0.0947742174515357NN

Distance and poor resource endowment often with weak social indicators generally poor infrastructure and weak regional voice place these regions at the periphery of national economic activity and opportunity

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.731556562247477
WordScorePoS
poor0.150659516460257JJ
resource0.0739147683583536NN
social0.112994637345193JJ
infrastructure0NN
regional0.0519476926891779JJ
voice0NN
region0.184259548107002NN
national0.0164833460638534JJ
economic0.0959899298575892JJ
activity0NN
opportunity0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.266811174430051
WordScorePoS
poor0JJ
resource0.0185001613201543NN
social0.0188543197850406JJ
infrastructure0.192202909044225NN
regional0.0260040237236563JJ
voice0NN
region0NN
national0.00412562425683033JJ
economic0.0320338181740375JJ
activity0NN
opportunity0.0135141354781442NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.229423591219818
WordScorePoS
poor0JJ
resource0.0123650647908625NN
social0.0504071033101074JJ
infrastructure0NN
regional0JJ
voice0NN
region0NN
national0.0055149369084567JJ
economic0.128463821595706JJ
activity0.0295821503613099NN
opportunity0.0361300980868102NN

Supporting development of these regions may be desirable on poverty grounds but it is likely to be expensive

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.866796611007807
WordScorePoS
support0.0184786920895884NN
development0.0164833460638534NN
region0.184259548107002NN
poverty0.269969049497485NN
expensive0JJ

Low poverty density high market access

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.777924991924082
WordScorePoS
poverty0.269969049497485NN
density0NN
market0NN
access0.00514687440545096NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.35356608588209
WordScorePoS
poverty0.0261926252110933NN
density0NN
market0.0913569596328122NN
access0.00749031153171887NN

These regions typically have been booming at one point in history and were well inte grated with the national economy

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.625356305088912
WordScorePoS
region0.184259548107002NN
typically0RB
history0NN
national0.0164833460638534JJ
economy0NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.425775249113156
WordScorePoS
region0NN
typically0RB
history0.0414107553022249NN
national0.0112708859309299JJ
economy0.0839946104936743NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.40629090430549
WordScorePoS
region0.124837844401518NN
typically0RB
history0NN
national0.00558382296134999JJ
economy0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.329021782850822
WordScorePoS
region0.0465610847355851NN
typically0RB
history0NN
national0.0124956749436837JJ
economy0.0465610847355851NN

But changing demand patterns or resource exhaustion became sources of decline even though political influence may have persisted

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.766325534470809
WordScorePoS
change0.402565546215053NN
demand0NN
pattern0.0414107553022249NN
resource0NN
source0.0123065238088614NN
decline0.0236803262479443NN
political0JJ
influence0NN
persist0.0414107553022249VB

For such rustbelt regions there is case for public support for movement of people and resources out of declining industries backed by social safety nets for the affected workforce

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.572067866854624
WordScorePoS
region0.184259548107002NN
public0NN
support0.0184786920895884NN
people0.0371911007748996NNS
resource0.0739147683583536NN
decline0NN
industry0NN
social0.112994637345193JJ
safety0NN
affect0.0184786920895884VB
workforce0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.432098413407355
WordScorePoS
region0NN
public0.0160169090870187NN
support0.0277502419802315NN
people0.0186171553883251NNS
resource0.0185001613201543NN
decline0NN
industry0.181897200573757NN
social0.0188543197850406JJ
safety0NN
affect0.00925008066007716VB
workforce0.0454743001434393NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.390186442445914
WordScorePoS
region0NN
public0.0583751976558017NN
support0.0224752180723703NN
people0.0161552501392041NNS
resource0.0449504361447405NN
decline0.0315914058171786NN
industry0NN
social0.0458109463416786JJ
safety0.0731385760866977NN
affect0.0112376090361851VB
workforce0NN

High poverty density high or low market access

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.777924991924082
WordScorePoS
poverty0.269969049497485NN
density0NN
market0NN
access0.00514687440545096NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.35356608588209
WordScorePoS
poverty0.0261926252110933NN
density0NN
market0.0913569596328122NN
access0.00749031153171887NN

These regions are most often considered for targeted interventions poverty is concentrated in them population density is relatively high and the lack of market integration is due to history rather than geography

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.762255339748475
WordScorePoS
region0.184259548107002NN
target0NN
intervention0NN
poverty0.269969049497485NN
population0NN
density0NN
lack0.0753297582301286NN
market0NN
integration0NN
due0.0519476926891779JJ
history0NN

Possible culprits include weak governance poor institutional capacity and human capital history of sociocultural conflict and domination poor investment climate and security problems

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.598071519982
WordScorePoS
include0VB
governance0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
institutional0JJ
capacity0NN
human0JJ
history0NN
conflict0.147263166485024NN
investment0.0376648791150643NN
climate0.0376648791150643NN
security0NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.527304681982763
WordScorePoS
include0VB
governance0NN
poor0JJ
institutional0.0828215106044499JJ
capacity0.025270503924109NN
human0.0205355488872215JJ
history0.0414107553022249NN
conflict0NN
investment0NN
climate0.291881734282273NN
security0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.310222737381725
WordScorePoS
include0VB
governance0NN
poor0.0548141757796873JJ
institutional0JJ
capacity0.0179281831452421NN
human0JJ
history0NN
conflict0NN
investment0.0182713919265625NN
climate0.0365427838531249NN
security0.0893850849591018NN

Such regions are often home to socially racially and ethnically disadvantaged groups

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.773288499431128
WordScorePoS
region0.184259548107002NN
socially0RB
disadvantaged0JJ

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.523911354180717
WordScorePoS
region0.124837844401518NN
socially0RB
disadvantaged0JJ

Where such groups are dispersed or patronclient relationships dominate the challenge of fostering organization agency and political influence is especially great

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.430373052214237
WordScorePoS
challenge0NN
foster0JJ
organization0NN
agency0NN
political0.111637082206855JJ
influence0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.418294428562111
WordScorePoS
challenge0NN
foster0JJ
organization0NN
agency0.0542519672965169NN
political0JJ
influence0.0542519672965169NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.413139677735239
WordScorePoS
challenge0NN
foster0JJ
organization0.02794560829783NN
agency0NN
political0.0792212041430275JJ
influence0NN

Regional development policies and tradeoffs Regional development policies involve interventions to facilitate inward investment enhance income opportunities and well being in lagging regions help households move to opportunities elsewhere and shift interregional power relations

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.512484199655692
WordScorePoS
regional0JJ
development0.0177346522508396NN
policy0.0848203862485078NN
involve0.0488696285210061VB
intervention0NN
facilitate0.02794560829783VB
investment0.0202620733250388NN
enhance0.00994073584907126VB
income0.166475342664294NN
opportunity0.029046330719385NN
region0NN
household0.0330412182586772NN
move0NN
power0NN
relation0.064698038783335NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.413237230701157
WordScorePoS
regional0.0519476926891779JJ
development0.0164833460638534NN
policy0.0450489732120807NN
involve0VB
intervention0NN
facilitate0VB
investment0.0376648791150643NN
enhance0.0184786920895884VB
income0.0442083771593746NN
opportunity0NN
region0.184259548107002NN
household0NN
move0NN
power0NN
relation0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.419720986741638
WordScorePoS
regional0.0422721924574123JJ
development0.0469463607292177NN
policy0.0641521854453136NN
involve0VB
intervention0NN
facilitate0.0211360962287062VB
investment0.0766240489430275NN
enhance0.0601477977507998VB
income0.017987180284335NN
opportunity0NN
region0NN
household0NN
move0NN
power0.036961556179878NN
relation0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.327904902901882
WordScorePoS
regional0.0260040237236563JJ
development0.0330049940546426NN
policy0.011275328195446NN
involve0VB
intervention0NN
facilitate0.0260040237236563VB
investment0.0377086395700813NN
enhance0.0185001613201543VB
income0.110649350233433NN
opportunity0.0135141354781442NN
region0NN
household0NN
move0NN
power0.0454743001434393NN
relation0NN

Policies are context specific and involve tradeoffs

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.632586503203324
WordScorePoS
policy0.0203215381458133NN
context0NN
specific0.0542519672965169JJ
involve0.0819583881728876VB

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.540276470200612
WordScorePoS
policy0.0848203862485078NN
context0NN
specific0JJ
involve0.0488696285210061VB

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.408627192600869
WordScorePoS
policy0.0641521854453136NN
context0.036961556179878NN
specific0JJ
involve0VB

If lagging regional performance reflects geographic disadvantages or an absence of Market access population density transport costs Poverty density poor or disadvantaged people per square kilometer Low High Low Chile zonas extremas Russian North state sponsored settlements Northern Canada N

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.556923302426447
WordScorePoS
regional0.0519476926891779JJ
performance0NN
reflect0VB
geographic0JJ
market0NN
access0.00514687440545096NN
population0NN
density0NN
transport0NN
cost0NN
poverty0.269969049497485NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
disadvantaged0JJ
people0.0371911007748996NNS
north0RB
settlement0NN
northern0JJ

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.519210690962634
WordScorePoS
regional0.0315914058171786JJ
performance0NN
reflect0VB
geographic0JJ
market0NN
access0.00626002771693937NN
population0.0194583992186006NN
density0.0731385760866977NN
transport0.0747035830159326NN
cost0NN
poverty0.0164178645080222NN
poor0.0229054731708393JJ
disadvantaged0JJ
people0.0161552501392041NNS
north0RB
settlement0.146277152173395NN
northern0JJ

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.396939414910249
WordScorePoS
regional0JJ
performance0.064698038783335NN
reflect0VB
geographic0JJ
market0.0202620733250388NN
access0.00138439773401932NN
population0.0860640399817412NN
density0NN
transport0NN
cost0.0660824365173543NN
poverty0.05809266143877NN
poor0JJ
disadvantaged0.064698038783335JJ
people0.00571634317201755NNS
north0RB
settlement0NN
northern0JJ

China rustbelt region Developed country coal towns France U

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.70881316362131
WordScorePoS
region0.184259548107002NN
develop0VB
country0NN
coal0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.48022861414226
WordScorePoS
region0.124837844401518NN
develop0VB
country0NN
coal0NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.470899559362564
WordScorePoS
region0NN
develop0VB
country0NN
coal0.122412709674631NN

High Thailand northeast Mexico southern states India Hindu Belt poor and populous states Italy southern Mezzogiorno Focus on regional inequality agglomeration and scale economies public interventions may be particularly expensive

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.74913367894621
WordScorePoS
southern0JJ
poor0JJ
focus0NN
regional0JJ
inequality0.635305170773079NN
scale0NN
economy0NN
public0.0172128079963482NN
intervention0NN
expensive0JJ

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.37363451635029
WordScorePoS
southern0.0614198493690006JJ
poor0.150659516460257JJ
focus0NN
regional0.0519476926891779JJ
inequality0NN
scale0NN
economy0NN
public0NN
intervention0NN
expensive0JJ

But when public policy is designed to correct market failures such as underdeveloped insurance or credit markets address specific social or historical factors handicapping regional performance or capture externalities intrinsic to national welfare cultural environmental security there may be few or no efficiency tradeoffs

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.216511593389139
WordScorePoS
public0NN
policy0NN
correct0JJ
market0NN
insurance0NN
credit0NN
specific0JJ
social0JJ
historical0JJ
regional0JJ
performance0NN
capture0NN
national0JJ
welfare0NN
cultural0JJ
environmental0JJ
security0.0625160381065121NN
efficiency0.134992154141495NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.374045550759302
WordScorePoS
public0.0172128079963482NN
policy0.0848203862485078NN
correct0JJ
market0.0202620733250388NN
insurance0NN
credit0NN
specific0JJ
social0.101310366625194JJ
historical0JJ
regional0JJ
performance0.064698038783335NN
capture0NN
national0.00886732612541978JJ
welfare0NN
cultural0JJ
environmental0.0237821918091848JJ
security0NN
efficiency0NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.347798720645751
WordScorePoS
public0.0583751976558017NN
policy0.0136980135278128NN
correct0JJ
market0NN
insurance0NN
credit0NN
specific0JJ
social0.0458109463416786JJ
historical0JJ
regional0.0315914058171786JJ
performance0NN
capture0NN
national0.00501208088147356JJ
welfare0NN
cultural0.055245183797332JJ
environmental0.0537696560159885JJ
security0NN
efficiency0.0537696560159885NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.346197942439014
WordScorePoS
public0.028867295332595NN
policy0.0203215381458133NN
correct0JJ
market0.0169905820958638NN
insurance0NN
credit0NN
specific0.0542519672965169JJ
social0.0169905820958638JJ
historical0JJ
regional0JJ
performance0NN
capture0NN
national0.00743561777158133JJ
welfare0.0542519672965169NN
cultural0JJ
environmental0.0598270388037045JJ
security0NN
efficiency0.039884692535803NN

Fiscal incentives popular approach involves fiscal incentives to induce industry to locate and invest in lagging regions tax advantages insurance or risk sharing arrangements direct subsidies or indirect subsidies through provision of low cost public services

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.397321811044422
WordScorePoS
fiscal0JJ
incentive0NN
approach0NN
involve0VB
industry0.0401833161726777NN
invest0VB
region0NN
tax0NN
insurance0NN
risk0NN
share0NN
direct0JJ
subsidy0.162850158165781NN
provision0NN
cost0NN
public0NN
service0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.304669822964788
WordScorePoS
fiscal0JJ
incentive0NN
approach0NN
involve0VB
industry0NN
invest0VB
region0.184259548107002NN
tax0NN
insurance0NN
risk0.0519476926891779NN
share0NN
direct0JJ
subsidy0NN
provision0NN
cost0NN
public0NN
service0.0443555132287109NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.271942619826239
WordScorePoS
fiscal0JJ
incentive0NN
approach0NN
involve0VB
industry0.181897200573757NN
invest0VB
region0NN
tax0NN
insurance0NN
risk0NN
share0.0377086395700813NN
direct0JJ
subsidy0NN
provision0NN
cost0NN
public0.0160169090870187NN
service0.0148023490369527NN

But evaluations of fiscal incentives generally indicate that they can be costly and ineffective

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.768961213770419
WordScorePoS
fiscal0.064698038783335JJ
incentive0NN

Brazil efforts to develop the manufacturing center of Manaus in the north have been success by some measures but costs per job created are high

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.744163388825568
WordScorePoS
effort0.0188543197850406NN
develop0VB
manufacture0.240811982686599NN
north0RB
measure0NN
cost0NN
job0.0902026255635679NN
create0.0520080474473126VB

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.444289827006613
WordScorePoS
effort0NN
develop0VB
manufacture0NN
north0RB
measure0.0347609334428716NN
cost0NN
job0.135650868266471NN
create0.0695218668857431VB

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.330286678465918
WordScorePoS
effort0NN
develop0VB
manufacture0NN
north0RB
measure0.103895385378356NN
cost0NN
job0.0225244866060403NN
create0.0519476926891779VB

Interregional fiscal wars can also occur as regions compete to attract businesses

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.640379918196761
WordScorePoS
fiscal0JJ
occur0VB
region0.184259548107002NN
attract0VB
business0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.540815556603605
WordScorePoS
fiscal0JJ
occur0.0307735781890304VB
region0.124837844401518NN
attract0VB
business0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.316084880323269
WordScorePoS
fiscal0JJ
occur0VB
region0NN
attract0VB
business0.0909486002868787NN

If uncoordinated or unconstrained these can have adverse consequences for local tax bases and public services in competing jurisdictions

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.501816229465404
WordScorePoS
adverse0.04477822029736JJ
local0.0194583992186006JJ
tax0NN
basis0NN
public0.0583751976558017NN
service0.0269743071558856NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.462843782213999
WordScorePoS
adverse0JJ
local0.0130185595639838JJ
tax0.036961556179878NN
basis0.048933054487825NN
public0.0390556786919513NN
service0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.390489346855738
WordScorePoS
adverse0.0664302389559493JJ
local0.0144336476662975JJ
tax0NN
basis0NN
public0.028867295332595NN
service0.00666957305782837NN

Compared to the alternatives listed below this tends to be highdistortion strategy

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.539486175963745
WordScorePoS
compare0.0414107553022249VB
alternative0NN
strategy0.0201523636533764NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.527567226408451
WordScorePoS
compare0VB
alternative0.0602029956716497NN
strategy0NN

Public investment Targeted public investment particularly in core infrastructure is another policy response aimed at reducing geographic disincentives to firm location whether for existing or new firms

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.487399192777766
WordScorePoS
public0.0160169090870187NN
investment0.0377086395700813NN
target0NN
infrastructure0.192202909044225NN
policy0.011275328195446NN
response0NN
aim0NN
reduce0VB
geographic0JJ
firm0.0602029956716497NN
location0NN
exist0VB

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.660509191177429
WordScorePoS
public0.0390556786919513NN
investment0.0766240489430275NN
target0.0898760357768464NN
infrastructure0.0130185595639838NN
policy0.0641521854453136NN
response0NN
aim0.0249900578719309NN
reduce0.00335331148065841VB
geographic0.048933054487825JJ
firm0NN
location0.048933054487825NN
exist0.0599173571845643VB

China has followed this strategy first in the coastal special economic zones and now in western regions see box below

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.571944919812798
WordScorePoS
strategy0.0442083771593746NN
coastal0JJ
special0JJ
economic0.0959899298575892JJ
western0JJ
region0.184259548107002NN

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.541722826563562
WordScorePoS
strategy0NN
coastal0.265991560286306JJ
special0.0271683202880942JJ
economic0.0141533244035107JJ
western0JJ
region0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.278598866787043
WordScorePoS
strategy0.0295821503613099NN
coastal0JJ
special0JJ
economic0.128463821595706JJ
western0JJ
region0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.33174506620002
WordScorePoS
strategy0NN
coastal0JJ
special0JJ
economic0.0727679293221751JJ
western0.0688661930304451JJ
region0.0465610847355851NN

Investment in regional infrastructure links may enhance productivity of existing firms and attract new firms

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.760625828624285
WordScorePoS
investment0.0377086395700813NN
regional0.0260040237236563JJ
infrastructure0.192202909044225NN
enhance0.0185001613201543VB
productivity0.0922368138456871NN
exist0VB
firm0.0602029956716497NN
attract0VB

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.469927513049425
WordScorePoS
investment0.0766240489430275NN
regional0.0422721924574123JJ
infrastructure0.0130185595639838NN
enhance0.0601477977507998VB
productivity0NN
exist0.0599173571845643VB
firm0NN
attract0.048933054487825VB

But it also allows more efficient firms in richer regions to sell to lagging regions

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.775589960749073
WordScorePoS
efficient0JJ
firm0NN
region0.184259548107002NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.525470619211253
WordScorePoS
efficient0JJ
firm0NN
region0.124837844401518NN

This is one factor that has slowed development of the relatively poor Mezzogiorno region of southern Italy despite large investments in national north south infrastructure that has reduced transport costs

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.62228147205626
WordScorePoS
slow0JJ
development0.0164833460638534NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
region0.184259548107002NN
southern0.0614198493690006JJ
investment0.0376648791150643NN
national0.0164833460638534JJ
north0RB
south0RB
infrastructure0NN
reduce0.0164833460638534VB
transport0NN
cost0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.383299915854415
WordScorePoS
slow0JJ
development0.0330049940546426NN
poor0JJ
region0NN
southern0JJ
investment0.0377086395700813NN
national0.00412562425683033JJ
north0RB
south0RB
infrastructure0.192202909044225NN
reduce0VB
transport0.030745604615229NN
cost0NN

Facilitating labor mobility Facilitating voluntary labor movement to higher opportunity areas is another strategy

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.604089023423191
WordScorePoS
facilitate0.0528748274225028VB
mobility0NN
opportunity0.0549574626423028NN
strategy0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.562471759115871
WordScorePoS
facilitate0.02794560829783VB
mobility0.064698038783335NN
opportunity0.029046330719385NN
strategy0NN

In contrast to fiscal incentives and public investments that focus on bringing jobs to poor areas this strategy focuses on bringing poor people to areas with more potential

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.552907807729815
WordScorePoS
fiscal0JJ
incentive0NN
public0NN
investment0.0376648791150643NN
focus0NN
bring0VB
job0.0225244866060403NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
strategy0.0442083771593746NN
people0.0371911007748996NNS
potential0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.353660866065992
WordScorePoS
fiscal0JJ
incentive0NN
public0NN
investment0.0252035516550537NN
focus0.0410992516792148NN
bring0VB
job0.135650868266471NN
poor0JJ
strategy0.0295821503613099NN
people0.0106656521351091NNS
potential0NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.443192409226886
WordScorePoS
fiscal0JJ
incentive0NN
public0.0583751976558017NN
investment0NN
focus0.0373517915079663NN
bring0.0731385760866977VB
job0.0136980135278128NN
poor0.0229054731708393JJ
strategy0NN
people0.0161552501392041NNS
potential0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.336446143819976
WordScorePoS
fiscal0JJ
incentive0NN
public0.0160169090870187NN
investment0.0377086395700813NN
focus0.030745604615229NN
bring0VB
job0.0902026255635679NN
poor0JJ
strategy0NN
people0.0186171553883251NNS
potential0.0454743001434393NN

Relocation assistance can include transport housing training resettlement allowances and portable safety nets

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.909858723679057
WordScorePoS
assistance0.0373517915079663NN
include0VB
transport0.0747035830159326NN
housing0.219415728260093NN
training0NN
safety0.0731385760866977NN

Examples included incentives in Russia for families to relocate from their northern settlements developed at huge state expense for resource extraction and security purposes during the Cold War and incentives to support movement of labor out of declining industries such as the moribund coal sectors in Western Europe and the former Soviet Union since the s

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.432654390840311
WordScorePoS
include0VB
incentive0NN
family0NN
northern0JJ
settlement0NN
develop0VB
resource0.0185001613201543NN
security0NN
support0.0277502419802315NN
decline0NN
industry0.181897200573757NN
coal0NN
sector0.0565629593551219NN
western0JJ

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.37275616596603
WordScorePoS
include0VB
incentive0NN
family0NN
northern0JJ
settlement0.146277152173395NN
develop0VB
resource0.0449504361447405NN
security0NN
support0.0224752180723703NN
decline0.0315914058171786NN
industry0NN
coal0NN
sector0NN
western0JJ

While the programs have helped ease the impact of unemployment there are questions about cost effectiveness and long term impact

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.388648652726639
WordScorePoS
help0NN
impact0NN
unemployment0NN
cost0NN
term0.149793392961411NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.662034738754048
WordScorePoS
help0.0542519672965169NN
impact0.0866018859977851NN
unemployment0NN
cost0.0277064208763707NN
term0NN

There is also long history of efforts to direct settlement of remote regions or encourage migration to frontier lands

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.530637448194837
WordScorePoS
history0NN
effort0.0229054731708393NN
direct0.04477822029736JJ
settlement0.146277152173395NN
region0NN
encourage0VB
migration0NN
land0.0389167984372011NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.453791136717832
WordScorePoS
history0NN
effort0NN
direct0JJ
settlement0NN
region0.184259548107002NN
encourage0VB
migration0NN
land0.0319966432858631NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.413283902051603
WordScorePoS
history0NN
effort0NN
direct0.0396106020715138JJ
settlement0NN
region0NN
encourage0.02794560829783VB
migration0.12939607756667NN
land0NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.327932514493814
WordScorePoS
history0NN
effort0.032404008418326NN
direct0JJ
settlement0NN
region0NN
encourage0VB
migration0NN
land0.123873694868802NN

Early settlers to the Americas including the west and midwestern regions of the United States were beneficiaries of legal land grants to clear and use new land

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.564524536047883
WordScorePoS
include0VB
region0.184259548107002NN
unite0VB
legal0JJ
land0.0319966432858631NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.56337515915857
WordScorePoS
include0VB
region0NN
unite0VB
legal0JJ
land0.123873694868802NN

More recent programs include Indonesia transmigration program that shifted Javanese to sparsely populated outer islands in the and or early Ethiopian resettlement programs to fertile areas in the south and southwest regions of the country

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.746153941594494
WordScorePoS
include0VB
island0NN
south0RB
region0.184259548107002NN
country0NN

However these and other resettlement programs have been criticized for their coercive or ethnic dimensions raising questions about the adverse impact on indigenous population groups and settlers

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.484477736475628
WordScorePoS
dimension0.181686110904276NN
raise0NN
adverse0JJ
impact0NN
indigenous0JJ
population0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.535128546005238
WordScorePoS
dimension0NN
raise0.0332151194779746NN
adverse0.0664302389559493JJ
impact0.0866018859977851NN
indigenous0JJ
population0.0144336476662975NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.359809332508669
WordScorePoS
dimension0.0488696285210061NN
raise0NN
adverse0JJ
impact0NN
indigenous0JJ
population0.0860640399817412NN

Enhancing agency Where intergroup inequalities in agency underlie regional disadvantage national and regional policies addressing discrimination racism and citizenship deficits can be important instruments for dealing with spatial inequality

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.953423794169449
WordScorePoS
enhance0.00994073584907126VB
agency0NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
underlie0.0488696285210061VB
regional0JJ
national0.00886732612541978JJ
policy0.0848203862485078NN
address0.064698038783335NN
discrimination0NN
citizenship0NN

Enhancing voice and participation of excluded groups is also important for national peace and cohesion

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.450466852836288
WordScorePoS
enhance0.0184786920895884VB
voice0NN
participation0.0614198493690006NN
national0.0164833460638534JJ
peace0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.394280293269999
WordScorePoS
enhance0VB
voice0NN
participation0.0548954478802642NN
national0.0294647633960925JJ
peace0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.390288376457131
WordScorePoS
enhance0.00994073584907126VB
voice0.064698038783335NN
participation0NN
national0.00886732612541978JJ
peace0NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.380944741061467
WordScorePoS
enhance0VB
voice0NN
participation0NN
national0JJ
peace0.0815069365350084NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.343807458919171
WordScorePoS
enhance0.0601477977507998VB
voice0NN
participation0NN
national0.0134132459226336JJ
peace0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.341489364121897
WordScorePoS
enhance0.0140083044329373VB
voice0NN
participation0.0465610847355851NN
national0.0124956749436837JJ
peace0NN

While ethnic discrimination and regional disadvantage do not necessarily lead to conflict researchers and truth and reconciliation commissions alike have identified them as contributing factors

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.670366085748117
WordScorePoS
discrimination0.0736315832425121NN
regional0.0519476926891779JJ
lead0NN
conflict0.147263166485024NN
researcher0NN
commission0NN
identify0VB
contribute0VB

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.461668825833646
WordScorePoS
discrimination0NN
regional0JJ
lead0NN
conflict0NN
researcher0NN
commission0.0531983120572613NN
identify0.0531983120572613VB
contribute0.0815049608642826VB

In Aceh Indonesia oil rents have been transferred back to the region since yet regional conflict and demands for autonomy have increased rather than abated

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.798790768605088
WordScorePoS
transfer0NN
region0.184259548107002NN
regional0.0519476926891779JJ
conflict0.147263166485024NN
demand0NN
autonomy0NN
increase0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.418243503720545
WordScorePoS
transfer0NN
region0.124837844401518NN
regional0JJ
conflict0NN
demand0.020806307400253NN
autonomy0.0407408489778079NN
increase0.0143984997539974NN

This suggests that transfers alone are not sufficient to address regionally concentrated grievances they must be accompanied by meaningful political participation and dialogue

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.607706606346505
WordScorePoS
suggest0VB
transfer0NN
sufficient0JJ
meaningful0JJ
political0.111637082206855JJ
participation0.0465610847355851NN

Conclusion The specific nature of the constraints to regional growth and investment performance in lagging regions needs to be identified and prioritized

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.56718371925152
WordScorePoS
conclusion0NN
specific0JJ
nature0NN
constraint0NN
regional0.0519476926891779JJ
growth0.0519476926891779NN
investment0.0376648791150643NN
performance0NN
region0.184259548107002NN
identify0VB

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.406942893363459
WordScorePoS
conclusion0NN
specific0JJ
nature0NN
constraint0NN
regional0JJ
growth0.208565600657229NN
investment0.0252035516550537NN
performance0NN
region0NN
identify0VB

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.377765027146301
WordScorePoS
conclusion0NN
specific0.0542519672965169JJ
nature0.162755901889551NN
constraint0NN
regional0JJ
growth0NN
investment0NN
performance0NN
region0NN
identify0VB

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.342487363452454
WordScorePoS
conclusion0NN
specific0JJ
nature0NN
constraint0NN
regional0JJ
growth0.11178243319132NN
investment0.0202620733250388NN
performance0.064698038783335NN
region0NN
identify0VB

Policies that provide fiscal incentives to investors are likely to fail if the main factors that adversely influence regional investment climate quality of local institutions skilled labor availability proximity to key markets functioning capital and land markets security risks still pose binding constraints

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.271458741922161
WordScorePoS
policy0.0102677744436108NN
provide0VB
fiscal0JJ
incentive0NN
influence0NN
regional0JJ
investment0NN
climate0.291881734282273NN
quality0NN
local0.0145856516935579JJ
institution0NN
availability0NN
key0NN
market0NN
function0NN
land0NN
security0NN
risk0NN
pose0VB
constraint0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.263821091355149
WordScorePoS
policy0.0201317944152378NN
provide0.013214597504793VB
fiscal0JJ
incentive0NN
influence0NN
regional0JJ
investment0NN
climate0NN
quality0NN
local0JJ
institution0.274477239401321NN
availability0NN
key0NN
market0NN
function0NN
land0NN
security0NN
risk0NN
pose0VB
constraint0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.46769989867448
WordScorePoS
policy0NN
provide0.0215170467912497VB
fiscal0JJ
incentive0NN
influence0NN
regional0.0252000451111224JJ
investment0.0182713919265625NN
climate0.0365427838531249NN
quality0.0109267235789154NN
local0.0155217067874935JJ
institution0NN
availability0NN
key0.0297950283197006NN
market0.0913569596328122NN
function0.0440683498519077NN
land0.0465651203624806NN
security0.0893850849591018NN
risk0.0252000451111224NN
pose0VB
constraint0NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.360599781309117
WordScorePoS
policy0NN
provide0.0445201436316848VB
fiscal0JJ
incentive0.0390772412228479NN
influence0NN
regional0JJ
investment0NN
climate0.032404008418326NN
quality0NN
local0.0275274877486226JJ
institution0NN
availability0NN
key0.0528409850971592NN
market0NN
function0NN
land0.123873694868802NN
security0.0264204925485796NN
risk0.0223459295604043NN
pose0.0517339898971162VB
constraint0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.36029874768871
WordScorePoS
policy0.0641521854453136NN
provide0.00601568197638796VB
fiscal0JJ
incentive0.036961556179878NN
influence0NN
regional0.0422721924574123JJ
investment0.0766240489430275NN
climate0NN
quality0.00916459792075908NN
local0.0130185595639838JJ
institution0.0249900578719309NN
availability0.048933054487825NN
key0NN
market0.030649619577211NN
function0.036961556179878NN
land0NN
security0NN
risk0NN
pose0VB
constraint0NN

Public investment in infrastructure that reduces transport costs for both people and goods has often proved an effective strategy for integration

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.581152077252165
WordScorePoS
public0.0160169090870187NN
investment0.0377086395700813NN
infrastructure0.192202909044225NN
reduce0VB
transport0.030745604615229NN
cost0NN
people0.0186171553883251NNS
effective0JJ
strategy0NN
integration0.0454743001434393NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.343338874272922
WordScorePoS
public0.0390556786919513NN
investment0.0766240489430275NN
infrastructure0.0130185595639838NN
reduce0.00335331148065841VB
transport0.0249900578719309NN
cost0NN
people0.00432344066632653NNS
effective0.0219686053934784JJ
strategy0.017987180284335NN
integration0NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.321884331734829
WordScorePoS
public0.0583751976558017NN
investment0NN
infrastructure0.0194583992186006NN
reduce0.0200483235258943VB
transport0.0747035830159326NN
cost0NN
people0.0161552501392041NNS
effective0JJ
strategy0NN
integration0NN

And as with other policies well designed technical solutions are more likely to be implemented if those living in poorer regions are empowered

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.654246466085074
WordScorePoS
policy0.0450489732120807NN
technical0JJ
solution0NN
implement0.0450489732120807VB
live0.0739258553811849VB
region0.184259548107002NN
empower0VB

Development of lagging regions in China Unprecedented economic growth and poverty reduction in China have been accompanied by significant increases in regional disparities since the economic reform in the late s

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.656477713001991
WordScorePoS
development0.0164833460638534NN
region0.184259548107002NN
economic0.0959899298575892JJ
growth0.0519476926891779NN
poverty0.269969049497485NN
reduction0NN
significant0.0376648791150643JJ
increase0NN
regional0.0519476926891779JJ
disparity0NN
reform0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.449251469797429
WordScorePoS
development0.0055149369084567NN
region0NN
economic0.128463821595706JJ
growth0.208565600657229NN
poverty0.0722601961736204NN
reduction0NN
significant0JJ
increase0.00711043475673939NN
regional0JJ
disparity0NN
reform0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.435865612672007
WordScorePoS
development0.0177346522508396NN
region0NN
economic0.103276847978089JJ
growth0.11178243319132NN
poverty0.05809266143877NN
reduction0.0475643836183697NN
significant0.0405241466500776JJ
increase0.00285817158600878NN
regional0JJ
disparity0.0488696285210061NN
reform0NN

The socioeconomic costs of sustained divergence in income between leading and lagging regions has become major concern of the government

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.462858717821742
WordScorePoS
cost0.0660824365173543NN
sustained0JJ
income0.166475342664294NN
lead0NN
region0NN
major0JJ
government0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.454718699689637
WordScorePoS
cost0NN
sustained0JJ
income0.0442083771593746NN
lead0NN
region0.184259548107002NN
major0JJ
government0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.529272475278153
WordScorePoS
cost0NN
sustained0.120405991343299JJ
income0.110649350233433NN
lead0.0188543197850406NN
region0NN
major0.0160169090870187JJ
government0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.320826183229223
WordScorePoS
cost0NN
sustained0JJ
income0NN
lead0.025518364538905NN
region0.124837844401518NN
major0.0108390366114755JJ
government0NN

In the government initiated the Go West strategy to develop the lagging western region

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.734908970207987
WordScorePoS
government0NN
strategy0.0442083771593746NN
develop0VB
western0JJ
region0.184259548107002NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.449736310710656
WordScorePoS
government0NN
strategy0.0149758277542848NN
develop0VB
western0JJ
region0.124837844401518NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.371293002017858
WordScorePoS
government0NN
strategy0NN
develop0VB
western0.0688661930304451JJ
region0.0465610847355851NN

Through targeted public investments and fiscal subsidies the central government spent some billion yuan US billion in the past five years focusing on infrastructure education health and the environment

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.44887281024868
WordScorePoS
target0NN
public0.0160169090870187NN
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fiscal0JJ
subsidy0NN
central0JJ
government0NN
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Label: 4, with a score of: 0.405173963275475
WordScorePoS
target0.0499016491051341NN
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fiscal0JJ
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Label: 3, with a score of: 0.28543582555838
WordScorePoS
target0NN
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Label: 14, with a score of: 0.224410331711354
WordScorePoS
target0NN
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.33441683473066
WordScorePoS
target0.0898760357768464NN
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infrastructure0.0130185595639838NN
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.310125428908441
WordScorePoS
target0NN
public0.028867295332595NN
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fiscal0JJ
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central0JJ
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infrastructure0.028867295332595NN
education0.0101607690729067NN
health0.0339811641917276NN
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A variety of investment incentives and low interest loans aimed to attract domestic and foreign firms to areas in which the western region has some comparative advantage such as energy agriculture and agroprocessing

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.621576992035873
WordScorePoS
variety0NN
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aim0NN
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domestic0JJ
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western0JJ
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energy0.494617163780726NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.399092141212503
WordScorePoS
variety0.120266261535276NN
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.29647710969208
WordScorePoS
variety0NN
investment0.0182713919265625NN
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aim0NN
attract0VB
domestic0JJ
foreign0JJ
firm0NN
western0.0440683498519077JJ
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energy0.0130963126055467NN
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.220864008840696
WordScorePoS
variety0NN
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energy0.133960988253756NN
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.348559515669497
WordScorePoS
variety0NN
investment0.0766240489430275NN
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aim0.0249900578719309NN
attract0.048933054487825VB
domestic0.0634082886861185JJ
foreign0.036961556179878JJ
firm0NN
western0JJ
region0NN
energy0.0109843026967392NN
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The relative decline of the historically advantaged northeastern region has also attracted concern

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.66029926851105
WordScorePoS
relative0JJ
decline0NN
region0.184259548107002NN
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Label: 3, with a score of: 0.573482645825362
WordScorePoS
relative0JJ
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Label: 11, with a score of: 0.375302833165242
WordScorePoS
relative0.0731385760866977JJ
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China northeast currently suffers from slow growth and high unemployment in declining industries along with many severely distressed towns and cities

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.812237243856199
WordScorePoS
suffer0VB
slow0JJ
growth0NN
unemployment0NN
decline0.0315914058171786NN
industry0NN
severely0RB
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.444470603138401
WordScorePoS
suffer0VB
slow0.0607878664258118JJ
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.26414543128025
WordScorePoS
suffer0VB
slow0JJ
growth0.0260040237236563NN
unemployment0NN
decline0NN
industry0.181897200573757NN
severely0RB
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The government started the Revitalize Northeast strategy in

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.882258118835147
WordScorePoS
government0.048933054487825NN
revitalize0.048933054487825VB
strategy0.017987180284335NN

This involves new initiatives including strengthening the investment climate developing greater flexibility in factor markets using public funds to support rather than postpone adjustment and mitigating social costs through improved and portable safety nets

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.456020086469552
WordScorePoS
involve0VB
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climate0.291881734282273NN
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flexibility0NN
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Label: 11, with a score of: 0.389757901836713
WordScorePoS
involve0VB
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.354487453402897
WordScorePoS
involve0.0488696285210061VB
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social0.101310366625194JJ
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Label: 7, with a score of: 0.346624774024841
WordScorePoS
involve0VB
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develop0VB
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social0JJ
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.311925319512385
WordScorePoS
involve0VB
initiative0.036961556179878NN
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strengthen0.0120313639527759VB
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climate0NN
develop0VB
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improve0.0183291958415182VB
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Achieving greater global equity chapter We read in chapter that there are huge inequities in the world

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Even better off citizens in most of the developing world face worse opportunities than the poor in rich countries

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.679861049628882
WordScorePoS
develop0VB
world0.00257343720272548NN
opportunity0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
country0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.414797550587369
WordScorePoS
develop0VB
world0.0124838525528648NN
opportunity0.0261926252110933NN
poor0.0548141757796873JJ
country0NN

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.372364210991868
WordScorePoS
develop0VB
world0.00438651305628668NN
opportunity0.0153390539205676NN
poor0.0642010940957526JJ
country0NN

The fact that country of birth is key determinant of people opportunities runs counter to our view of equity that is that people should enjoy the same opportunities regardless of their background including where they are born

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.433862829840439
WordScorePoS
country0NN
birth0.0748292956291867NN
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people0.00539943740774902NNS
opportunity0NN
view0NN
include0VB
bear0.0814816979556159NN

Greater global equity is desirable for itself to all those who find equity intrinsically valuable

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

The international human rights regime testifies to the shared belief that all should have equal rights and be spared extreme deprivation

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.701811595642781
WordScorePoS
international0.00531301439641424JJ
human0JJ
rights0.0519476926891779NNS
regime0NN
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equal0.0376648791150643JJ
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.510999302281198
WordScorePoS
international0.00402768349408688JJ
human0.0170753354211044JJ
rights0.078760887431929NNS
regime0NN
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equal0.114211783066808JJ
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Some even argue that there is powerful moral case for rich countries to take action because of the huge disparities and arguably because they partly created and perpetuate global inequities

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Greater equity is also desirable because it would likely be beneficial to global prosperity in the long run

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.759961958679783
WordScorePoS
global0.00501208088147356JJ
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Greater equity in access to health and health remedies especially for transmittable diseases would reduce global health inequalities and be beneficial to poor and rich countries alike

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.685458999877479
WordScorePoS
access0.00610236075888593NN
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disease0.215415047323213NN
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global0.013959557403375JJ
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poor0JJ
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.641823129340018
WordScorePoS
access0.00138439773401932NN
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disease0NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.137776882148024
WordScorePoS
access0.00514687440545096NN
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reduce0.0164833460638534VB
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poor0.150659516460257JJ
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Greater equity in access to and control over natural resources and the global commons may lead to more sustainable use

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.456188296636125
WordScorePoS
access0.00514687440545096NN
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natural0.0376648791150643JJ
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global0JJ
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sustainable0.00514687440545096JJ

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.374625163253574
WordScorePoS
access0.00232174891244877NN
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natural0.0509717462875914JJ
resource0.0416785799329393NN
global0.022306853314744JJ
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lead0.0169905820958638NN
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Label: 11, with a score of: 0.353909228882779
WordScorePoS
access0.00626002771693937NN
control0NN
natural0.0229054731708393JJ
resource0.0449504361447405NN
global0.00501208088147356JJ
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lead0NN
sustainable0.00782503464617421JJ

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.320576827831459
WordScorePoS
access0.00610236075888593NN
control0.020806307400253NN
natural0JJ
resource0NN
global0.013959557403375JJ
common0.0615471563780609JJ
lead0.025518364538905NN
sustainable0.00087176582269799JJ

Some argue that greater equity could also lead to greater international stability fragile and failed states pose threat to local and global stability

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.444187217204504
WordScorePoS
lead0NN
international0.00531301439641424JJ
stability0NN
fragile0.120266261535276JJ
pose0VB
threat0NN
local0JJ
global0JJ

What can be done to reduce the huge inequities we experience today

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.49206456446661
WordScorePoS
reduce0.01675146888405VB
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The debate about what causes global inequities and how to address them is highly contentious

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Some see globalization greater global integration as source of equalization others source of widening inequalities with richer countries and corporations making rules that benefit themselves at the cost of the weak poor and voiceless

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.834795188174866
WordScorePoS
global0.0133009891881297JJ
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inequality0.635305170773079NN
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.262400990766875
WordScorePoS
global0.00736619084902312JJ
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source0NN
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country0NN
rule0.162386273072618NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.239046226469667
WordScorePoS
global0JJ
integration0NN
source0.0269969049497485NN
inequality0NN
country0NN
rule0NN
benefit0NN
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poor0.150659516460257JJ

There is some truth on all sides of the debate

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

In terms of trends we saw in chapter that the picture is mixed convergence in health and probably education for many convergence in incomes for some but divergence in incomes and health for others

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.57114490457344
WordScorePoS
term0.0396106020715138NN
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education0.0121171980355011NN
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Label: 3, with a score of: 0.488132255853511
WordScorePoS
term0NN
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Label: 4, with a score of: 0.299530284771369
WordScorePoS
term0NN
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.227816631353636
WordScorePoS
term0.149793392961411NN
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.391533235098718
WordScorePoS
term0NN
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In terms of causes just as some of the major sources of convergence have been associated with globalization of markets and knowledge the East Asian tigers China India making use of global markets the spread of the green revolution and health related technology so unequal rules and unequal influence profoundly shape opportunity

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.529800668720217
WordScorePoS
term0.149793392961411NN
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global0.0201198688839505JJ
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technology0.109843026967392NN
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Label: 3, with a score of: 0.299937218832911
WordScorePoS
term0NN
major0.0108390366114755JJ
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knowledge0NN
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related0.0125195145191824JJ
technology0NN
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.23918018032412
WordScorePoS
term0NN
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knowledge0NN
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Label: 7, with a score of: 0.361811257212699
WordScorePoS
term0.0749457204978913NN
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source0.0274787313211514NN
market0NN
knowledge0NN
global0.0251662980592747JJ
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technology0.109914925284606NN
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Domestic action is clearly central to reducing inequities

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.466216095245839
WordScorePoS
domestic0JJ
action0NN
central0.0924643738905717JJ
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.371260127638097
WordScorePoS
domestic0.0393804437159645JJ
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.359397746928039
WordScorePoS
domestic0.0634082886861185JJ
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.346874333270776
WordScorePoS
domestic0.0695218668857431JJ
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.302890879774793
WordScorePoS
domestic0.0520080474473126JJ
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Developing countries hold the keys to their prosperity global action cannot substitute for equitable and efficient domestic policies and institutions

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.4834128444373
WordScorePoS
develop0VB
country0NN
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prosperity0NN
global0.00736619084902312JJ
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.475136608676089
WordScorePoS
develop0VB
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.339006174749467
WordScorePoS
develop0VB
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.32279560929696
WordScorePoS
develop0VB
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global0.0201198688839505JJ
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But global conditions powerfully affect the scope for and impact of domestic policies

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.588932989471702
WordScorePoS
global0.0220597476338268JJ
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domestic0.0695218668857431JJ
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.425972427250443
WordScorePoS
global0.022306853314744JJ
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.336619488600633
WordScorePoS
global0.0201198688839505JJ
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domestic0.0634082886861185JJ
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Global action by governments people and organizations in developed countries and by international institutions can determine whether the globalization process brings about greater equity peace and prosperity or fuels tensions and conflicts that will lead to backlash and violence

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.664364463296487
WordScorePoS
global0.00736619084902312JJ
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organization0NN
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conflict0.0658099748168827NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.271035444267472
WordScorePoS
global0JJ
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.31224052652958
WordScorePoS
global0JJ
action0.0409315617631NN
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organization0NN
develop0VB
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Current disparities are products of interactions between two factors the endowments of different countries and the rules shaping the options for deploying these endowments on domestic and global markets

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.411864439864207
WordScorePoS
current0JJ
disparity0NN
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rule0.162386273072618NN
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.500024243927911
WordScorePoS
current0JJ
disparity0NN
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.426900010485211
WordScorePoS
current0JJ
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product0.0591643007226199NN
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rule0NN
domestic0.0695218668857431JJ
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Endowments are greatly unequal due to history and geography although some of the history and aspects of geography are product of unequal development patterns

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.656639555837716
WordScorePoS
due0.0473606524958885JJ
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.4551424131127
WordScorePoS
due0.0234335422829798JJ
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aspect0NN
product0.0199423462679015NN
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Infrastructure underdevelopment in Africa for example is partly legacy of colonial political and economic patterns

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.5769528496499
WordScorePoS
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Institutional weaknesses Achieving greater global equity of poorer societies now part of their endowment also reflect historical patterns as discussed in chapter

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Differences in endowments are often exacerbated by the inequitable functioning of markets

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As in the domestic realm market imperfections can be either product of policy as in barriers to labor mobility or agricultural protection or of intrinsic market failures as in weak protection of global commons and lack of incentives for knowledge creation

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Achieving greater global equity thus requires global policies that improve endowments and address market imperfections and more representative global insitutions

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We first discuss the global markets for labor goods ideas and capital all functioning within the context of international law box

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For each market we highlight existing inequities and their impact discuss the processes that lead to such inequities and explore some options for change

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We next turn to rectifying past and BOX

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present inequities in the use of natural resources

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Then we look at whether aid the traditional response to global inequity can be used effectively to accelerate domestic efforts to build endowments

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The current state of international relations may cause some to wonder whether any change is possible

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So we close the chapter by examining factors that have facilitated transitions to more equitable policies and institutions in the past

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We conclude that change may be difficult but not impossible

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Making global markets work more equitably Global markets have many faces Filipino nurses Sri Lankan domestic workers Polish care providers Indian engineers Ugandan coffee growers Bangladeshi women working in garment factories Moroccan craftsmen employers of migrants and the consumers of developing country products in Australia International law globalization and equity Globalization takes place mostly in the context of international law which governs relations among states and other international legal subjects such as international organizations

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More equitable development application monitoring and enforcement of international law is essential to make globalization more equitable

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The meaning of equity in international law

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Equity considerations inform the development of international law confirming that greater global equity is shared value

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The principle of equity has accompanied the development of international law over the centuries chapter

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Equity in international law encompasses notions of corrective justice and distributive justice that the strict application of the law should be tempered by considerations of equity or fairness to achieve just result and that international law should promote more even distribution of resources among states

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Equitable principles have been applied to many areas of international law from the sharing of scientific benefits technology and natural resources to laws governing the sea international waterways outer space and carbon emissions

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As highlighted in chapter the most pertinent example of the application of principles of equity in international law is the international human rights regime

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In today international law equity has not only an interstate dimension it also has an intergenerational dimension in the preservation of the environment and other global commons as we will see below

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Rule setting processes

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International laws are formed through complex negotiating processes

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The degree to which these processes are perceived to be equitable affects their adoption and implementation so processes matter greatly

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Generally state remains free to decide whether to become party to convention or covenant

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And state satisfaction with the process leading to the adoption of convention may facilitate signing and subsequent adoption

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For example the Universal Declaration of Human Rights seen by many as the basis of subsequent human rights instruments was adopted by the U

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General Assembly where all countries are represented and have one vote

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While only declaration and not intended to bind states at the time it was adopted the process leading to its adoption was perceived to be equitable

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The body of standards set by the ILO is another example of rules set through an international process that is broadly consultative encompassing not just governments but unions and private sector representatives

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On the other hand the rule setting processes of the World Trade Organization and its predecessor the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade are perceived by some as inequitable and this is partly responsible for the current stalemate

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Application and enforcement mechanisms

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The processes that interpret apply and enforce international laws are crucial to realizing greater equity

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In general the ability of states to pursue and enforce rights under international law depends on appropriate adjudication processes or complaint mechanisms and their effectiveness

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.637317684882073
WordScorePoS
ability0NN
pursue0VB
enforce0.107490825192354VB
rights0NNS
international0.0189945307832458JJ
law0.164686343640793NN
depend0VB
process0NN
mechanism0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.337801103543577
WordScorePoS
ability0NN
pursue0VB
enforce0VB
rights0NNS
international0.00648516099948979JJ
law0NN
depend0VB
process0NN
mechanism0.147846224719512NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.405296828749329
WordScorePoS
ability0NN
pursue0VB
enforce0VB
rights0.078760887431929NNS
international0.00402768349408688JJ
law0.0465610847355851NN
depend0VB
process0.0558185411034276NN
mechanism0NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.326219301313533
WordScorePoS
ability0NN
pursue0.0517339898971162VB
enforce0VB
rights0NNS
international0.00228545753063677JJ
law0NN
depend0.0633470357346975VB
process0.0316735178673487NN
mechanism0NN

A number of international courts and other adjudicative bodies often have voluntary jurisdiction but there is trend toward judicialization and compulsory jurisdiction

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

For example dispute settlement arrangements established under the U

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.948344324298754
WordScorePoS
settlement0.146277152173395NN
establish0VB

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.317242876311415
WordScorePoS
settlement0NN
establish0.048933054487825VB

Convention on the Law of the Sea and the World Trade Organization Dispute Settlement Understanding mark significant move toward compulsory jurisdiction and binding decision making

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.578674093053192
WordScorePoS
convention0.0828215106044499NN
law0NN
sea0.16782457728855NN
world0.00351929966767313NN
trade0NN
organization0NN
settlement0NN
significant0.0343390275626203JJ
move0.0414107553022249NN
decision0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.429345744575303
WordScorePoS
convention0NN
law0.164686343640793NN
sea0NN
world0NN
trade0NN
organization0NN
settlement0NN
significant0.033663879505068JJ
move0NN
decision0.0464294830712827NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.267551547011564
WordScorePoS
convention0NN
law0NN
sea0NN
world0.00626002771693937NN
trade0NN
organization0NN
settlement0.146277152173395NN
significant0JJ
move0NN
decision0NN

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.412804462681082
WordScorePoS
convention0NN
law0.0543366405761884NN
sea0.0977100948994686NN
world0.0045533140757086NN
trade0.0391100714971453NN
organization0.0229784274580034NN
settlement0NN
significant0.0166605993001162JJ
move0NN
decision0NN

The ability of citizens and other nonstate actors to pursue their rights and seek redress under international law depends on whether their state has become party to the instruments that allow the use of compliance mechanism

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.445363568078166
WordScorePoS
ability0NN
actor0NN
pursue0VB
rights0NNS
seek0VB
international0.0189945307832458JJ
law0.164686343640793NN
depend0VB
party0NN
mechanism0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.374201052917391
WordScorePoS
ability0NN
actor0NN
pursue0VB
rights0NNS
seek0VB
international0.00648516099948979JJ
law0NN
depend0VB
party0NN
mechanism0.147846224719512NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.430442442214023
WordScorePoS
ability0NN
actor0NN
pursue0VB
rights0.0519476926891779NNS
seek0.120266261535276VB
international0.00531301439641424JJ
law0NN
depend0VB
party0NN
mechanism0NN

For example for citizens to make complaint against their state under the International Covenant of Civil and Political Rights the state must have signed and ratified the First Optional Protocol which allows complaint to be heard by the Human Rights Committee established by the covenant

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.749772374090592
WordScorePoS
international0.00402768349408688JJ
civil0JJ
political0.111637082206855JJ
rights0.078760887431929NNS
human0.0170753354211044JJ
establish0VB

As the discussion indicates and in parallel to what happens on the domestic arena rules often block access even before expenses knowledge and capacity limit effective recourse

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.526576352047533
WordScorePoS
parallel0NN
domestic0JJ
rule0.162386273072618NN
access0.00690021170452351NN
knowledge0NN
capacity0.016515769558553NN
limit0NN
effective0.0482582488828229JJ

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.579381572126665
WordScorePoS
parallel0NN
domestic0.0634082886861185JJ
rule0.0739231123597559NN
access0.00314118376811005NN
knowledge0.0499801157438617NN
capacity0.0451108483130998NN
limit0NN
effective0.0219686053934784JJ

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.402859997913614
WordScorePoS
parallel0.0583416713841148NN
domestic0JJ
rule0NN
access0.00749031153171887NN
knowledge0.0595900566394012NN
capacity0.0179281831452421NN
limit0.0357189919948307NN
effective0JJ

WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT the European countries Japan the United States and the richer middle income countries

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.538640038266554
WordScorePoS
world0.00276879546803864NN
development0.0177346522508396NN
report0NN
country0NN
unite0VB
middle0JJ
income0.166475342664294NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.594685054760392
WordScorePoS
world0.00257642711761688NN
development0.0330049940546426NN
report0NN
country0NN
unite0VB
middle0.0602029956716497JJ
income0.110649350233433NN

Global markets create valuable economic opportunities for millions of people who develop ideas raise capital and sell their products and their labor

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.565462063476015
WordScorePoS
global0.0220597476338268JJ
market0.0252035516550537NN
create0.0695218668857431VB
economic0.128463821595706JJ
opportunity0.0361300980868102NN
million0CD
people0.0106656521351091NNS
develop0VB
idea0NN
raise0NN
product0.0591643007226199NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.37836054255721
WordScorePoS
global0JJ
market0.0377086395700813NN
create0.0520080474473126VB
economic0.0320338181740375JJ
opportunity0.0135141354781442NN
million0CD
people0.0186171553883251NNS
develop0VB
idea0NN
raise0.0368585655748969NN
product0.0442597400933733NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.3350772457206
WordScorePoS
global0.00501208088147356JJ
market0NN
create0.0315914058171786VB
economic0.0389167984372011JJ
opportunity0.0164178645080222NN
million0CD
people0.0161552501392041NNS
develop0VB
idea0.0731385760866977NN
raise0NN
product0.0268848280079943NN

But unequal endowments and unfair processes mean that opportunities and rules are not the same for all

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.70207985558597
WordScorePoS
process0NN
opportunity0NN
rule0.162386273072618NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.377145887505752
WordScorePoS
process0.0737171311497939NN
opportunity0.0135141354781442NN
rule0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.329816583318813
WordScorePoS
process0.0558185411034276NN
opportunity0.02046578088155NN
rule0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.319607852732685
WordScorePoS
process0NN
opportunity0NN
rule0.0739231123597559NN

Inequities exist in the functioning of these markets

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.655313322500902
WordScorePoS
exist0VB
function0.0440683498519077NN
market0.0913569596328122NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.617101389346205
WordScorePoS
exist0.0599173571845643VB
function0.036961556179878NN
market0.030649619577211NN

Unskilled workers from poor countries who could earn higher returns in rich countries face great hurdles in migrating

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.5686119095016
WordScorePoS
worker0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
country0NN
return0NN
migrate0VB

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.458845290559883
WordScorePoS
worker0.121575732851624NN
poor0JJ
country0NN
return0NN
migrate0VB

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.427067362479247
WordScorePoS
worker0NN
poor0.0548141757796873JJ
country0NN
return0NN
migrate0.0583416713841148VB

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.405686708696229
WordScorePoS
worker0NN
poor0JJ
country0NN
return0.107490825192354NN
migrate0VB

Developingcountry producers face obstacles in selling agricultural products manufactured items and services in developed countries

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.696225334857999
WordScorePoS
producer0NN
agricultural0.0368585655748969JJ
product0.0442597400933733NN
manufacture0.240811982686599NN
service0.0148023490369527NN
develop0VB
country0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.63774012374909
WordScorePoS
producer0.0440683498519077NN
agricultural0.250032943963815JJ
product0NN
manufacture0NN
service0.0143446978608332NN
develop0VB
country0NN

Foreign investors often get better deals in debt crises

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.991810077584359
WordScorePoS
foreign0.036961556179878JJ
debt0.342531381414775NN

In most cases more equitable rules would bring benefits to both developed and developing countries but the extent of benefits varies by market

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.472955991843731
WordScorePoS
equitable0JJ
rule0.162386273072618NN
bring0VB
benefit0NN
develop0VB
country0NN
extent0NN
market0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.475333924468639
WordScorePoS
equitable0.0214456704626236JJ
rule0NN
bring0VB
benefit0.0252000451111224NN
develop0VB
country0NN
extent0NN
market0.0913569596328122NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.356960251307601
WordScorePoS
equitable0.017987180284335JJ
rule0.0739231123597559NN
bring0VB
benefit0NN
develop0VB
country0NN
extent0NN
market0.030649619577211NN

Barriers are massively greater in the market for labor the factor of production that the poor own in relative abundance than in the markets for goods and capital and factor price equalization clearly does not work through trade alone

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.265692121531967
WordScorePoS
barrier0NN
market0NN
production0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
relative0JJ
price0NN
trade0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.719252016624508
WordScorePoS
barrier0.0357189919948307NN
market0.0913569596328122NN
production0.0548141757796873NN
poor0.0548141757796873JJ
relative0JJ
price0.0583416713841148NN
trade0.0214456704626236NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.329596848582368
WordScorePoS
barrier0NN
market0.0169905820958638NN
production0.118934074671047NN
poor0.0339811641917276JJ
relative0JJ
price0NN
trade0NN

So removing barriers to migration could have significant impact on expanding Figure

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.552901737227605
WordScorePoS
remove0VB
barrier0NN
migration0.12939607756667NN
significant0.0405241466500776JJ
impact0NN
expand0VB
figure0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.458322960322141
WordScorePoS
remove0.0542519672965169VB
barrier0NN
migration0NN
significant0JJ
impact0.0866018859977851NN
expand0VB
figure0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.367944916378625
WordScorePoS
remove0VB
barrier0.0368585655748969NN
migration0NN
significant0JJ
impact0.0160169090870187NN
expand0VB
figure0.0602029956716497NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.319689322430957
WordScorePoS
remove0VB
barrier0NN
migration0NN
significant0.0343390275626203JJ
impact0.0437569550806737NN
expand0.0201523636533764VB
figure0NN

Wage differentials are substantially larger today than at the end of the nineteenth century Ratios of purchasing power parity adjusted wages of the United States and its migration partners in and pairs of countries in the USA Ireland USA Norway USA Sweden USA Italy Spain Morocco USA Guatemala UK Kenya Italy Ethiopia NLD Indonesia Japan Vietnam

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.695202195272472
WordScorePoS
wage0NN
differential0JJ
substantially0RB
century0.219293228426234NN
ratio0NN
power0NN
parity0NN
unite0.0828215106044499VB
migration0NN
country0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.559088673885562
WordScorePoS
wage0.064698038783335NN
differential0.0488696285210061JJ
substantially0RB
century0NN
ratio0NN
power0NN
parity0NN
unite0VB
migration0.12939607756667NN
country0NN

Ratio of wages in PPP Source Pritchett

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.552875063062417
WordScorePoS
ratio0.0688661930304451NN
source0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.494116001864506
WordScorePoS
ratio0.0615471563780609NN
source0NN

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.492583082088038
WordScorePoS
ratio0NN
source0.0613562156822703NN

people opportunities of course migration raises complex issues that are politically and socially difficult to tackle in sending and receiving countries

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.723399493226545
WordScorePoS
people0.00571634317201755NNS
opportunity0.029046330719385NN
migration0.12939607756667NN
raise0NN
issue0NN
socially0RB
tackle0.064698038783335VB
receive0VB
country0NN

Benefits also vary greatly depending on country context

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.640456855228828
WordScorePoS
benefit0.0446918591208085NN
depend0.0633470357346975VB
country0NN
context0NN

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.522368277945503
WordScorePoS
benefit0.0229784274580034NN
depend0.0651400632663124VB
country0NN
context0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.361129341249076
WordScorePoS
benefit0.0252000451111224NN
depend0.0357189919948307VB
country0NN
context0NN

The fast growing developing countries including China and India that are home to half the world poorest people stand to benefit significantly from more equitable global markets

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.581659757446884
WordScorePoS
grow0.0182713919265625VB
develop0VB
country0NN
include0VB
world0.0124838525528648NN
poorest0.0297950283197006JJS
people0.0257736572183839NNS
stand0VB
benefit0.0252000451111224NN
significantly0RB
equitable0.0214456704626236JJ
global0.0119942111830662JJ
market0.0913569596328122NN

Leveling the global playing field can help them sustain fast growth while equitable domestic policies help ensure that this growth is shared

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.714820377911672
WordScorePoS
level0.00761994916892276NN
global0.0220597476338268JJ
field0NN
sustain0.049270765107907VB
growth0.208565600657229NN
equitable0JJ
domestic0.0695218668857431JJ
policy0.0452169560888236NN
ensure0VB
share0.0252035516550537NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.4160234144496
WordScorePoS
level0NN
global0.0133009891881297JJ
field0NN
sustain0.0396106020715138VB
growth0.11178243319132NN
equitable0JJ
domestic0JJ
policy0.0848203862485078NN
ensure0.00886732612541978VB
share0NN

Countries with more limited endowments such as many African countries that are left behind in the global economy stand to benefit less in the short to medium run from more equitable global markets

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.481263793462876
WordScorePoS
country0NN
limited0JJ
african0IN
global0.0220597476338268JJ
economy0.0821985033584295NN
stand0VB
benefit0NN
medium0.0607878664258118NN
equitable0JJ
market0.0252035516550537NN

Greater international labor mobility Returns to capital and to some extent skilled labor tend to equalize across countries but returns to unskilled labor owned by poor people and in abundant supply in poor countries generally do not converge

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.636281019599364
WordScorePoS
international0.00531301439641424JJ
mobility0NN
return0NN
extent0NN
country0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
people0.0371911007748996NNS
supply0NN

Wage differentials across countries for jobs requiring similar skills are large and substantially larger than the wage gap between the United States and migrant sending countries in the late nineteenth century figure

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.569485657079234
WordScorePoS
wage0NN
differential0JJ
country0NN
job0.0152653111258778NN
require0VB
skill0.407534682675042NN
substantially0RB
gap0NN
unite0VB
migrant0NN
century0NN
figure0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.4869309887458
WordScorePoS
wage0NN
differential0JJ
country0NN
job0.135650868266471NN
require0.104282800328615VB
skill0NN
substantially0RB
gap0NN
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migrant0.121575732851624NN
century0NN
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Label: 13, with a score of: 0.470721915550084
WordScorePoS
wage0NN
differential0JJ
country0NN
job0NN
require0.0473606524958885VB
skill0NN
substantially0RB
gap0NN
unite0.0828215106044499VB
migrant0NN
century0.219293228426234NN
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.318702713099314
WordScorePoS
wage0NN
differential0JJ
country0NN
job0.0902026255635679NN
require0.0260040237236563VB
skill0NN
substantially0RB
gap0.0602029956716497NN
unite0VB
migrant0NN
century0NN
figure0.0602029956716497NN

Developed countries severely limit in migration of unskilled and semi skilled workers which contributes to the lack of equalization in returns to unskilled labor

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.422788055560104
WordScorePoS
develop0VB
country0NN
severely0RB
limit0NN
migration0.12939607756667NN
worker0NN
contribute0VB
lack0NN
return0NN

Greater migration of unskilled labor would tend to equalize returns with winners and losers but with potentially beneficial effects on efficiency

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.531962221110248
WordScorePoS
migration0NN
return0NN
potentially0RB
effect0NN
efficiency0.134992154141495NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.509909818560047
WordScorePoS
migration0.12939607756667NN
return0NN
potentially0RB
effect0NN
efficiency0NN

History teaches us that migration has at various times alleviated human suffering and promoted cultural and technological exchanges

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.552781649416606
WordScorePoS
history0NN
migration0.12939607756667NN
time0.0607862199751165NN
human0JJ
suffer0VB
promote0.00886732612541978VB
cultural0JJ
technological0JJ

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.395451356911137
WordScorePoS
history0NN
migration0NN
time0.0188543197850406NN
human0.011275328195446JJ
suffer0VB
promote0.00825124851366066VB
cultural0JJ
technological0.104016094894625JJ

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.317235938941874
WordScorePoS
history0NN
migration0NN
time0NN
human0.0273960270556257JJ
suffer0VB
promote0VB
cultural0.055245183797332JJ
technological0.0315914058171786JJ

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.313990342187994
WordScorePoS
history0.0414107553022249NN
migration0NN
time0NN
human0.0205355488872215JJ
suffer0VB
promote0.00375696197697663VB
cultural0JJ
technological0.0473606524958885JJ

The mass migration from Europe to the Americas in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries enabled million people to escape poverty and persecution creating some of today wealthiest societies although Native Americans faced enormous losses in the process

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.493691345598099
WordScorePoS
migration0NN
century0NN
enable0VB
people0.0371911007748996NNS
escape0NN
poverty0.269969049497485NN
create0.0519476926891779VB
society0NN
native0JJ
face0NN
loss0NN
process0NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.38917237650502
WordScorePoS
migration0NN
century0.219293228426234NN
enable0.0279982034978914VB
people0.0121096729954788NNS
escape0NN
poverty0NN
create0VB
society0NN
native0JJ
face0NN
loss0.0236803262479443NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.298307991239265
WordScorePoS
migration0.12939607756667NN
century0NN
enable0VB
people0.00571634317201755NNS
escape0NN
poverty0.05809266143877NN
create0VB
society0.0237821918091848NN
native0JJ
face0NN
loss0NN
process0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.401555036984467
WordScorePoS
migration0NN
century0NN
enable0VB
people0.0106656521351091NNS
escape0.0804764811724088NN
poverty0.0722601961736204NN
create0.0695218668857431VB
society0.0591643007226199NN
native0JJ
face0NN
loss0NN
process0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.394392060974296
WordScorePoS
migration0NN
century0NN
enable0VB
people0.0186171553883251NNS
escape0NN
poverty0NN
create0.0520080474473126VB
society0.0221298700466866NN
native0JJ
face0.120405991343299NN
loss0NN
process0.0737171311497939NN

Economic analyses indicate that gains from expanding migration could be very significant

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.679310803732274
WordScorePoS
economic0.103276847978089JJ
gain0NN
expand0VB
migration0.12939607756667NN
significant0.0405241466500776JJ

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.392984944436744
WordScorePoS
economic0.128463821595706JJ
gain0NN
expand0.0295821503613099VB
migration0NN
significant0JJ

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.332335756662668
WordScorePoS
economic0.0959899298575892JJ
gain0NN
expand0VB
migration0NN
significant0.0376648791150643JJ

Hamilton and Whalley use highly simplified economic model of the world to suggest that the benefits from reallocation of labor could be huge on the Achieving greater global equity order of doubling GDP

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.457529704720059
WordScorePoS
highly0RB
economic0.128463821595706JJ
world0.00172202218602071NN
suggest0VB
benefit0NN
achieve0.0152398983378455VB
global0.0220597476338268JJ
double0RB
gdp0NN

This of course depends on the specific assumptions used and ignores host of adjustment issues but it does serve to illustrate that the gains could be large and probably much larger than the gains from the by comparison already greatly liberalized trade in goods

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Indeed using an approach similar to that of analyses of trade impacts Walmsley and Winters estimated that increasing temporary migration into industrial countries by percent of host countries current skilled and unskilled work force equivalent to permitting an extra million skilled and

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.647001419139539
WordScorePoS
approach0NN
trade0NN
impact0.0160169090870187NN
estimate0.0221298700466866NN
increase0.0159575617614215NN
migration0NN
industrial0.318320101004075JJ
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force0NN
equivalent0JJ

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.271077263954477
WordScorePoS
approach0NN
trade0.0237821918091848NN
impact0NN
estimate0NN
increase0.00285817158600878NN
migration0.12939607756667NN
industrial0JJ
country0NN
current0JJ
force0NN
equivalent0JJ

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.469111843504171
WordScorePoS
approach0.0542519672965169NN
trade0NN
impact0.0866018859977851NN
estimate0.0199423462679015NN
increase0.00958677785775002NN
migration0NN
industrial0JJ
country0NN
current0.0332151194779746JJ
force0NN
equivalent0.0664302389559493JJ

million unskilled workers to be employed at any time roughly doubling of current net migration into highincome countries would generate an estimated increase in world welfare of more than billion year

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.513899214886449
WordScorePoS
worker0NN
employ0VB
time0.0607862199751165NN
double0RB
current0JJ
migration0.12939607756667NN
country0NN
generate0VB
estimate0NN
increase0.00285817158600878NN
world0.00276879546803864NN
welfare0NN

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.415734523575415
WordScorePoS
worker0NN
employ0.0401833161726777VB
time0.0166605993001162NN
double0RB
current0.0325700316331562JJ
migration0NN
country0NN
generate0.0401833161726777VB
estimate0.0195550357485727NN
increase0.00470029406779661NN
world0.0045533140757086NN
welfare0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.394898370886519
WordScorePoS
worker0.0454743001434393NN
employ0.0454743001434393VB
time0.0188543197850406NN
double0RB
current0JJ
migration0NN
country0NN
generate0VB
estimate0.0221298700466866NN
increase0.0159575617614215NN
world0.00257642711761688NN
welfare0NN

This increase would be shared fairly equally between developing and developed country citizens

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.59788079547204
WordScorePoS
increase0.00432344066632653NN
share0.0766240489430275NN
develop0VB
country0NN

Much of the gain would come from the migration of unskilled workers

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.633198268287811
WordScorePoS
gain0NN
migration0.12939607756667NN
worker0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.594929498290283
WordScorePoS
gain0NN
migration0NN
worker0.121575732851624NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.325075636447942
WordScorePoS
gain0.0664302389559493NN
migration0NN
worker0NN

Country studies confirm that migration could have significant impact

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.682551618438506
WordScorePoS
country0NN
study0NN
migration0.12939607756667NN
significant0.0405241466500776JJ
impact0NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.393260972244995
WordScorePoS
country0NN
study0.0517339898971162NN
migration0NN
significant0.032404008418326JJ
impact0.0137637438743113NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.34787064176784
WordScorePoS
country0NN
study0NN
migration0NN
significant0JJ
impact0.0866018859977851NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.313703325148226
WordScorePoS
country0NN
study0NN
migration0NN
significant0.0343390275626203JJ
impact0.0437569550806737NN

Annabi and others forthcoming found that percent increase in the flow of remittances to Bangladesh would reduce the incidence of per day income poverty by

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.744886754643496
WordScorePoS
increase0NN
flow0NN
remittance0NN
reduce0.0164833460638534VB
incidence0NN
day0.25973846344589NN
income0.0442083771593746NN
poverty0.269969049497485NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.551004350113776
WordScorePoS
increase0.00285817158600878NN
flow0.0488696285210061NN
remittance0.12939607756667NN
reduce0.0310356414389692VB
incidence0NN
day0NN
income0.166475342664294NN
poverty0.05809266143877NN

percent in the short run and by percent by

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Doesn migration raise income inequality in sending countries

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.975964841386861
WordScorePoS
doesn0NN
migration0.12939607756667NN
raise0NN
income0.166475342664294NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
country0NN

As high risk high return activity migration is more likely to be undertaken first by members of wealthier less credit constrained bettereducated households

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.532478505625318
WordScorePoS
risk0NN
return0NN
activity0NN
migration0.12939607756667NN
undertake0VB
wealthier0JJR
credit0NN
household0.0330412182586772NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.378377047345942
WordScorePoS
risk0NN
return0NN
activity0NN
migration0NN
undertake0.0688661930304451VB
wealthier0JJR
credit0NN
household0.0465610847355851NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.36429393922134
WordScorePoS
risk0.0703902516159815NN
return0NN
activity0NN
migration0NN
undertake0VB
wealthier0.0407408489778079JJR
credit0NN
household0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.352360913643857
WordScorePoS
risk0NN
return0.107490825192354NN
activity0NN
migration0NN
undertake0VB
wealthier0JJR
credit0NN
household0NN

Successful migrants later provide information and assistance to potential migrants through social networks thus lowering risks and costs and making it possible for members of households in lower parts of the income distribution to migrate

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.620708258540761
WordScorePoS
successful0JJ
migrant0.0488696285210061NN
provide0VB
information0NN
assistance0.0330412182586772NN
potential0NN
social0.101310366625194JJ
risk0NN
cost0.0660824365173543NN
household0.0330412182586772NN
income0.166475342664294NN
migrate0VB

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.417378167401733
WordScorePoS
successful0JJ
migrant0.121575732851624NN
provide0VB
information0NN
assistance0.0410992516792148NN
potential0NN
social0.0504071033101074JJ
risk0NN
cost0NN
household0NN
income0NN
migrate0VB

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.311732140197809
WordScorePoS
successful0JJ
migrant0NN
provide0.00740117451847634VB
information0.0675706773907211NN
assistance0NN
potential0.0454743001434393NN
social0.0188543197850406JJ
risk0NN
cost0NN
household0NN
income0.110649350233433NN
migrate0VB

In the first stages of the migration process remittances sent to wealthier households can increase inequality if they are higher than forgone income

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.956978931920776
WordScorePoS
stage0NN
migration0.12939607756667NN
process0NN
remittance0.12939607756667NN
wealthier0JJR
household0.0330412182586772NN
increase0.00285817158600878NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
income0.166475342664294NN

As migration expands remittances begin to arrive to less well off households and income distribution improves

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.883194265315502
WordScorePoS
migration0.12939607756667NN
expand0VB
remittance0.12939607756667NN
household0.0330412182586772NN
income0.166475342664294NN
improve0.0121171980355011VB

Remittances also have indirect effects through greater spending risk diversification and easing of credit constraints which are generally inequalityreducing

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.388164144528751
WordScorePoS
remittance0.12939607756667NN
effect0NN
spending0NN
risk0NN
diversification0NN
credit0NN
constraint0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.814622209170093
WordScorePoS
remittance0NN
effect0.0454743001434393NN
spending0.0602029956716497NN
risk0NN
diversification0.0454743001434393NN
credit0.0602029956716497NN
constraint0.0602029956716497NN

On balance the evidence does not support the view that migration leads unequivocally to higher inequality in sending countries

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.983478448241756
WordScorePoS
evidence0.12939607756667NN
support0NN
view0NN
migration0.12939607756667NN
lead0NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
country0NN

In receiving countries migration relieves labor shortages in labor intensive sectors such as health care hotels and restaurants and construction

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.740293700340988
WordScorePoS
receive0.0814816979556159VB
country0NN
migration0NN
shortage0NN
intensive0JJ
sector0NN
health0.191387734041787NN
care0.104031537001265NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.333750459390915
WordScorePoS
receive0VB
country0NN
migration0.12939607756667NN
shortage0NN
intensive0JJ
sector0NN
health0.0405241466500776NN
care0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.407236997396006
WordScorePoS
receive0VB
country0NN
migration0NN
shortage0NN
intensive0JJ
sector0.0571058915334038NN
health0.0571058915334038NN
care0.0931221694711702NN

As developed country populations age and their levels of education and training rise these shortages are likely to become more severe

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.719303885895908
WordScorePoS
develop0VB
country0NN
population0NN
age0.0255262687343935NN
level0.0231525547935232NN
education0.244244978014045NN
training0.124876512346911NN
rise0NN
shortage0NN

Demographic trends are another powerful force behind migration

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.873957263660299
WordScorePoS
force0NN
migration0.12939607756667NN

Current population projections imply that the labor forces of Europe and Japan will decline over the next century and that the ratio of people of working age to people of retirement age the support ratio will grow to levels that would make current pension and social transfer schemes unviable

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.404669820509095
WordScorePoS
current0.0335649154577099JJ
population0NN
projection0NN
force0NN
decline0.0236803262479443NN
century0.219293228426234NN
ratio0NN
people0.0121096729954788NNS
age0NN
support0NN
grow0.0171695137813101VB
level0.0415277415054218NN
social0JJ
transfer0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.456370484548287
WordScorePoS
current0JJ
population0NN
projection0NN
force0NN
decline0NN
century0NN
ratio0NN
people0.0371911007748996NNS
age0.112994637345193NN
support0.0184786920895884NN
grow0VB
level0.0113874611101829NN
social0.112994637345193JJ
transfer0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.316924780873057
WordScorePoS
current0JJ
population0.0860640399817412NN
projection0NN
force0NN
decline0.02794560829783NN
century0NN
ratio0NN
people0.00571634317201755NNS
age0.0202620733250388NN
support0NN
grow0.0405241466500776VB
level0NN
social0.101310366625194JJ
transfer0NN

Meanwhile the population of the North Africa countries south of Europe is growing rapidly

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.758033910706294
WordScorePoS
population0.0860640399817412NN
north0RB
africa0IN
country0NN
south0RB
grow0.0405241466500776VB
rapidly0RB

Despite its large benefits migration is fiercely opposed in receiving countries

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.762870425304357
WordScorePoS
benefit0NN
migration0.12939607756667NN
receive0VB
country0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.480385331169676
WordScorePoS
benefit0NN
migration0NN
receive0.0814816979556159VB
country0NN

Migration involves complex issues of national and individual identity exacerbated by concerns over security

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.758443345787295
WordScorePoS
migration0.12939607756667NN
involve0.0488696285210061VB
issue0NN
national0.00886732612541978JJ
individual0.064698038783335JJ
identity0NN
security0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.41247116339652
WordScorePoS
migration0NN
involve0VB
issue0NN
national0.0294647633960925JJ
individual0JJ
identity0.107490825192354NN
security0NN

Cultural and social integration appears more difficult in some countries than it was earlier thought

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.528194988129037
WordScorePoS
cultural0JJ
social0.112994637345193JJ
integration0NN
country0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.473576703763981
WordScorePoS
cultural0JJ
social0.101310366625194JJ
integration0NN
country0NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.472388271808653
WordScorePoS
cultural0.055245183797332JJ
social0.0458109463416786JJ
integration0NN
country0NN

Moreover unskilled workers experience wage erosion and unemployment

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.948518243370358
WordScorePoS
worker0.121575732851624NN
experience0NN
wage0NN
erosion0.0804764811724088NN
unemployment0.0804764811724088NN

For industrial workers however this is no different than if goods produced in countries with lower labor costs displace domestic production

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.776921076506367
WordScorePoS
industrial0.318320101004075JJ
worker0.0454743001434393NN
produce0VB
country0NN
cost0NN
domestic0.0520080474473126JJ
production0.0188543197850406NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.431674156535887
WordScorePoS
industrial0JJ
worker0.121575732851624NN
produce0VB
country0NN
cost0NN
domestic0.0695218668857431JJ
production0.0504071033101074NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.321480368434346
WordScorePoS
industrial0JJ
worker0NN
produce0.0332151194779746VB
country0NN
cost0.0277064208763707NN
domestic0JJ
production0.118934074671047NN

In sending countries there are concerns about the human and social costs of migration for instance on how migration of nurses and doctors hinders progress toward the Millennium Development Goals MDGs and migration of women creates major deficits in child rearing family support and care for the elderly

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.543198734335273
WordScorePoS
country0NN
human0JJ
social0.101310366625194JJ
cost0.0660824365173543NN
migration0.12939607756667NN
progress0NN
millennium0JJ
development0.0177346522508396NN
goal0NN
woman0.0242343960710022NN
create0VB
major0JJ
child0.0242343960710022NN
family0NN
support0NN
care0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.490574200569322
WordScorePoS
country0NN
human0.0170753354211044JJ
social0.0285529457667019JJ
cost0NN
migration0NN
progress0.0335134328085675NN
millennium0.0911713013253052JJ
development0.0124956749436837NN
goal0NN
woman0.221979360474357NN
create0VB
major0JJ
child0.0170753354211044NN
family0.0465610847355851NN
support0NN
care0.0931221694711702NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.333569756589217
WordScorePoS
country0NN
human0JJ
social0JJ
cost0NN
migration0NN
progress0.0449274832628543NN
millennium0JJ
development0.00837573444202498NN
goal0NN
woman0.0381514605760894NN
create0VB
major0.0108390366114755JJ
child0.10682408961305NN
family0.0624189222007589NN
support0.00625975725959118NN
care0.104031537001265NN

Licensing restrictions as for doctors often force skilled migrants to work in lower skilled jobs in host countries the brain waste and higher returns to education do not appear to spur human capital accumulation or brain gain

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.559926799368685
WordScorePoS
restriction0NN
force0.0410992516792148NN
migrant0.121575732851624NN
job0.135650868266471NN
country0NN
waste0NN
return0NN
education0.0150723186962745NN
human0.0150723186962745JJ
gain0NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.468395874200176
WordScorePoS
restriction0NN
force0NN
migrant0NN
job0.0152653111258778NN
country0NN
waste0NN
return0NN
education0.244244978014045NN
human0.0152653111258778JJ
gain0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.418670963230886
WordScorePoS
restriction0NN
force0NN
migrant0NN
job0.0203215381458133NN
country0NN
waste0.138532104381853NN
return0NN
education0.0101607690729067NN
human0.0101607690729067JJ
gain0.0664302389559493NN

Going against the political tide with the partial exceptions of some currents in the United States Canada and Spain we argue that greater migration would be good for both equity and efficiency

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.633649162162521
WordScorePoS
political0.0792212041430275JJ
current0JJ
unite0VB
migration0.12939607756667NN
efficiency0NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.410021953451118
WordScorePoS
political0JJ
current0JJ
unite0VB
migration0NN
efficiency0.134992154141495NN

But what are BOX

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT Making migrant worker schemes more development friendly Attention to the design of temporary migrant worker schemes and complementary policies could make them more development friendly

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.739712857159854
WordScorePoS
world0.00172202218602071NN
development0.0055149369084567NN
report0NN
migrant0.121575732851624NN
worker0.121575732851624NN
attention0NN
policy0.0452169560888236NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.374228666870351
WordScorePoS
world0.00276879546803864NN
development0.0177346522508396NN
report0NN
migrant0.0488696285210061NN
worker0NN
attention0.0396106020715138NN
policy0.0848203862485078NN

Temporary migration schemes usually allow workers into country from several weeks to up to three to five years

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.705998414668325
WordScorePoS
migration0.12939607756667NN
worker0NN
country0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.663329803109077
WordScorePoS
migration0NN
worker0.121575732851624NN
country0NN

Recent research for the United Kingdom identified two main policy interventions centralized recruitment with government screening in sending countries and mandatory saving schemes possibly coupled with credit schemes in home countries

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Centralized recruitment and government screening could help reduce exploitation of potential migrants by local recruitment agencies and ensure that temporary migrants do not overstay their visas reducing resistance in receiving countries

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.73195494127907
WordScorePoS
recruitment0.0607878664258118NN
government0NN
reduce0.0055149369084567VB
exploitation0NN
potential0NN
migrant0.121575732851624NN
local0.0214106369326177JJ
agency0NN
ensure0VB
receive0VB
country0NN

Saving schemes would encourage migrants to send remittances home increase incentives to return and facilitate the start of productive activities on return

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.466346557028368
WordScorePoS
save0IN
encourage0.02794560829783VB
migrant0.0488696285210061NN
remittance0.12939607756667NN
increase0.00285817158600878NN
incentive0NN
return0NN
facilitate0.02794560829783VB
productive0JJ
activity0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.642084303709739
WordScorePoS
save0IN
encourage0.0695218668857431VB
migrant0.121575732851624NN
remittance0NN
increase0.00711043475673939NN
incentive0NN
return0NN
facilitate0VB
productive0.0985415302158139JJ
activity0.0295821503613099NN

Good examples are the Canada Mexico program for agricultural workers and the agreement between France and Sri Lanka on sharing information about migrants

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.616994287730557
WordScorePoS
agricultural0.250032943963815JJ
worker0NN
agreement0NN
share0.0365427838531249NN
information0.0130963126055467NN
migrant0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.552515718718622
WordScorePoS
agricultural0JJ
worker0.121575732851624NN
agreement0NN
share0.0252035516550537NN
information0NN
migrant0.121575732851624NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.38627442472943
WordScorePoS
agricultural0.0368585655748969JJ
worker0.0454743001434393NN
agreement0NN
share0.0377086395700813NN
information0.0675706773907211NN
migrant0NN

Sources Barber Schiff

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.73415387760794
WordScorePoS
source0.0613562156822703NN

the prospects for greater migration in the current political climate

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.741947410763304
WordScorePoS
prospects0NNS
migration0NN
current0.0335649154577099JJ
political0JJ
climate0.291881734282273NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.475601921631867
WordScorePoS
prospects0NNS
migration0.12939607756667NN
current0JJ
political0.0792212041430275JJ
climate0NN

Multilateral negotiations in the World Trade Organization WTO offer framework to address migration under Mode IV of the General Agreement in Trade and Services GATS part of the treaty establishing the WTO

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.467124071732847
WordScorePoS
multilateral0JJ
negotiation0NN
world0.00276879546803864NN
trade0.0237821918091848NN
organization0.02794560829783NN
offer0NN
framework0NN
migration0.12939607756667NN
agreement0.02794560829783NN
service0.00795378154685591NN
establish0VB

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.579612934425798
WordScorePoS
multilateral0.048933054487825JJ
negotiation0.036961556179878NN
world0.00418824502414673NN
trade0.0539615408530051NN
organization0.0422721924574123NN
offer0NN
framework0.0130185595639838NN
migration0NN
agreement0NN
service0NN
establish0.048933054487825VB

But progress toward greater liberalization of temporary migration under GATS Mode IV is unlikely in the near future given that contentious issues on agricultural and merchandise trade are dominating negotiations on the Doha Round

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.805338064813128
WordScorePoS
progress0NN
migration0NN
future0.0297950283197006NN
issue0NN
agricultural0.250032943963815JJ
trade0.0214456704626236NN
negotiation0NN
doha0.0357189919948307NN
round0.11668334276823NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.271912768464964
WordScorePoS
progress0NN
migration0.12939607756667NN
future0NN
issue0NN
agricultural0JJ
trade0.0237821918091848NN
negotiation0NN
doha0NN
round0NN

In this context progress is more likely to come from bilateral and regional negotiations

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.711939268246122
WordScorePoS
context0.036961556179878NN
progress0.017987180284335NN
regional0.0422721924574123JJ
negotiation0.036961556179878NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.313911230149691
WordScorePoS
context0NN
progress0.0591643007226199NN
regional0JJ
negotiation0NN

Receiving countries could bilaterally expand temporary migration box

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.760627517731895
WordScorePoS
receive0VB
country0NN
expand0VB
migration0.12939607756667NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.478972955147168
WordScorePoS
receive0.0814816979556159VB
country0NN
expand0VB
migration0NN

discusses some features of developmentfriendly temporary migration schemes

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.924885385758698
WordScorePoS
feature0NN
migration0.12939607756667NN

These countries could also extend greater protection to migrants

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.70603060245969
WordScorePoS
country0NN
extend0.064698038783335VB
protection0.0660824365173543NN
migrant0.0488696285210061NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.482763909738883
WordScorePoS
country0NN
extend0VB
protection0.122839698738001NN
migrant0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.477796483740992
WordScorePoS
country0NN
extend0VB
protection0NN
migrant0.121575732851624NN

One way to do this could be to ratify the U

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Convention on the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Their Families

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.793794108844767
WordScorePoS
convention0NN
rights0.0347609334428716NNS
migrant0.121575732851624NN
worker0.121575732851624NN
family0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.357953957869569
WordScorePoS
convention0NN
rights0.078760887431929NNS
migrant0NN
worker0NN
family0.0465610847355851NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.316446836597983
WordScorePoS
convention0.0307735781890304NN
rights0.0175975629039954NNS
migrant0NN
worker0NN
family0.0624189222007589NN

If significant number of host countries were to ratify the convention none would risk being considered haven for undocumented migrants and fears about ratification leading to greater inflows might be allayed

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.565146698504739
WordScorePoS
significant0JJ
country0NN
convention0NN
risk0NN
migrant0.121575732851624NN
lead0.0504071033101074NN

Facilitating remittance flows is another action with potentially high payoffs and governments should work together with the private sector and NGOs to achieve this

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.560593518012333
WordScorePoS
facilitate0.02794560829783VB
remittance0.12939607756667NN
flow0.0488696285210061NN
action0.0145231653596925NN
potentially0RB
government0NN
private0JJ
sector0NN
achieve0.018377882320743VB

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.519388867007043
WordScorePoS
facilitate0.0211360962287062VB
remittance0NN
flow0NN
action0.0109843026967392NN
potentially0RB
government0.048933054487825NN
private0.0898760357768464JJ
sector0.0459744293658165NN
achieve0.00463324666343875VB

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.421428648801857
WordScorePoS
facilitate0VB
remittance0NN
flow0NN
action0.0409315617631NN
potentially0RB
government0NN
private0.0558185411034276JJ
sector0.0571058915334038NN
achieve0.0258977780207001VB

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.338402741954894
WordScorePoS
facilitate0.0260040237236563VB
remittance0NN
flow0NN
action0.0135141354781442NN
potentially0RB
government0NN
private0.0368585655748969JJ
sector0.0565629593551219NN
achieve0.0114006914853063VB

Sending countries should take action to reduce the likelihood that their migrants become victims of exploitation with focus on combating trafficking of girls and women

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.860091840156475
WordScorePoS
country0NN
action0.0409315617631NN
reduce0VB
migrant0NN
exploitation0.0688661930304451NN
focus0NN
combate0NN
trafficking0.0465610847355851NN
girl0.393804437159645NN
woman0.221979360474357NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.224880659521409
WordScorePoS
country0NN
action0NN
reduce0VB
migrant0NN
exploitation0NN
focus0NN
combate0NN
trafficking0NN
girl0.140824109342254NN
woman0.0610612445035112NN

Two possible areas for action are to better regulate recruitment agencies to ensure greater respect for workers rights and to enter agreements that regulate migrant flows and conditions with key destination countries as the Philippines has done

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.69089981026132
WordScorePoS
action0NN
regulate0VB
recruitment0.0607878664258118NN
agency0NN
ensure0VB
respect0NN
worker0.121575732851624NN
rights0.0347609334428716NNS
enter0VB
agreement0NN
migrant0.121575732851624NN
flow0NN
condition0.121575732851624NN
key0NN
country0NN

Sending countries should also help migrants use remittances properly invest back home and reintegrate upon return

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.718735337618083
WordScorePoS
country0NN
migrant0.0488696285210061NN
remittance0.12939607756667NN
invest0VB
return0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.49017153840179
WordScorePoS
country0NN
migrant0.121575732851624NN
remittance0NN
invest0VB
return0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.43338371822046
WordScorePoS
country0NN
migrant0NN
remittance0NN
invest0VB
return0.107490825192354NN

It is unclear whether an international organization in which poor countries have an equal seat at the table could help make progress toward freer migration

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.447958378298045
WordScorePoS
international0.00531301439641424JJ
organization0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
country0NN
equal0.0376648791150643JJ
seat0NN
progress0NN
migration0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.424090447064444
WordScorePoS
international0.00571634317201755JJ
organization0.02794560829783NN
poor0JJ
country0NN
equal0.0202620733250388JJ
seat0NN
progress0NN
migration0.12939607756667NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.561977827571959
WordScorePoS
international0.00402768349408688JJ
organization0NN
poor0JJ
country0NN
equal0.114211783066808JJ
seat0.0911713013253052NN
progress0.0335134328085675NN
migration0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.342121231907185
WordScorePoS
international0.00355521737836969JJ
organization0.0347609334428716NN
poor0JJ
country0NN
equal0.0504071033101074JJ
seat0NN
progress0.0591643007226199NN
migration0NN

Bhagwati argued that new World Migration Organization or even stronger International Organization for Migration in the U

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.915260924005316
WordScorePoS
world0.00276879546803864NN
migration0.12939607756667NN
organization0.02794560829783NN
international0.00571634317201755JJ

system might help increase the developmental impact of migration by protecting migrants rights providing forum to set rules on migration and monitoring and enforcing compliance

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.515451507674854
WordScorePoS
system0NN
increase0.00285817158600878NN
impact0NN
migration0.12939607756667NN
protect0VB
migrant0.0488696285210061NN
rights0NNS
provide0VB
forum0NN
set0NN
rule0NN
monitor0.0396106020715138NN
enforce0VB

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.494381851170505
WordScorePoS
system0NN
increase0NN
impact0.0285977592242194NN
migration0NN
protect0.0241291244414115VB
migrant0NN
rights0NNS
provide0.013214597504793VB
forum0NN
set0NN
rule0.162386273072618NN
monitor0NN
enforce0.107490825192354VB

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.387448200178476
WordScorePoS
system0.0211360962287062NN
increase0.00432344066632653NN
impact0NN
migration0NN
protect0VB
migrant0NN
rights0NNS
provide0.00601568197638796VB
forum0NN
set0.0978661089756501NN
rule0.0739231123597559NN
monitor0.0599173571845643NN
enforce0VB

But migrantreceiving developed countries resist proposals to give up even some control over immigration policies which they view as part of the domestic policy agenda

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.660153199297057
WordScorePoS
develop0VB
country0NN
control0NN
policy0.0641521854453136NN
view0.048933054487825NN
domestic0.0634082886861185JJ
agenda0.0739231123597559NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.323693626436039
WordScorePoS
develop0VB
country0NN
control0.0465610847355851NN
policy0.0341506708422088NN
view0NN
domestic0.0393804437159645JJ
agenda0NN

Freer and fairer trade Inequities in the trade arena are well known rich countries protect their markets with tariff and nontariff barriers on the goods that poor countries produce more advantageously such as agricultural produce and textiles

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.769382125739045
WordScorePoS
trade0.0214456704626236NN
country0NN
protect0.0130963126055467VB
market0.0913569596328122NN
barrier0.0357189919948307NN
poor0.0548141757796873JJ
produce0.0357189919948307VB
agricultural0.250032943963815JJ
textile0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.207231619907919
WordScorePoS
trade0NN
country0NN
protect0VB
market0NN
barrier0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
produce0VB
agricultural0JJ
textile0NN

They provide handsome subsidies to their farmers subsidize their exports and discourage value added processing in developing countries

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.7520928131782
WordScorePoS
provide0.0215170467912497VB
subsidy0.0357189919948307NN
farmer0.175025014152344NN
export0.0881366997038154NN
add0VB
processing0NN
develop0VB
country0NN

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.397621860672897
WordScorePoS
provide0.00654003986398914VB
subsidy0.162850158165781NN
farmer0NN
export0NN
add0VB
processing0NN
develop0VB
country0NN

Reducing such protection and subsidies would have beneficial impact on world trade growth and poverty reduction

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.590180965188514
WordScorePoS
reduce0.0164833460638534VB
protection0.122839698738001NN
subsidy0NN
impact0NN
world0.00257343720272548NN
trade0NN
growth0.0519476926891779NN
poverty0.269969049497485NN
reduction0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.441830436787105
WordScorePoS
reduce0.0055149369084567VB
protection0NN
subsidy0NN
impact0NN
world0.00172202218602071NN
trade0.0591643007226199NN
growth0.208565600657229NN
poverty0.0722601961736204NN
reduction0NN

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.32144619537721
WordScorePoS
reduce0.0036456034155327VB
protection0NN
subsidy0.162850158165781NN
impact0.042459973210532NN
world0.0045533140757086NN
trade0.0391100714971453NN
growth0NN
poverty0NN
reduction0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.43404491059369
WordScorePoS
reduce0.0310356414389692VB
protection0.0660824365173543NN
subsidy0NN
impact0NN
world0.00276879546803864NN
trade0.0237821918091848NN
growth0.11178243319132NN
poverty0.05809266143877NN
reduction0.0475643836183697NN

Potential benefits from liberalization

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.687642584816468
WordScorePoS
potential0.0390772412228479NN
benefit0.0446918591208085NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.586750235834905
WordScorePoS
potential0.0454743001434393NN
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.323265619386778
WordScorePoS
potential0NN
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Several recent studies have estimated the potential impact of various trade liberalization measures including those being considered during the Doha Round of negotiations under the WTO

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.543467524087089
WordScorePoS
study0NN
estimate0NN
potential0NN
impact0NN
trade0.0214456704626236NN
measure0.0504000902222448NN
include0VB
doha0.0357189919948307NN
round0.11668334276823NN
negotiation0NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.35368142620922
WordScorePoS
study0.0517339898971162NN
estimate0.0190167691930804NN
potential0.0390772412228479NN
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trade0NN
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doha0NN
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Label: 14, with a score of: 0.342462326358853
WordScorePoS
study0NN
estimate0.0195550357485727NN
potential0NN
impact0.042459973210532NN
trade0.0391100714971453NN
measure0NN
include0VB
doha0NN
round0NN
negotiation0.0401833161726777NN

Estimates vary depending on the reforms considered various packages of partial reforms up to full liberalization and on whether dynamic productivity gains are taken into account

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.407398544560725
WordScorePoS
estimate0.0221298700466866NN
depend0VB
reform0NN
full0.030745604615229JJ
productivity0.0922368138456871NN
gain0NN
account0.0160169090870187NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.364360119670275
WordScorePoS
estimate0.0199423462679015NN
depend0VB
reform0NN
full0JJ
productivity0NN
gain0.0664302389559493NN
account0.0577345906651901NN

At the lower end of the range Hertel and Winters forthcoming estimated that the measures being discussed in the Doha Round would have modest Achieving greater global equity impact on world prices welfare gains and poverty with the number of people living below day declining by million in over baseline estimate of around billion

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.705934213914237
WordScorePoS
range0NN
estimate0NN
measure0.103895385378356NN
doha0NN
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world0.00257343720272548NN
price0NN
welfare0NN
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poverty0.269969049497485NN
people0.0371911007748996NNS
live0.0739258553811849VB
day0.25973846344589NN
decline0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.337745427160691
WordScorePoS
range0NN
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measure0.0504000902222448NN
doha0.0357189919948307NN
round0.11668334276823NN
achieve0.0110482109530745VB
global0.0119942111830662JJ
impact0NN
world0.0124838525528648NN
price0.0583416713841148NN
welfare0NN
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poverty0.0261926252110933NN
people0.0257736572183839NNS
live0.0143446978608332VB
day0NN
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.313686743747385
WordScorePoS
range0NN
estimate0.0199423462679015NN
measure0NN
doha0NN
round0NN
achieve0.0154106104202498VB
global0.022306853314744JJ
impact0.0866018859977851NN
world0.00464349782489754NN
price0NN
welfare0.0542519672965169NN
gain0.0664302389559493NN
poverty0.0121782716594324NN
people0.0119834723221875NNS
live0VB
day0NN
decline0.0234335422829798NN

According to this study even full liberalization would not bring huge gains as it would help lift million people out of day poverty

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.86120766073931
WordScorePoS
study0NN
full0JJ
bring0VB
gain0NN
lift0NN
people0.0371911007748996NNS
day0.25973846344589NN
poverty0.269969049497485NN

At the higher end of the range Cline estimated that full trade liberalization would lift up to million people out of day poverty by

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.831469767594963
WordScorePoS
range0NN
estimate0NN
full0JJ
trade0NN
lift0NN
people0.0371911007748996NNS
day0.25973846344589NN
poverty0.269969049497485NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.319667590113142
WordScorePoS
range0NN
estimate0NN
full0.0410992516792148JJ
trade0.0591643007226199NN
lift0NN
people0.0106656521351091NNS
day0.0347609334428716NN
poverty0.0722601961736204NN

Whatever the size of the overall impact researchers agree that it would be heterogeneous across countries and regions

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.567365198068553
WordScorePoS
size0NN
impact0NN
researcher0NN
agree0VB
country0NN
region0.184259548107002NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.505867683327555
WordScorePoS
size0NN
impact0.0866018859977851NN
researcher0.0542519672965169NN
agree0.0234335422829798VB
country0NN
region0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.384396081738935
WordScorePoS
size0NN
impact0NN
researcher0NN
agree0VB
country0NN
region0.124837844401518NN

In both partial and full reform scenarios the gains would accrue mostly to large countries already significantly integrated in global markets such as Brazil China India and Indonesia

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Parts of many Sub Saharan countries and remote areas in Asia and elsewhere are simply not connected to global markets and farmers eke out living on subsistence agriculture far from roads markets technology and information

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.746794868252681
WordScorePoS
saharan0.0214456704626236JJ
country0NN
asia0IN
global0.0119942111830662JJ
market0.0913569596328122NN
farmer0.175025014152344NN
live0.0143446978608332VB
agriculture0.148975141598503NN
road0NN
technology0.0130963126055467NN
information0.0130963126055467NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.373547566548825
WordScorePoS
saharan0.0221298700466866JJ
country0NN
asia0IN
global0JJ
market0.0377086395700813NN
farmer0NN
live0.00740117451847634VB
agriculture0NN
road0.0368585655748969NN
technology0.0810848128688654NN
information0.0675706773907211NN

Many countries are unable to make full use of improved market access because of significant supply side and institutional constraints

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.403596665423477
WordScorePoS
country0NN
full0.030745604615229JJ
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market0.0377086395700813NN
access0.0128821355880844NN
significant0JJ
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institutional0JJ
constraint0.0602029956716497NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.363359255249645
WordScorePoS
country0NN
full0JJ
improve0.0102677744436108VB
market0NN
access0NN
significant0.0343390275626203JJ
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institutional0.0828215106044499JJ
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.34417565625078
WordScorePoS
country0NN
full0JJ
improve0.0218534471578307VB
market0.0913569596328122NN
access0.00749031153171887NN
significant0JJ
supply0NN
institutional0JJ
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Label: 6, with a score of: 0.335144810152895
WordScorePoS
country0NN
full0JJ
improve0.0511916925627245VB
market0NN
access0.00731085509381114NN
significant0JJ
supply0.0590310971343993NN
institutional0JJ
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Detailed studies on Cambodia Ethiopia Madagascar and Zambia showed that the potential impact of the trade reforms likely to be included in the Doha Round would be small for such countries

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.601446660345087
WordScorePoS
study0NN
potential0NN
impact0NN
trade0.0214456704626236NN
reform0NN
include0VB
doha0.0357189919948307NN
round0.11668334276823NN
country0NN

Some countries would even lose in the short run Bangladesh and Mozambique for instance would experience decline in incomes as existing preferences are eroded and the prices of key food imports rise

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.702532482047994
WordScorePoS
country0NN
lose0.0440683498519077VB
experience0NN
decline0NN
income0.0643370113878709NN
exist0VB
price0.0583416713841148NN
key0.0297950283197006NN
food0.292342270824999NN
import0NN
rise0.0214456704626236NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.335269958903616
WordScorePoS
country0NN
lose0VB
experience0NN
decline0.0234335422829798NN
income0NN
exist0.0332151194779746VB
price0NN
key0NN
food0.186896403054502NN
import0NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.300383663142632
WordScorePoS
country0NN
lose0VB
experience0NN
decline0.02794560829783NN
income0.166475342664294NN
exist0VB
price0NN
key0NN
food0NN
import0NN
rise0.0237821918091848NN

Similarly Bourguignon Levin and Rosenblatt found that countries in the bottom two deciles of the international distribution of income would benefit more from doubling of aid over current levels than from full trade reform

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.52021148422601
WordScorePoS
country0NN
bottom0.064698038783335NN
international0.00571634317201755JJ
income0.166475342664294NN
benefit0NN
double0RB
aid0NN
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level0NN
full0JJ
trade0.0237821918091848NN
reform0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.395949530624587
WordScorePoS
country0NN
bottom0NN
international0.00402768349408688JJ
income0NN
benefit0.0393804437159645NN
double0RB
aid0NN
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level0.0172651853471334NN
full0.0465610847355851JJ
trade0NN
reform0.0911713013253052NN

The estimated impact of trade liberalization varies greatly within countries as well chapter

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.52305771454462
WordScorePoS
estimate0.0199423462679015NN
impact0.0866018859977851NN
trade0NN
country0NN

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.496453466713111
WordScorePoS
estimate0.0195550357485727NN
impact0.042459973210532NN
trade0.0391100714971453NN
country0NN

Specific liberalization measures would also have differential impacts

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.575673347188715
WordScorePoS
specific0.0542519672965169JJ
measure0NN
differential0JJ
impact0.0866018859977851NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.469182129345237
WordScorePoS
specific0JJ
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impact0.0437569550806737NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.42462313141872
WordScorePoS
specific0JJ
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Label: 14, with a score of: 0.337765264557675
WordScorePoS
specific0JJ
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differential0.0401833161726777JJ
impact0.042459973210532NN

Anderson and Martin found that the removal of OECD agricultural subsidies would hurt net food importing least developed countries such as those in the Middle East and North Africa and countries that now enjoy special preferences such as the Philippines because of the consequent increase in prices

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.796198698908589
WordScorePoS
removal0NN
oecd0NN
agricultural0.250032943963815JJ
subsidy0.0357189919948307NN
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develop0VB
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middle0JJ
north0RB
africa0IN
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increase0.0128868286091919NN
price0.0583416713841148NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.455431500065635
WordScorePoS
removal0NN
oecd0.108503934593034NN
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subsidy0.0664302389559493NN
food0.186896403054502NN
import0NN
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middle0JJ
north0RB
africa0IN
special0JJ
increase0.00958677785775002NN
price0NN

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.259193123949129
WordScorePoS
removal0NN
oecd0NN
agricultural0JJ
subsidy0.162850158165781NN
food0.0166605993001162NN
import0NN
develop0VB
country0NN
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africa0IN
special0.0271683202880942JJ
increase0.00470029406779661NN
price0NN

But net food producing countries and farmers within them would benefit

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.895898640243803
WordScorePoS
food0.292342270824999NN
produce0.0357189919948307VB
country0NN
farmer0.175025014152344NN
benefit0.0252000451111224NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.373277909148187
WordScorePoS
food0.186896403054502NN
produce0.0332151194779746VB
country0NN
farmer0NN
benefit0NN

There is indeed some evidence that rising agricultural world prices were partly responsible for the fact that rural incomes in China grew more rapidly than urban incomes in

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.633540666642315
WordScorePoS
evidence0.12939607756667NN
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responsible0.064698038783335JJ
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.598110779953424
WordScorePoS
evidence0NN
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agricultural0.250032943963815JJ
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Label: 11, with a score of: 0.346396052645311
WordScorePoS
evidence0NN
rise0.0268848280079943NN
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world0.00626002771693937NN
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rural0.0373517915079663JJ
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grow0.0229054731708393VB
rapidly0RB
urban0.27622591898666JJ

The phasing out of the Multi Fiber Agreement which set quotas on exports of textiles from developing countries also has heterogeneous effects

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.857132188816671
WordScorePoS
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effect0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.318709667582487
WordScorePoS
phase0NN
multus0NN
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Chinese textile exports have made significant gains in markets not protected by tariffs for instance their share of Australian and Japanese markets where there were no quota restrictions is percent

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.663159266892899
WordScorePoS
textile0NN
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.521207369650746
WordScorePoS
textile0NN
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significant0JJ
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Their share of the U

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.705044356205516
WordScorePoS
share0.0766240489430275NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.352752923304213
WordScorePoS
share0.0383371018038178NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.346970225090057
WordScorePoS
share0.0377086395700813NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.336242783709333
WordScorePoS
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baby clothes segment where quotas were removed in jumped from to percent in two years

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Exports from Cambodia and Nepal are reported to have declined significantly

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.630759098256381
WordScorePoS
export0.110884668539634NN
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.501358988222986
WordScorePoS
export0.0881366997038154NN
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Label: 3, with a score of: 0.375258011718999
WordScorePoS
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.366407006881041
WordScorePoS
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The impact of these shifts on global income inequality is not clear and it depends on the relative position of garment workers and of those benefiting from indirect effects in the global distribution

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.848767765564707
WordScorePoS
impact0NN
global0.0133009891881297JJ
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inequality0.635305170773079NN
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.311298488221495
WordScorePoS
impact0.0160169090870187NN
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Changes in the existing tariff structure whereby producers from the poorest countries have duty free access to markets in the United States and Europe while others face percent tariff on average would also have an unclear impact on inequality

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.820780880954109
WordScorePoS
exist0VB
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poorest0.0330412182586772JJS
country0NN
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Label: 13, with a score of: 0.314164058279985
WordScorePoS
exist0VB
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poorest0.0279982034978914JJS
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.360398104945243
WordScorePoS
exist0.0599173571845643VB
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Conversely renewed protectionism in developed countries is likely to have negative effects

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Currently no global assistance program exists to compensate losers from trade liberalization

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.686226717534365
WordScorePoS
global0.0201198688839505JJ
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.456256258573518
WordScorePoS
global0.0220597476338268JJ
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Label: 11, with a score of: 0.325033130744141
WordScorePoS
global0.00501208088147356JJ
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However international assistance to help meet adjustment costs is an important focus along with addressing supply side constraints of current efforts by range of donors recipients and international organizations including the World Bank to increase aid for trade in the context of the WTO Doha round

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.510938255240529
WordScorePoS
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Setting trade rules

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.780716947474782
WordScorePoS
set0.0978661089756501NN
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Where do the rules that govern trade come from and what are the chances of changes

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.712048078072681
WordScorePoS
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.560761816945059
WordScorePoS
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Trade rules including the most egregiously inequitable are part of complex multilateral regional and bilateral agreements

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.631223453379978
WordScorePoS
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.662280883072365
WordScorePoS
trade0.0539615408530051NN
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As mentioned in box

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

there are significant concerns about the fairness of WTO decision making processes and these processes are partly responsible for the current stalemate in negotiations

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.41465858428869
WordScorePoS
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WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT But the reality of WTO negotiations is complex

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WordScorePoS
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In the WTO each country has one vote and the practice of decision making by consensus means that each country can veto decisions although the practice of single undertaking or voting on all matters together in practice weakens veto power

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Countries choose to sign on to the WTO following not only extensive external negotiations but also domestic decisionmaking processes

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.65370440568822
WordScorePoS
country0NN
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.523688432896657
WordScorePoS
country0NN
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.440988232915289
WordScorePoS
country0NN
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So this is not prima facie example of unfair rule setting

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.686938501433082
WordScorePoS
rule0.162386273072618NN
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.726715553190429
WordScorePoS
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In practice however poor countries find it difficult to follow negotiations to understand the implications of proposals to them and to develop alternative proposals we saw in chapter that even their capacity to be present in Geneva is limited

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.766027067518173
WordScorePoS
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So in the end the rules may at times be unfair not because the formal processes are unfair but because of the underlying power imbalance between rich countries with strong commercial interests and poor countries with weak capacity

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.413410084520855
WordScorePoS
rule0.162386273072618NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.348146742863705
WordScorePoS
rule0NN
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.424081462519987
WordScorePoS
rule0NN
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.395890117716276
WordScorePoS
rule0.0739231123597559NN
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The balance is even tilted against taxpayers and consumers BOX

Label: 12, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
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in rich countries who often stand to lose from the protection of vested commercial interests

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.652469406956371
WordScorePoS
country0NN
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Label: 15, with a score of: 0.415121571741124
WordScorePoS
country0NN
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Consider for example cotton subsidies see box

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.907401690205895
WordScorePoS
subsidy0.162850158165781NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.370149539849056
WordScorePoS
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and international cartels

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Poor countries are in an even weaker position when negotiating bilaterally with stronger trading partners than they are when negotiating multilaterally

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.688251578516003
WordScorePoS
poor0.150659516460257JJ
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Paradoxically in light of the intense antiglobalization protests multilateral negotiations in the context of the WTO hold the greatest promise to reduce inequities that harm poor countries

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.545554753964248
WordScorePoS
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.500078324624681
WordScorePoS
multilateral0JJ
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Although even an ambitious Doha Round would bring limited benefits it remains an important goal to pursue because failure would further undermine confidence in multilateral negotiations

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.575377905526283
WordScorePoS
doha0.0357189919948307NN
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.495073803429886
WordScorePoS
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The WTO has another advantage it provides for mechanism to adjudicate disputes

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.962940658083305
WordScorePoS
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This is important as seen earlier to ensure that international law is applied and enforced

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.933492085426277
WordScorePoS
ensure0.0220985725470694VB
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The WTO dispute settlement mechanism provides forum for poor countries to bring complaints and possibly win them

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.683076862799936
WordScorePoS
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.459961232007151
WordScorePoS
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.424692636248587
WordScorePoS
settlement0NN
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poor0.150659516460257JJ
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Unfortunately winning case does Cotton subsidies are huge and tenacious The International Cotton Advisory Committee estimated that in direct production assistance by the eight countries that provided subsidies United States China the European Union and to much smaller extent Turkey Egypt Mexico Brazil Cote Ivoire in that order was around

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.656710210559622
WordScorePoS
subsidy0.162850158165781NN
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Direct assistance to U

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.57925742476808
WordScorePoS
direct0.04477822029736JJ
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.56380291599102
WordScorePoS
direct0.0299586785922821JJ
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.51240838061648
WordScorePoS
direct0.0396106020715138JJ
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cotton producers reached

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.621140630305878
WordScorePoS
producer0.0409791940864438NN
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.550948546786962
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Label: 4, with a score of: 0.417767080647682
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.368931812810531
WordScorePoS
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billion China support totaled

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.407073870995941
WordScorePoS
support0.00833571598658786NN
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.396392154086396
WordScorePoS
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Label: 6, with a score of: 0.372497424664918
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.332654275922906
WordScorePoS
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billion although some question this estimate and the European Union support was million for Greece and Spain International Cotton Advisory Committee

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

The main impact of U

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.7540481934975
WordScorePoS
impact0.0866018859977851NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.380994623285423
WordScorePoS
impact0.0437569550806737NN

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.369701718692048
WordScorePoS
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and European subsidies is to make cotton produced in the United States and Europe competitive and depress world prices

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.756592001800785
WordScorePoS
subsidy0.162850158165781NN
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.462861425110688
WordScorePoS
subsidy0.0357189919948307NN
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.339309000140874
WordScorePoS
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It is estimated that in prices would have been percent higher without subsidies

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.778367882434888
WordScorePoS
estimate0.0195550357485727NN
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.401380014480659
WordScorePoS
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.36857309168884
WordScorePoS
estimate0.0199423462679015NN
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Subsidies benefit large rich farmers in the United States and not so rich but relatively welloff farmers in Europe and harm poor small farmers in Africa

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.902451579054072
WordScorePoS
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Label: 14, with a score of: 0.26170277790802
WordScorePoS
subsidy0.162850158165781NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.212174105741468
WordScorePoS
subsidy0NN
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Cotton is crucial commodity for number of poor African and Central Asian countries contributing up to percent of merchandise exports and to percent of GDP

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.371594774211049
WordScorePoS
crucial0JJ
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.643454953417124
WordScorePoS
crucial0JJ
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.372926708084443
WordScorePoS
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Most growers are smallholders so the impact of cotton prices on poverty is significant

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.767844400312385
WordScorePoS
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significant0.0376648791150643JJ

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.356613824901951
WordScorePoS
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A study on Benin found that percent reduction in farmgate cotton prices equivalent to the price decline from December to May implied an percent reduction in rural per capita income in the short run and to percent reduction in the long run with the incidence of poverty among cotton growers rising in the short run from percent to percent Minot and Daniels

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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.473102877023711
WordScorePoS
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.359591734731599
WordScorePoS
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Estimates of the impact of subsidy removal on cotton prices are in the range of to percent

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.652431889753045
WordScorePoS
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.501874356891784
WordScorePoS
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price0NN
range0NN

Increases of this magnitude would not hurt consumers the price of raw cotton is small component of the price of textiles and garments

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.868647620148289
WordScorePoS
increase0.00958677785775002NN
consumer0.325511803779102NN
price0NN
textile0NN
garment0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.353483668300773
WordScorePoS
increase0.0159575617614215NN
consumer0NN
price0NN
textile0.0602029956716497NN
garment0.0602029956716497NN

Full subsidy removal and the consequent rise in prices would help African countries although the distribution of in country benefits would depend on domestic reforms

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.537236940794716
WordScorePoS
full0JJ
subsidy0.162850158165781NN
removal0NN
rise0NN
price0NN
african0IN
country0NN
benefit0.0229784274580034NN
depend0.0651400632663124VB
domestic0JJ
reform0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.463437104468173
WordScorePoS
full0.0465610847355851JJ
subsidy0NN
removal0NN
rise0NN
price0NN
african0IN
country0NN
benefit0.0393804437159645NN
depend0VB
domestic0.0393804437159645JJ
reform0.0911713013253052NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.377665604790049
WordScorePoS
full0JJ
subsidy0.0357189919948307NN
removal0NN
rise0.0214456704626236NN
price0.0583416713841148NN
african0IN
country0NN
benefit0.0252000451111224NN
depend0.0357189919948307VB
domestic0JJ
reform0NN

recent study of the impact of subsidy removal on three cotton producing provinces of Zambia for instance indicates that the direct impact of the subsequent cotton price increase would be small about percent of income on average

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.509580041400203
WordScorePoS
study0NN
impact0NN
subsidy0NN
removal0NN
produce0VB
direct0.0396106020715138JJ
price0NN
increase0.00285817158600878NN
income0.166475342664294NN
average0.146608885563018NN

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.455200635283177
WordScorePoS
study0NN
impact0.042459973210532NN
subsidy0.162850158165781NN
removal0NN
produce0.0651400632663124VB
direct0JJ
price0NN
increase0.00470029406779661NN
income0NN
average0NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.383652327627478
WordScorePoS
study0NN
impact0.0437569550806737NN
subsidy0NN
removal0NN
produce0VB
direct0JJ
price0NN
increase0.0145316075945746NN
income0NN
average0.1656430212089NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.404788318689362
WordScorePoS
study0NN
impact0.0866018859977851NN
subsidy0.0664302389559493NN
removal0NN
produce0.0332151194779746VB
direct0JJ
price0NN
increase0.00958677785775002NN
income0NN
average0NN

Greater gains would require farmers switching from subsistence crops to cotton which in turn requires complementary domestic reforms in extension services and robust growth of demand for cotton exports Balat and Porto forthcoming

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.63872943925412
WordScorePoS
gain0NN
require0.104282800328615VB
farmer0NN
crop0NN
domestic0.0695218668857431JJ
reform0NN
extension0NN
service0.0197870712294258NN
growth0.208565600657229NN
demand0NN
export0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.537986191699543
WordScorePoS
gain0NN
require0VB
farmer0.175025014152344NN
crop0.0357189919948307NN
domestic0JJ
reform0NN
extension0.0583416713841148NN
service0.0143446978608332NN
growth0.0252000451111224NN
demand0.0297950283197006NN
export0.0881366997038154NN

Benefits to African countries would increase if they were to expand their clothing production and exports

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.57717264511447
WordScorePoS
benefit0.0252000451111224NN
african0IN
country0NN
increase0.0128868286091919NN
expand0VB
production0.0548141757796873NN
export0.0881366997038154NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.409741729184336
WordScorePoS
benefit0NN
african0IN
country0NN
increase0.00958677785775002NN
expand0VB
production0.118934074671047NN
export0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.367298916504861
WordScorePoS
benefit0NN
african0IN
country0NN
increase0.00432344066632653NN
expand0VB
production0NN
export0.110884668539634NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.317404271646849
WordScorePoS
benefit0NN
african0IN
country0NN
increase0.0162235147372888NN
expand0.0449973847138318VB
production0.0383371018038178NN
export0NN

African Growth and Oppor tunity Act provides an opening but under rather restrictive conditions apparel from African countries gets duty free and quota free access to U

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.651024628353003
WordScorePoS
african0IN
growth0.208565600657229NN
condition0.121575732851624NN
country0NN
duty0NN
free0JJ
quota0NN
access0.00344404437204141NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.643427136327073
WordScorePoS
african0IN
growth0NN
condition0NN
country0NN
duty0.0978661089756501NN
free0.0898760357768464JJ
quota0.048933054487825NN
access0.00314118376811005NN

markets but only if made from U

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.79660429075857
WordScorePoS
market0.0913569596328122NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.32880761576271
WordScorePoS
market0.0377086395700813NN

fabric yarn and thread

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

So to take advantage of this provision countries need to establish an effective input visa system to ensure compliance with rules of origin Baffes which seems exceedingly complex

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.694950480905137
WordScorePoS
provision0.0658099748168827NN
country0NN
establish0VB
effective0.0482582488828229JJ
input0NN
system0NN
ensure0.0220985725470694VB
rule0.162386273072618NN
origin0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.480153904796928
WordScorePoS
provision0NN
country0NN
establish0.048933054487825VB
effective0.0219686053934784JJ
input0NN
system0.0211360962287062NN
ensure0.00335331148065841VB
rule0.0739231123597559NN
origin0.036961556179878NN

Within the WTO poor cotton producing West African countries took the unusual step of issuing joint statement calling for full subsidy removal and for cotton to be treated separately

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.616193314975795
WordScorePoS
poor0JJ
produce0.0651400632663124VB
african0IN
country0NN
issue0NN
full0JJ
subsidy0.162850158165781NN
removal0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.407190213234418
WordScorePoS
poor0.150659516460257JJ
produce0VB
african0IN
country0NN
issue0NN
full0JJ
subsidy0NN
removal0NN

But the July Framework Agreement of the Doha Development Agenda does not include separate treatment of cotton stating only that cotton will receive adequate priority in agricultural negotiations

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.56795547238607
WordScorePoS
framework0NN
agreement0NN
doha0.0357189919948307NN
development0.0159922815774215NN
agenda0NN
include0VB
treatment0NN
receive0VB
adequate0JJ
priority0NN
agricultural0.250032943963815JJ
negotiation0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.420217208214269
WordScorePoS
framework0.0108390366114755NN
agreement0.0351951258079907NN
doha0.0249430985430622NN
development0.00837573444202498NN
agenda0NN
include0VB
treatment0.0624189222007589NN
receive0.0814816979556159VB
adequate0JJ
priority0NN
agricultural0JJ
negotiation0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.377969643679513
WordScorePoS
framework0.0130185595639838NN
agreement0NN
doha0.0299586785922821NN
development0.0469463607292177NN
agenda0.0739231123597559NN
include0VB
treatment0NN
receive0VB
adequate0JJ
priority0NN
agricultural0JJ
negotiation0.036961556179878NN

Subsidy removal is politically unlikely

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.848012856805654
WordScorePoS
subsidy0.162850158165781NN
removal0NN

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.355830081242933
WordScorePoS
subsidy0NN
removal0.0683326727248364NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.345923500166142
WordScorePoS
subsidy0.0664302389559493NN
removal0NN

In the current climate second best option would be to implement well designed decoupled support in which subsidies do not depend on production and thus do not encourage overproduction and consequent dumping as is the case with the current schemes

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.500193495380258
WordScorePoS
current0.0335649154577099JJ
climate0.291881734282273NN
implement0.0102677744436108VB
decouple0VB
support0NN
subsidy0NN
depend0VB
production0NN
encourage0VB
dump0NN

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.446606822341425
WordScorePoS
current0.0325700316331562JJ
climate0.0166605993001162NN
implement0.0199268631468397VB
decouple0VB
support0NN
subsidy0.162850158165781NN
depend0.0651400632663124VB
production0NN
encourage0VB
dump0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.44335754199793
WordScorePoS
current0.0332151194779746JJ
climate0NN
implement0.0203215381458133VB
decouple0VB
support0.00833571598658786NN
subsidy0.0664302389559493NN
depend0VB
production0.118934074671047NN
encourage0.0468670845659596VB
dump0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.345780256318205
WordScorePoS
current0JJ
climate0NN
implement0.030144637392549VB
decouple0.0804764811724088VB
support0.024730129581725NN
subsidy0NN
depend0VB
production0.0504071033101074NN
encourage0.0695218668857431VB
dump0NN

Existing mechanisms would need to be reformed because they still depend on acreage and thus create incentives for overproduction

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.754500784812083
WordScorePoS
exist0.0599173571845643VB
mechanism0.147846224719512NN
reform0NN
depend0VB
create0VB
incentive0.036961556179878NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.315779563772346
WordScorePoS
exist0VB
mechanism0NN
reform0NN
depend0.0633470357346975VB
create0VB
incentive0.0390772412228479NN

Less overproduction may help lift prices bit

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.878889395199227
WordScorePoS
lift0.107490825192354NN
price0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.47702560833391
WordScorePoS
lift0NN
price0.0583416713841148NN

Achieving greater global equity not automatically bring redress the loser in the case may not necessarily change its action

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.885950608291309
WordScorePoS
achieve0VB
global0.0375696197697663JJ
bring0VB
change0.402565546215053NN
action0.0369195714265843NN

The existing mechanisms to enforce decisions rely on voluntary compensation of the loser and when this is not satisfactory the possibility of retaliatory action such as suspension of tariff and other concessions on the part of the winner

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.695395516133037
WordScorePoS
exist0.0599173571845643VB
mechanism0.147846224719512NN
enforce0VB
decision0.0211360962287062NN
rely0VB
action0.0109843026967392NN

Clearly poor countries retaliation against powerful trading partners is unlikely to provide much of an incentive for rich countries to comply with unfavorable rulings because of their typically smaller volume of trade with developed country defendant

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.563138082070255
WordScorePoS
poor0.150659516460257JJ
country0NN
trading0NN
provide0.0295703421524739VB
incentive0NN
typically0RB
volume0NN
trade0NN
develop0VB

Even so developing countries have in recent years brought forward and won an increasing number of cases

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.883087589008088
WordScorePoS
develop0VB
country0NN
bring0.0731385760866977VB
increase0.00323105002784081NN

The fair and ethical trade movements

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.543112917601299
WordScorePoS
fair0.0440683498519077JJ
trade0.0214456704626236NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.490473578465089
WordScorePoS
fair0JJ
trade0.0591643007226199NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.447342564999584
WordScorePoS
fair0JJ
trade0.0539615408530051NN

Interestingly some NGOs and civil society organizations in both developed and developing countries have acted directly to establish more equitable trade relations

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.744882585913484
WordScorePoS
civil0.0978661089756501JJ
society0.0359743605686701NN
organization0.0422721924574123NN
develop0VB
country0NN
establish0.048933054487825VB
equitable0.017987180284335JJ
trade0.0539615408530051NN
relation0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.38395913921797
WordScorePoS
civil0JJ
society0.0591643007226199NN
organization0.0347609334428716NN
develop0VB
country0NN
establish0VB
equitable0JJ
trade0.0591643007226199NN
relation0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.351651435992577
WordScorePoS
civil0JJ
society0.0237821918091848NN
organization0.02794560829783NN
develop0VB
country0NN
establish0VB
equitable0JJ
trade0.0237821918091848NN
relation0.064698038783335NN

One such example is fair trade

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.543112917601299
WordScorePoS
fair0.0440683498519077JJ
trade0.0214456704626236NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.490473578465089
WordScorePoS
fair0JJ
trade0.0591643007226199NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.447342564999584
WordScorePoS
fair0JJ
trade0.0539615408530051NN

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.324223501113679
WordScorePoS
fair0JJ
trade0.0391100714971453NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.323951337293267
WordScorePoS
fair0.0390772412228479JJ
trade0NN

Fair trade initiatives led by consumer groups NGOs trade unions and other civil society organizations aim to control the supply chain from production to market to improve the well being of developing country producers by ensuring stable price for their commodities linking them more directly with markets in rich countries and strengthening their organizations

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.565868082612654
WordScorePoS
fair0JJ
trade0NN
initiative0NN
lead0.0169905820958638NN
consumer0.325511803779102NN
civil0JJ
society0NN
organization0NN
aim0.0277064208763707NN
control0NN
supply0.0703006268489394NN
chain0.0819583881728876NN
production0.118934074671047NN
market0.0169905820958638NN
improve0VB
develop0VB
country0NN
producer0.0409791940864438NN
ensure0.00743561777158133VB
stable0JJ
price0NN
commodity0NN
strengthen0.0133391461156567VB

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.403088065332856
WordScorePoS
fair0JJ
trade0.0591643007226199NN
initiative0NN
lead0.0504071033101074NN
consumer0NN
civil0JJ
society0.0591643007226199NN
organization0.0347609334428716NN
aim0.0410992516792148NN
control0NN
supply0NN
chain0NN
production0.0504071033101074NN
market0.0252035516550537NN
improve0.0150723186962745VB
develop0VB
country0NN
producer0NN
ensure0VB
stable0.0607878664258118JJ
price0NN
commodity0NN
strengthen0.00989353561471291VB

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.399361219628084
WordScorePoS
fair0JJ
trade0.0539615408530051NN
initiative0.036961556179878NN
lead0NN
consumer0NN
civil0.0978661089756501JJ
society0.0359743605686701NN
organization0.0422721924574123NN
aim0.0249900578719309NN
control0NN
supply0NN
chain0NN
production0NN
market0.030649619577211NN
improve0.0183291958415182VB
develop0VB
country0NN
producer0NN
ensure0.00335331148065841VB
stable0.036961556179878JJ
price0NN
commodity0NN
strengthen0.0120313639527759VB

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.39609869278936
WordScorePoS
fair0.0440683498519077JJ
trade0.0214456704626236NN
initiative0NN
lead0NN
consumer0NN
civil0JJ
society0NN
organization0NN
aim0NN
control0NN
supply0NN
chain0NN
production0.0548141757796873NN
market0.0913569596328122NN
improve0.0218534471578307VB
develop0VB
country0NN
producer0.0440683498519077NN
ensure0.0159922815774215VB
stable0JJ
price0.0583416713841148NN
commodity0.0440683498519077NN
strengthen0.00717234893041658VB

The approach is working sales of fair trade bananas cocoa coffee brown sugar tea and few other products have seen phenomenal growth in recent years and now represent significant share of exports for some countries for instance percent of Ecuadorian bananas and percent of Ghanaian coffee are now sold through fair trade

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.605898485850583
WordScorePoS
approach0NN
fair0JJ
trade0.0591643007226199NN
product0.0591643007226199NN
growth0.208565600657229NN
represent0VB
significant0JJ
share0.0252035516550537NN
export0NN
country0NN

The few impact studies that exist show that fair trade initiatives have indeed made difference to producers not only through the premiums paid over world prices but also thanks to the services and assistance provided to farmers by producer cooperatives supported by fair trade organizations

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.597094813342707
WordScorePoS
impact0NN
study0NN
exist0VB
fair0.0440683498519077JJ
trade0.0214456704626236NN
initiative0NN
producer0.0440683498519077NN
pay0NN
world0.0124838525528648NN
price0.0583416713841148NN
service0.0143446978608332NN
assistance0NN
farmer0.175025014152344NN
support0.00896409157262106NN
organization0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.42350117537106
WordScorePoS
impact0NN
study0NN
exist0.0599173571845643VB
fair0JJ
trade0.0539615408530051NN
initiative0.036961556179878NN
producer0NN
pay0NN
world0.00418824502414673NN
price0NN
service0NN
assistance0.0499801157438617NN
farmer0NN
support0.0451108483130998NN
organization0.0422721924574123NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.37898902758845
WordScorePoS
impact0NN
study0NN
exist0VB
fair0JJ
trade0.0591643007226199NN
initiative0NN
producer0NN
pay0.0695218668857431NN
world0.00172202218602071NN
price0NN
service0.0197870712294258NN
assistance0.0410992516792148NN
farmer0NN
support0.024730129581725NN
organization0.0347609334428716NN

When inequities arise from unequal access to markets and lack of information credit and risk mitigation mechanisms strengthening producer associations can lead to more equitable outcomes even without paying premium in the context of existing trade rules

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.530350954911802
WordScorePoS
arise0VB
access0.00314118376811005NN
market0.030649619577211NN
lack0NN
information0.0219686053934784NN
credit0NN
risk0NN
mitigation0NN
mechanism0.147846224719512NN
strengthen0.0120313639527759VB
producer0NN
lead0NN
equitable0.017987180284335JJ
outcome0NN
pay0NN
context0.036961556179878NN
exist0.0599173571845643VB
trade0.0539615408530051NN
rule0.0739231123597559NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.269647864290894
WordScorePoS
arise0VB
access0.00690021170452351NN
market0NN
lack0NN
information0.0241291244414115NN
credit0NN
risk0NN
mitigation0NN
mechanism0NN
strengthen0.0396437925143789VB
producer0NN
lead0NN
equitable0JJ
outcome0NN
pay0NN
context0NN
exist0VB
trade0NN
rule0.162386273072618NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.354799930747162
WordScorePoS
arise0VB
access0.0128821355880844NN
market0.0377086395700813NN
lack0.0565629593551219NN
information0.0675706773907211NN
credit0.0602029956716497NN
risk0NN
mitigation0NN
mechanism0NN
strengthen0VB
producer0NN
lead0.0188543197850406NN
equitable0.0221298700466866JJ
outcome0.030745604615229NN
pay0NN
context0NN
exist0VB
trade0NN
rule0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.3185708277192
WordScorePoS
arise0.0440683498519077VB
access0.00749031153171887NN
market0.0913569596328122NN
lack0NN
information0.0130963126055467NN
credit0NN
risk0.0252000451111224NN
mitigation0NN
mechanism0NN
strengthen0.00717234893041658VB
producer0.0440683498519077NN
lead0NN
equitable0.0214456704626236JJ
outcome0NN
pay0NN
context0NN
exist0VB
trade0.0214456704626236NN
rule0NN

The reach of fair trade initiatives while growing remains small

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.519223413850901
WordScorePoS
reach0NN
fair0JJ
trade0.0539615408530051NN
initiative0.036961556179878NN
grow0VB
remains0.036961556179878NNS

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.375413833207768
WordScorePoS
reach0NN
fair0JJ
trade0NN
initiative0.0924643738905717NN
grow0VB
remains0NNS

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.340176453404065
WordScorePoS
reach0NN
fair0.0440683498519077JJ
trade0.0214456704626236NN
initiative0NN
grow0.0182713919265625VB
remains0NNS

In Switzerland where consumer support is strong fair trade bananas still represented only percent of overall banana purchases and consumer spending on all fair trade products was mere per person in Swiss agricultural subsidies amounted to roughly per person in the same year

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.696044954014094
WordScorePoS
consumer0.325511803779102NN
support0.00833571598658786NN
strong0JJ
fair0JJ
trade0NN
represent0VB
spending0NN
product0.0199423462679015NN
person0NN
agricultural0JJ
subsidy0.0664302389559493NN
amount0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.437410962211548
WordScorePoS
consumer0NN
support0.00896409157262106NN
strong0JJ
fair0.0440683498519077JJ
trade0.0214456704626236NN
represent0VB
spending0NN
product0NN
person0.0214456704626236NN
agricultural0.250032943963815JJ
subsidy0.0357189919948307NN
amount0NN

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.262514127182676
WordScorePoS
consumer0NN
support0NN
strong0JJ
fair0JJ
trade0.0391100714971453NN
represent0.0401833161726777VB
spending0NN
product0NN
person0NN
agricultural0JJ
subsidy0.162850158165781NN
amount0NN

Fair trade coffee accounts for at most percent of world sales and only about percent of the capacity of certified fair trade producers is absorbed by the fair trade circuit

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Another example of organizations acting directly to establish more equitable trade relations is the growing number of initiatives for corporate social responsibility and ethical trade

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.557056122381273
WordScorePoS
organization0.02794560829783NN
establish0VB
equitable0JJ
trade0.0237821918091848NN
relation0.064698038783335NN
grow0.0405241466500776VB
initiative0NN
social0.101310366625194JJ
responsibility0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.501822110539023
WordScorePoS
organization0.0422721924574123NN
establish0.048933054487825VB
equitable0.017987180284335JJ
trade0.0539615408530051NN
relation0NN
grow0VB
initiative0.036961556179878NN
social0JJ
responsibility0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.401921804401432
WordScorePoS
organization0.0347609334428716NN
establish0VB
equitable0JJ
trade0.0591643007226199NN
relation0NN
grow0VB
initiative0NN
social0.0504071033101074JJ
responsibility0NN

Companies that join an ethical trade organization such as the Ethical Trading Initiative in the United Kingdom or the Fair Labor Association in the United States pledge to respect code of conduct in return for favorable consideration by consumers and investors who care about equitable development

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.640117038270638
WordScorePoS
company0.108503934593034NN
trade0NN
organization0NN
trading0NN
initiative0NN
unite0VB
fair0JJ
respect0NN
conduct0NN
return0NN
consumer0.325511803779102NN
care0NN
equitable0JJ
development0.022306853314744NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.49229433417806
WordScorePoS
company0NN
trade0.0539615408530051NN
organization0.0422721924574123NN
trading0.048933054487825NN
initiative0.036961556179878NN
unite0.036961556179878VB
fair0JJ
respect0.0299586785922821NN
conduct0NN
return0NN
consumer0NN
care0NN
equitable0.017987180284335JJ
development0.0469463607292177NN

Codes of conduct generally cover fair labor practices usually those set out in ILO conventions environmental standards and monitoring mechanisms and apply not just to firm direct production facilities but also to those of all its suppliers along the supply chain

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.46930158583456
WordScorePoS
conduct0NN
cover0NN
fair0JJ
practice0NN
set0.0978661089756501NN
convention0NN
environmental0JJ
standard0NN
monitor0.0599173571845643NN
mechanism0.147846224719512NN
firm0NN
direct0.0299586785922821JJ
production0NN
facility0NN
supply0NN
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.664981257481502
WordScorePoS
conduct0NN
cover0NN
fair0JJ
practice0.0703006268489394NN
set0NN
convention0NN
environmental0.0598270388037045JJ
standard0.0409791940864438NN
monitor0.0332151194779746NN
mechanism0NN
firm0NN
direct0JJ
production0.118934074671047NN
facility0NN
supply0.0703006268489394NN
chain0.0819583881728876NN

Are consumers in rich countries willing to pay bit more to ensure that the goods they buy are produced in fair and safe conditions

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.779204357857606
WordScorePoS
consumer0.325511803779102NN
country0NN
pay0NN
ensure0.00743561777158133VB
produce0.0332151194779746VB
fair0JJ
safe0JJ
condition0.0409791940864438NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.413965912207314
WordScorePoS
consumer0NN
country0NN
pay0.0695218668857431NN
ensure0VB
produce0VB
fair0JJ
safe0.0252035516550537JJ
condition0.121575732851624NN

Proponents of codes of conduct believe they are

Label: 10, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
conduct0.064698038783335NN

Researchers found that almost percent of Americans said they would pay at least an extra on item if they could be sure it had not been produced by exploited workers

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.776222085941729
WordScorePoS
researcher0NN
pay0.0695218668857431NN
produce0VB
worker0.121575732851624NN

Skeptics point to the fact that prices dominate the decisions of the major corporate buyers

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.560566341431973
WordScorePoS
price0NN
decision0.0464294830712827NN
major0.0285977592242194JJ

Codes of conduct inspired by ethical considerations might have positive impact on equity but are they applied

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Impact studies conducted by the Ethical Trading Initiative found mixed evidence

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.728982341421553
WordScorePoS
impact0NN
study0NN
conduct0.064698038783335NN
trading0NN
initiative0NN
evidence0.12939607756667NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.347279438678487
WordScorePoS
impact0NN
study0NN
conduct0NN
trading0NN
initiative0.0924643738905717NN
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.325260996125945
WordScorePoS
impact0.0866018859977851NN
study0NN
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trading0NN
initiative0NN
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.322604598107042
WordScorePoS
impact0NN
study0NN
conduct0NN
trading0.048933054487825NN
initiative0.036961556179878NN
evidence0NN

Consumers may not be willing to pay higher prices in exchange for an uncertain and often unmonitored positive impact

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.905496408385546
WordScorePoS
consumer0.325511803779102NN
pay0NN
price0NN
positive0JJ
impact0.0866018859977851NN

Consumer pressure may thus not be enough box

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.977235432149912
WordScorePoS
consumer0.325511803779102NN
pressure0NN

So these initiatives while important are no BOX

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.928560446079869
WordScorePoS
initiative0.0924643738905717NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.371181219858919
WordScorePoS
initiative0.036961556179878NN

WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT Will improved working conditions in Cambodia textile industry survive the end of the quota system

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.641220196333072
WordScorePoS
world0.00257642711761688NN
development0.0330049940546426NN
report0NN
improve0VB
condition0NN
textile0.0602029956716497NN
industry0.181897200573757NN
survive0VB
quota0NN
system0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.332258129405509
WordScorePoS
world0.00172202218602071NN
development0.0055149369084567NN
report0NN
improve0.0150723186962745VB
condition0.121575732851624NN
textile0NN
industry0NN
survive0VB
quota0NN
system0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.32220839070338
WordScorePoS
world0.00418824502414673NN
development0.0469463607292177NN
report0NN
improve0.0183291958415182VB
condition0NN
textile0NN
industry0NN
survive0VB
quota0.048933054487825NN
system0.0211360962287062NN

As mentioned in chapter the bilateral trade agreement between Cambodia and the United States included provision whereby Cambodia clothing exports would increase each year if labor standards improved

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.595856055478189
WordScorePoS
trade0.0539615408530051NN
agreement0NN
unite0.036961556179878VB
include0VB
provision0NN
export0.110884668539634NN
increase0.00432344066632653NN
standard0NN
improve0.0183291958415182VB

The ILO was mandated to prepare report twice year based on factory visits and interviews with workers and unions and to make it widely available

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.678169174984617
WordScorePoS
mandate0NN
report0NN
base0NN
worker0.121575732851624NN
widely0RB

The provision helped bring about gradual improvement in working conditions in clothing factories but this progress is under threat with the end of the quota system

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.558316612527328
WordScorePoS
provision0NN
help0NN
bring0VB
improvement0NN
condition0.121575732851624NN
progress0.0591643007226199NN
threat0NN
quota0NN
system0NN

The government agreed to continue ILO inspections until but employers can no longer count on increases in exports to the United States if they uphold labor standards

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.629422217059549
WordScorePoS
government0.048933054487825NN
agree0.0422721924574123VB
continue0VB
employer0NN
increase0.00432344066632653NN
export0.110884668539634NN
unite0.036961556179878VB
standard0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.505586163261537
WordScorePoS
government0NN
agree0.0504000902222448VB
continue0VB
employer0.0440683498519077NN
increase0.0128868286091919NN
export0.0881366997038154NN
unite0VB
standard0NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.356014124397586
WordScorePoS
government0NN
agree0VB
continue0.0403047273067529VB
employer0NN
increase0.0145316075945746NN
export0NN
unite0.0828215106044499VB
standard0NN

Some are aware that labor standards compliance is their only real competitive advantage but there are reports of union leaders being fired lack of adherence to minimum and overtime pay rules and repressed demonstrations

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.576923096109641
WordScorePoS
standard0NN
report0NN
lack0NN
pay0NN
rule0.162386273072618NN

Employers are allegedly using the threat of tough competition from China to cut salaries and benefits

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.665753677747092
WordScorePoS
employer0NN
threat0NN
cut0.120266261535276NN
benefit0NN

But the employers are being watched an independent union movement has grown in the industry and ILO monitoring is increasingly sophisticated

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.861239775479522
WordScorePoS
employer0.0454743001434393NN
grow0.0188543197850406VB
industry0.181897200573757NN
monitor0NN

Monitors are now using hand held computers to transmit findings from their factory visits allowing timely reporting

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.73752879559285
WordScorePoS
monitor0NN
hold0.18234260265061NN
timely0JJ
report0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.541350177466459
WordScorePoS
monitor0.0599173571845643NN
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timely0.0739231123597559JJ
report0NN

If working conditions deteriorate activists researchers unions and most important of all consumers will know

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.960697277086694
WordScorePoS
condition0.0409791940864438NN
researcher0.0542519672965169NN
consumer0.325511803779102NN

Whether their pressure will be enough to ensure adherence to labor standards is an open question

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.480015555247923
WordScorePoS
pressure0.055245183797332NN
ensure0.00501208088147356VB
standard0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.478449154600122
WordScorePoS
pressure0.0440683498519077NN
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standard0NN

Sources International Confederation of Free Trade Unions Washington Post

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.639855441725205
WordScorePoS
source0.0109843026967392NN
international0.00648516099948979JJ
free0.0898760357768464JJ
trade0.0539615408530051NN
post0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.397413677658351
WordScorePoS
source0NN
international0.0189945307832458JJ
free0JJ
trade0NN
post0.0811931365363091NN

substitute for more equitable trade rules under the WTO and other arrangements

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.665270771945356
WordScorePoS
equitable0JJ
trade0NN
rule0.162386273072618NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.597613735689962
WordScorePoS
equitable0.017987180284335JJ
trade0.0539615408530051NN
rule0.0739231123597559NN

Intellectual property rights and the global market for ideas Protection of intellectual property rights IPR is another area in which market failure and power structures shape unequal processes and outcomes the interests of few powerful actors impose costs on the general public particularly the poor

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.547073724511112
WordScorePoS
intellectual0JJ
property0.0736315832425121NN
rights0.0519476926891779NNS
global0JJ
market0NN
idea0NN
protection0.122839698738001NN
power0NN
structure0NN
process0NN
outcome0NN
actor0NN
cost0NN
public0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.511839768067134
WordScorePoS
intellectual0JJ
property0.0558185411034276NN
rights0.078760887431929NNS
global0JJ
market0NN
idea0NN
protection0.0465610847355851NN
power0NN
structure0NN
process0.0558185411034276NN
outcome0.0465610847355851NN
actor0NN
cost0NN
public0.0727679293221751NN
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The requirement set forth in the Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights agreement TRIPS that all member countries offer year patent protection is perceived by many to be grossly inequitable

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.550331317099794
WordScorePoS
set0NN
trade0NN
related0.0184786920895884JJ
aspect0NN
intellectual0JJ
property0.0736315832425121NN
rights0.0519476926891779NNS
agreement0NN
trip0NN
country0NN
offer0NN
protection0.122839698738001NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.491349153528769
WordScorePoS
set0NN
trade0.0149758277542848NN
related0.0125195145191824JJ
aspect0.0307735781890304NN
intellectual0.0407408489778079JJ
property0.0249430985430622NN
rights0.0175975629039954NNS
agreement0.0351951258079907NN
trip0.0407408489778079NN
country0NN
offer0NN
protection0.020806307400253NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.373503816870906
WordScorePoS
set0NN
trade0NN
related0JJ
aspect0NN
intellectual0JJ
property0.0558185411034276NN
rights0.078760887431929NNS
agreement0NN
trip0NN
country0NN
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protection0.0465610847355851NN

Because patent protection was adopted in OECD countries before the the main result of this requirement is to strengthen patent protection in poor countries that become WTO members

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.765197239825107
WordScorePoS
protection0.122839698738001NN
adopt0VB
oecd0NN
country0NN
result0NN
strengthen0VB
poor0.150659516460257JJ

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.333647350710748
WordScorePoS
protection0NN
adopt0.0169905820958638VB
oecd0.108503934593034NN
country0NN
result0NN
strengthen0.0133391461156567VB
poor0.0339811641917276JJ

Countries adopting patent protection today are doing so at levels of GDP between and per capita while OECD countries did so when their GDP per capita was around in prices

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.551367669461014
WordScorePoS
country0NN
adopt0.0169905820958638VB
protection0NN
level0.00513687014008325NN
gdp0NN
capita0.0332151194779746NN
oecd0.108503934593034NN
price0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.375560264506475
WordScorePoS
country0NN
adopt0VB
protection0.122839698738001NN
level0.0113874611101829NN
gdp0NN
capita0NN
oecd0NN
price0NN

Patents stem from legitimate desire to provide incentives for the generation of knowledge and cover the cost of developing new knowledge

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.369857451554182
WordScorePoS
legitimate0.064698038783335JJ
provide0VB
incentive0NN
generation0NN
knowledge0NN
cover0NN
cost0.0660824365173543NN
develop0VB

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.366726918312785
WordScorePoS
legitimate0JJ
provide0.0200087191734851VB
incentive0NN
generation0.0819583881728876NN
knowledge0NN
cover0NN
cost0.0277064208763707NN
develop0VB

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.346933473571059
WordScorePoS
legitimate0JJ
provide0.0445201436316848VB
incentive0.0390772412228479NN
generation0NN
knowledge0NN
cover0.0390772412228479NN
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develop0VB

A drug or other patented innovation cannot be copied while patent is in force so developers enjoy monopoly position and can charge higher prices

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.56310181590685
WordScorePoS
drug0NN
innovation0.0821985033584295NN
force0.0410992516792148NN
price0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.56166167128359
WordScorePoS
drug0NN
innovation0.122982418460916NN
force0NN
price0NN

Extending patent protection to developing countries can thus increase total profits by allowing companies to earn them in poor countries and changes the distribution of D financing with greater share borne by poorer countries

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.574150032287887
WordScorePoS
extend0VB
protection0.122839698738001NN
develop0VB
country0NN
increase0NN
total0NN
company0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
financing0NN
share0NN
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.41762756400732
WordScorePoS
extend0VB
protection0NN
develop0VB
country0NN
increase0.00958677785775002NN
total0.0468670845659596NN
company0.108503934593034NN
poor0.0339811641917276JJ
financing0NN
share0NN
bear0NN

But protection of IPR must be balanced by the concern that it restricts access to new technologies

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.5547080939015
WordScorePoS
protection0.122839698738001NN
access0.00514687440545096NN
technology0.0269969049497485NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.449651811094921
WordScorePoS
protection0NN
access0.0157161992303584NN
technology0.109914925284606NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.404386693014895
WordScorePoS
protection0NN
access0.00314118376811005NN
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.341078476381064
WordScorePoS
protection0.0465610847355851NN
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technology0.0409315617631NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.336321184100345
WordScorePoS
protection0NN
access0.0128821355880844NN
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Patents restrict access to innovations by making them more expensive and more difficult to copy

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.733597856075932
WordScorePoS
access0.0128821355880844NN
innovation0.122982418460916NN
expensive0JJ

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.462425169270383
WordScorePoS
access0.00344404437204141NN
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There is great concern in developing countries on the availability of various innovations including patented seeds and drugs

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.559386393073096
WordScorePoS
develop0VB
country0NN
availability0NN
innovation0.122982418460916NN
include0VB
seed0NN
drug0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.530735003097819
WordScorePoS
develop0VB
country0NN
availability0NN
innovation0NN
include0VB
seed0.11668334276823NN
drug0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.449907248660201
WordScorePoS
develop0VB
country0NN
availability0.048933054487825NN
innovation0.0499801157438617NN
include0VB
seed0NN
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Antiretroviral drugs to fight AIDS are case in point box

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.931596777911001
WordScorePoS
antiretroviral0.0407408489778079JJ
drug0.0407408489778079NN
fight0NN
aid0.123094312756122NN

We look in more detail at pharmaceutical patents as an illustration of the broader issues

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Chaudhuri Goldberg and Jia estimate that the gains to the Indian economy from not following international patent protection standards were around million of which million were gain to consumers and the rest profits of domestic producers

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.841247616447296
WordScorePoS
estimate0.0199423462679015NN
gain0.0664302389559493NN
economy0NN
international0.0023966944644375JJ
protection0NN
standard0.0409791940864438NN
consumer0.325511803779102NN
domestic0JJ
producer0.0409791940864438NN

Profit losses to foreign producers were only around million year

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.621256563728103
WordScorePoS
loss0.0468670845659596NN
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producer0.0409791940864438NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.474097103200188
WordScorePoS
loss0.0670377886812128NN
foreign0JJ
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.345610285960571
WordScorePoS
loss0NN
foreign0.0488696285210061JJ
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.311655223398755
WordScorePoS
loss0NN
foreign0JJ
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This study illustrates the important point that the profits pharmaceutical companies could gain in poor countries are not very large

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.502132641304123
WordScorePoS
study0NN
company0NN
gain0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.696293289752849
WordScorePoS
study0NN
company0.108503934593034NN
gain0.0664302389559493NN
poor0.0339811641917276JJ
country0NN

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.353410250844837
WordScorePoS
study0NN
company0NN
gain0.041835863322702NN
poor0.0642010940957526JJ
country0NN

Lanjouw and Jack estimate that extending patent protection to developing countries to years would be equivalent for firm profits to extending patents in developed countries by two weeks

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

solution exists that would lead to more equitable provision without undermining efficiency wherever rich country markets already support the cost of research poor countries could be allowed to produce or import cheaper generic substitutes at no significant cost to either rich countries or the firms that carry out research see focus on drug access at the end of this chapter

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.329738099493396
WordScorePoS
solution0NN
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access0.0157161992303584NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.222854513436888
WordScorePoS
solution0NN
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significant0.0376648791150643JJ
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.525119037025609
WordScorePoS
solution0.0368585655748969NN
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As with all international law the existing IPR protection rules are the result of complex negotiations

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.760937798029036
WordScorePoS
international0.0189945307832458JJ
law0.164686343640793NN
exist0VB
protection0NN
rule0.162386273072618NN
result0NN
negotiation0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.38982180903372
WordScorePoS
international0.00648516099948979JJ
law0NN
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negotiation0.036961556179878NN

TRIPS which was basically written by industry lawyers is part of the agreement establishing the WTO multifaceted deal that included the MultiFiber Agreement and other provisions that developing countries deemed beneficial to them

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.602098430670551
WordScorePoS
trip0NN
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establish0VB
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Many bilateral free trade agreements such as recent agreements between the Achieving greater global equity BOX

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.528833912562616
WordScorePoS
free0.0898760357768464JJ
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.302587323729256
WordScorePoS
free0JJ
trade0.0591643007226199NN
agreement0NN
achieve0.0152398983378455VB
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Expanding access to antiretroviral drugs in South Africa In response to the rising AIDS crisis the government of South Africa in amended the Medicines and Related Substances Control Act of in an attempt to ensure the supply of more affordable drugs to all South Africans

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.703211612941717
WordScorePoS
expand0VB
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antiretroviral0.0407408489778079JJ
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south0RB
africa0IN
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aid0.123094312756122NN
government0NN
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related0.0125195145191824JJ
substance0.0407408489778079NN
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supply0NN
affordable0.025518364538905JJ
african0IN

The amendment encouraged pharmacists to substitute costly patented drugs with cheaper generic equivalents allowed for the importation of cheaper drugs available on the market elsewhere parallel imports and introduced compulsory licensing system allowing competitors to produce patented drugs

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.672398140675168
WordScorePoS
encouraged0JJ
drug0NN
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system0.0756001353333673NN
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The Pharmaceutical Manufacturers Association and drug companies challenged the government legislation in the Pretoria High Court on several grounds including that it violated South Africa obligations under TRIPS

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

The Treatment Action Campaign TAC and labor union COSATU supported the government defense in the case asserting that the legislation was valid in that it constituted the government positive duty to fulfill the right to health

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.560057555823649
WordScorePoS
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.542314629754053
WordScorePoS
treatment0NN
action0.0109843026967392NN
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government0.048933054487825NN
legislation0NN
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Arguably as result of public pressure and attention the Pharmaceutical Manufacturers Association and the drug companies withdrew their case

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.680093012971245
WordScorePoS
result0NN
public0.0583751976558017NN
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.459822201735602
WordScorePoS
result0NN
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Label: 6, with a score of: 0.36876672673596
WordScorePoS
result0.0683326727248364NN
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pressure0NN
attention0.041835863322702NN
drug0NN
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An indirect result was to bring down the price of antiretroviral medicine from about rand month to rand month

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.801426924977644
WordScorePoS
result0NN
bring0VB
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antiretroviral0.0407408489778079JJ
medicine0.123094312756122NN

Other legal cases not involving TRIPS helped expand access to antiretroviral drugs

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.581934572443626
WordScorePoS
legal0JJ
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help0.0542519672965169NN
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Label: 3, with a score of: 0.539056997834605
WordScorePoS
legal0JJ
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.370055484051187
WordScorePoS
legal0.0811931365363091JJ
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help0NN
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In group of complainants including TAC brought case against GlaxoSmithKline and Boehringer Ingelheim at the South African Competition Commission

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

In its October ruling the commission found that the two firms had engaged in excessive pricing of patented antiretrovirals and refused to allow generic production of the drugs in return for royalty payments actions that the commission ruled were in violation of the South Africa Competition Act

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.59721038411222
WordScorePoS
commission0NN
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.59155776629508
WordScorePoS
commission0NN
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engage0.0819583881728876VB
excessive0.0542519672965169JJ
antiretroviral0JJ
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drug0NN
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south0RB
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To keep the case from moving to higher tribunal the firms came to settlement agreement that included licensing generic production

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.550557822730843
WordScorePoS
move0NN
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settlement0.146277152173395NN
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.601881426899346
WordScorePoS
move0.0409791940864438NN
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agreement0NN
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TAC also attempted to compel the national and provincial governments to provide antiretroviral drugs to all pregnant women to prevent the transmission of HIV from mothers to their children the impact of the existing government policy was to make the drug Nevirapine unavailable in public health facilities other than the or so pilot sites

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.803957926587735
WordScorePoS
national0.00558382296134999JJ
government0NN
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antiretroviral0.0407408489778079JJ
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hiv0.448149338755887NN
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public0.021678073222951NN
health0.191387734041787NN
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.30995725082351
WordScorePoS
national0.0124956749436837JJ
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The government appealed to the Constitutional Court after TAC secured successful decision

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.62309475220134
WordScorePoS
government0NN
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decision0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.609905018246667
WordScorePoS
government0.048933054487825NN
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United States and Chile Jordan Morocco Singapore Vietnam and others include even stronger IPR protection rules than TRIPS such as granting patent extensions on pharmaceuticals and specific types of protection on clinical trial data submitted to obtain marketing approval

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.367905911563137
WordScorePoS
unite0VB
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Signatories to these agreements agreed on these rules generally in exchange for preferential access to U

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.663288741785965
WordScorePoS
agreement0.0464294830712827NN
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rule0.162386273072618NN
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access0.00690021170452351NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.667859867240161
WordScorePoS
agreement0NN
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rule0.0739231123597559NN
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markets for their products

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.540983878650807
WordScorePoS
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.499596836367567
WordScorePoS
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.48538800038099
WordScorePoS
market0.0377086395700813NN
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But it is hard to argue that the parties to these various bilateral and multilateral agreements were on level playing field

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.615818705063945
WordScorePoS
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.551508071509106
WordScorePoS
party0NN
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Poor countries are in weaker bargaining position overall

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.842193888314487
WordScorePoS
poor0.150659516460257JJ
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Label: 6, with a score of: 0.358887180451089
WordScorePoS
poor0.0642010940957526JJ
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.306413859006553
WordScorePoS
poor0.0548141757796873JJ
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For example the preferential access they gain through bilateral trade agreements is eroded whenever the United States reduces remaining tariffs and quotas in bilateral or multilateral negotiations while IPR protection does not weaken over time

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.625014229974557
WordScorePoS
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negotiation0.036961556179878NN
protection0NN
time0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.474523201887634
WordScorePoS
preferential0JJ
access0.00138439773401932NN
gain0NN
trade0.0237821918091848NN
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quota0NN
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protection0.0660824365173543NN
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Moreover the issues involved in IPR protection are complex and require skills and capacity that rich countries can better afford often with input from pharmaceutical firms

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.789743111490106
WordScorePoS
issue0NN
involve0VB
protection0NN
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skill0.407534682675042NN
capacity0NN
country0NN
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Some capacity building efforts for developing countries are under way but The Constitutional Court declared that the South African Constitution required the South African government to devise and implement within its available resources comprehensive and coordinated program to realize progressively the rights of pregnant women and their newborn children to have access to health services to combat mother to child transmission of HIV

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.717111359983713
WordScorePoS
capacity0.00625975725959118NN
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country0NN
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rights0.0175975629039954NNS
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health0.191387734041787NN
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combat0.020806307400253NN
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hiv0.448149338755887NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.276289762779582
WordScorePoS
capacity0NN
building0NN
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combat0NN
mother0NN
hiv0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.26851959275749
WordScorePoS
capacity0.0451108483130998NN
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access0.00314118376811005NN
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The Court found the state policy of restricting the availability of antiretroviral drugs and related services for preventing mother tochild transmission of HIV to few pilot test sites unreasonable and ordered the government to rectify the situation by taking reasonable steps to facilitate the availability and use of antiretroviral drugs in all public health facilities

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.878679122295861
WordScorePoS
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In TAC had also been part of successful constitutional challenge relating to discrimination of South African Airways cabin attendants with HIV

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.931144217593417
WordScorePoS
successful0JJ
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The judgment reinforced the right to equality for people with HIV

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.871597174541362
WordScorePoS
reinforce0VB
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people0.00539943740774902NNS
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.357910875583314
WordScorePoS
reinforce0VB
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hiv0NN

These legal challenges had important indirect impacts setting groundbreaking precedents increasing judicial awareness of human rights obligations and heightening public awareness of rights

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.509800576666442
WordScorePoS
legal0JJ
challenge0NN
impact0.0866018859977851NN
set0NN
increase0.00958677785775002NN
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human0.0101607690729067JJ
rights0NNS
obligation0NN
public0.028867295332595NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.428437982482798
WordScorePoS
legal0JJ
challenge0NN
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human0.0170753354211044JJ
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Label: 11, with a score of: 0.346364627310613
WordScorePoS
legal0JJ
challenge0.0947742174515357NN
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set0NN
increase0.00323105002784081NN
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human0.0273960270556257JJ
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obligation0NN
public0.0583751976558017NN

Sources Decker and others South Africa Competition Commission

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.693451948636988
WordScorePoS
source0.0238835024181023NN
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commission0.0531983120572613NN

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.55197957670626
WordScorePoS
source0.0613562156822703NN
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at least some of the agencies responsible such as WIPO and developed country patent offices are perceived as biased

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Inequitable as TRIPS may be it still provides an internationally agreed standard subject to intense scrutiny and study which does make it harder for rich countries to get more favorable deals in bilateral agreements

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

An additional advantage of negotiating sessions under the WTO is that they provide focal events for mobilizing public opinion

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.551106989906426
WordScorePoS
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Label: 13, with a score of: 0.416110521835061
WordScorePoS
additional0JJ
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event0.0414107553022249NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.386022159317189
WordScorePoS
additional0JJ
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event0.0908430554521382NN
mobilize0VB
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An example of how positive results can be achieved within the WTO process is the Declaration on the TRIPS Agreement and Public Health adopted at Doha in which affirms the primacy of public health concerns over IPR protection

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.666291213209
WordScorePoS
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doha0.0249430985430622NN
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.468526394248393
WordScorePoS
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adopt0.0285529457667019VB
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Three subsequent U

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

bilateral agreements include side letters on public health that affirm the signatories understanding that IPR protection does not affect their ability to protect public health by promoting medicines for all

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.7250815168997
WordScorePoS
agreement0.0351951258079907NN
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When negotiations are shifted away from the spotlight as drug companies managed to do with drug licensing under the July Doha Development Agenda Frame WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT work Agreement monitoring progress and campaigning become more difficult

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.547186088000047
WordScorePoS
negotiation0.036961556179878NN
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doha0.0299586785922821NN
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So multilateral negotiations within the WTO which are held under the spotlight probably hold the most promise in terms of adopting more equitable rules

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.699123017857755
WordScorePoS
multilateral0JJ
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.609669830233937
WordScorePoS
multilateral0.048933054487825JJ
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term0.149793392961411NN
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rule0.0739231123597559NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.288700323152504
WordScorePoS
multilateral0JJ
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term0NN
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Financial market liberalization Capital flows to developing countries have grown tremendously in the bringing both advantages and challenges

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.603903210536379
WordScorePoS
financial0.0112376090361851JJ
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develop0VB
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grow0.0229054731708393VB
tremendously0RB
bring0.0731385760866977VB
challenge0.0947742174515357NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.416871053777909
WordScorePoS
financial0.0298222075472138JJ
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grow0.0405241466500776VB
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Short term capital flows are at times accused of contributing to financial instability while not enhancing growth in countries with immature financial systems

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.461726457268931
WordScorePoS
term0NN
flow0NN
time0NN
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financial0.0370951943725875JJ
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growth0.208565600657229NN
country0NN
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.447677252603534
WordScorePoS
term0.149793392961411NN
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contribute0.0249900578719309VB
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system0.0211360962287062NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.517287666625516
WordScorePoS
term0.0396106020715138NN
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time0.0607862199751165NN
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financial0.0298222075472138JJ
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growth0.11178243319132NN
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.303029682546293
WordScorePoS
term0NN
flow0NN
time0.0182713919265625NN
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financial0.00896409157262106JJ
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system0.0756001353333673NN

Most countries that received high volumes of short term capital inflows in the Argentina Brazil Indonesia Korea Mexico Russia Thailand and Turkey have been hit by financial crises triggered or deepened by the flight of foreign short term capital

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.818873636511428
WordScorePoS
country0NN
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Domestic factors play key role in financial instability but global rules also play role

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.556041682722193
WordScorePoS
domestic0JJ
key0NN
financial0.016515769558553JJ
global0.00736619084902312JJ
rule0.162386273072618NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.514906046806265
WordScorePoS
domestic0.0634082886861185JJ
key0NN
financial0.0150369494376999JJ
global0.0201198688839505JJ
rule0.0739231123597559NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.384121693790182
WordScorePoS
domestic0.0695218668857431JJ
key0NN
financial0.0370951943725875JJ
global0.0220597476338268JJ
rule0NN

For instance debt workout mechanisms follow informal processes the IMF proposal for Sovereign Debt Workout Mechanism was not adopted

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.987580287775806
WordScorePoS
debt0.342531381414775NN
mechanism0.147846224719512NN
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adopt0.0153248097886055VB

The result is that deals tend to benefit international lenders at the expense of domestic investors and taxpayers

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

In contrast to short term capital flows foreign direct investment FDI is generally regarded as having positive impact on receiving countries but it goes to only few countries

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.619212514485844
WordScorePoS
term0.149793392961411NN
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foreign0.036961556179878JJ
direct0.0299586785922821JJ
investment0.0766240489430275NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.552893506971473
WordScorePoS
term0.0396106020715138NN
flow0.0488696285210061NN
foreign0.0488696285210061JJ
direct0.0396106020715138JJ
investment0.0202620733250388NN
regard0.064698038783335NN
positive0JJ
impact0NN
receive0VB
country0NN

In percent of FDI to developing counties went to mostly middle income countries including China and India with the other odd developing countries receiving almost nothing

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.620478307529911
WordScorePoS
develop0VB
middle0JJ
income0.166475342664294NN
country0NN
include0VB
receive0VB

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.636792048168213
WordScorePoS
develop0VB
middle0.0602029956716497JJ
income0.110649350233433NN
country0NN
include0VB
receive0VB

percent of FDI went to Sub Saharan Africa

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.57938972469668
WordScorePoS
saharan0.0442083771593746JJ
africa0IN

Domestic factors play key role also in determining the location of FDI but again global rules contribute to inequitable outcomes

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.418998378008415
WordScorePoS
domestic0JJ
key0NN
determine0VB
location0NN
global0.00736619084902312JJ
rule0.162386273072618NN
contribute0VB
outcome0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.571099167884738
WordScorePoS
domestic0.0634082886861185JJ
key0NN
determine0VB
location0.048933054487825NN
global0.0201198688839505JJ
rule0.0739231123597559NN
contribute0.0249900578719309VB
outcome0NN

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.412413350637529
WordScorePoS
domestic0JJ
key0.0271683202880942NN
determine0.0401833161726777VB
location0NN
global0.0182280170776635JJ
rule0NN
contribute0.0815049608642826VB
outcome0NN

The Basel II Capital Accord that sets capital adequacy standards for banks may overestimate the risk of bank lending to developing countries in part because it ignores the benefits of diversifying portfolios across countries thus raising the cost and reducing access to external capital in addition to increasing the procyclicality of loans and possibly contributing to increased volatility

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Emerging global standards including those assessed under the Reports on the Observance of Standards and Codes ROSC international accounting standards and the Core Principles for Banking Supervision are also costly for developing countries and may not be appropriate to their level of development

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Rules setting in global financial markets

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.525243908032844
WordScorePoS
rule0.162386273072618NN
set0NN
global0.00736619084902312JJ
financial0.016515769558553JJ
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.669978290211874
WordScorePoS
rule0.0739231123597559NN
set0.0978661089756501NN
global0.0201198688839505JJ
financial0.0150369494376999JJ
market0.030649619577211NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.31670943695798
WordScorePoS
rule0NN
set0NN
global0.0119942111830662JJ
financial0.00896409157262106JJ
market0.0913569596328122NN

Some of the key rules governing global financial markets are developed by institutions to which developing countries do not belong

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.783132282134669
WordScorePoS
key0NN
rule0.162386273072618NN
global0.00736619084902312JJ
financial0.016515769558553JJ
market0NN
develop0VB
institution0.274477239401321NN
country0NN
belong0VB

The Financial Stability Forum established in to promote global financial stability brings together senior representatives of central banks supervisory authorities and treasury departments of nine OECD countries international financial institutions international regulatory and supervisory groupings committees of central bank experts and the European Central Bank

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.539594529583614
WordScorePoS
financial0.016515769558553JJ
stability0NN
forum0NN
establish0VB
promote0.0220985725470694VB
global0.00736619084902312JJ
bring0VB
representative0.107490825192354NN
central0JJ
bank0NN
oecd0NN
country0NN
international0.0189945307832458JJ
institution0.274477239401321NN

The only emerging market economies that are members are Hong Kong China and Singapore

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.544947537038888
WordScorePoS
emerge0VB
market0.0252035516550537NN
economy0.0821985033584295NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.463536290222865
WordScorePoS
emerge0VB
market0.0913569596328122NN
economy0NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.426180449781172
WordScorePoS
emerge0VB
market0NN
economy0.0839946104936743NN

The Basel Committee on Banking Supervision which developed the Basel II Capital Accord comprises representatives of the central banks and banking supervision authorities of Belgium Canada France Germany Italy Japan Luxembourg the Netherlands Spain Sweden Switzerland the United Kingdom and the United States

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Its main interlocutor in the development of the Accord was the Institute for International Finance Washington based consultative group of major international banks

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.534870375938939
WordScorePoS
development0.0469463607292177NN
international0.00648516099948979JJ
finance0.036961556179878NN
base0.017987180284335NN
major0JJ
bank0.036961556179878NN

Neither the Financial Stability Forum nor the Basel Committee can legitimately represent the interests of developing countries

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Various other standards often developed by semiprivate agencies such as the International Accounting Standards Board are based on practices in the United States and European Union

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.696029884601548
WordScorePoS
standard0.0409791940864438NN
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agency0.0542519672965169NN
international0.0023966944644375JJ
accounting0NN
base0.0199423462679015NN
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unite0VB

Greater participation and voice in rule setting bodies would help ensure that outcomes are more favorable to developing countries

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.667265085356519
WordScorePoS
participation0.0548954478802642NN
voice0NN
rule0.162386273072618NN
set0NN
ensure0.0220985725470694VB
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develop0VB
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.488204335454588
WordScorePoS
participation0NN
voice0NN
rule0.0739231123597559NN
set0.0978661089756501NN
ensure0.00335331148065841VB
outcome0NN
develop0VB
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Rectifying past and present inequities in the use of natural resources The use of natural resources is another major arena in which market failures and unequal power conjure to create major inequities

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.470096554958917
WordScorePoS
natural0.0376648791150643JJ
resource0.0739147683583536NN
major0JJ
market0NN
power0NN
create0.0519476926891779VB

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.348975247492433
WordScorePoS
natural0JJ
resource0.0185001613201543NN
major0.0160169090870187JJ
market0.0377086395700813NN
power0.0454743001434393NN
create0.0520080474473126VB

Achieving greater global equity This is greatly skewed in favor of developed countries and impacts are grossly inequitable

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.634830497695658
WordScorePoS
achieve0.0154106104202498VB
global0.022306853314744JJ
develop0VB
country0NN
impact0.0866018859977851NN

Without major technological innovations several key resources such as oil could be exhausted before the world poor get chance to attain standards of living comparable to those of today developed country citizens

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.481978482197651
WordScorePoS
major0JJ
technological0JJ
innovation0NN
key0NN
resource0.0739147683583536NN
world0.00257343720272548NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
chance0NN
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standard0NN
live0.0739258553811849VB
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country0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.507422500857356
WordScorePoS
major0.0160169090870187JJ
technological0.104016094894625JJ
innovation0.122982418460916NN
key0NN
resource0.0185001613201543NN
world0.00257642711761688NN
poor0JJ
chance0NN
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standard0.0454743001434393NN
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country0NN

Moreover global warming threatens to destroy the livelihoods of people living in low lying coastal areas small islands and semiarid regions

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.627706561623169
WordScorePoS
global0.0182280170776635JJ
warm0.0401833161726777JJ
threaten0VB
livelihood0.0229784274580034NN
people0.00705044110169491NNS
live0.00654003986398914VB
lie0.0531983120572613NN
coastal0.265991560286306JJ
island0.0283066488070214NN
region0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.49272119070318
WordScorePoS
global0JJ
warm0JJ
threaten0VB
livelihood0.0519476926891779NN
people0.0371911007748996NNS
live0.0739258553811849VB
lie0NN
coastal0JJ
island0NN
region0.184259548107002NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.384898272073857
WordScorePoS
global0.0375696197697663JJ
warm0.207053776511125JJ
threaten0VB
livelihood0NN
people0.0121096729954788NNS
live0VB
lie0NN
coastal0JJ
island0.0145856516935579NN
region0NN

Yet the people potentially affected by these changes tomorrow citizens and many of today poor have virtually no voice in setting rules

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.508970982583094
WordScorePoS
people0.0371911007748996NNS
potentially0RB
affect0.0184786920895884VB
tomorrow0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
voice0NN
set0NN
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.482054615555842
WordScorePoS
people0NNS
potentially0RB
affect0.033031539117106VB
tomorrow0NN
poor0JJ
voice0NN
set0NN
rule0.162386273072618NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.472235953482476
WordScorePoS
people0.00432344066632653NNS
potentially0RB
affect0VB
tomorrow0NN
poor0.0153248097886055JJ
voice0NN
set0.0978661089756501NN
rule0.0739231123597559NN

The international community has taken some steps to manage natural resources in more equitable way

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.423816857996176
WordScorePoS
international0.00228545753063677JJ
community0.016202004209163NN
manage0.0528409850971592VB
natural0.016202004209163JJ
resource0.0317953333768269NN
equitable0.0190167691930804JJ

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.358104425439357
WordScorePoS
international0.00531301439641424JJ
community0NN
manage0VB
natural0.0376648791150643JJ
resource0.0739147683583536NN
equitable0JJ

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.3432307959255
WordScorePoS
international0.0023966944644375JJ
community0.0169905820958638NN
manage0VB
natural0.0509717462875914JJ
resource0.0416785799329393NN
equitable0JJ

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.338591338943048
WordScorePoS
international0.00515473144367677JJ
community0.0182713919265625NN
manage0.0297950283197006VB
natural0JJ
resource0.0358563662904843NN
equitable0.0214456704626236JJ

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.326435080002315
WordScorePoS
international0.00301873916506525JJ
community0.0214003646985842NN
manage0VB
natural0.0214003646985842JJ
resource0.0104991907358033NN
equitable0.0502364757923669JJ

Some international legal instruments such as the Convention on the Law of the Sea of reflect the concept of distributive justice discussed earlier by taking an approach whereby the seabed and ocean floor beyond national jurisdiction are classified as global commons and subject to system of equitable sharing of the economic benefits derived from activities in these areas

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.677755845665337
WordScorePoS
international0.00470029406779661JJ
legal0.0401833161726777JJ
convention0NN
law0.0543366405761884NN
sea0.0977100948994686NN
reflect0.0401833161726777VB
justice0NN
approach0NN
ocean0.488550474497343NN
floor0NN
national0.0036456034155327JJ
global0.0182280170776635JJ
common0JJ
system0.0229784274580034NN
equitable0JJ
share0NN
economic0.0141533244035107JJ
benefit0.0229784274580034NN
activity0.0391100714971453NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.413562518347032
WordScorePoS
international0.0189945307832458JJ
legal0.0811931365363091JJ
convention0NN
law0.164686343640793NN
sea0NN
reflect0VB
justice0.214981650384708NN
approach0NN
ocean0NN
floor0NN
national0.0294647633960925JJ
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common0JJ
system0NN
equitable0JJ
share0NN
economic0JJ
benefit0NN
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Label: 13, with a score of: 0.342256067402748
WordScorePoS
international0.00726580379728728JJ
legal0JJ
convention0.0828215106044499NN
law0NN
sea0.16782457728855NN
reflect0VB
justice0NN
approach0NN
ocean0.10069474637313NN
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national0.0112708859309299JJ
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common0JJ
system0NN
equitable0JJ
share0NN
economic0JJ
benefit0NN
activity0.0201523636533764NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.171592010379124
WordScorePoS
international0.00355521737836969JJ
legal0JJ
convention0NN
law0NN
sea0NN
reflect0VB
justice0NN
approach0NN
ocean0NN
floor0NN
national0.0055149369084567JJ
global0.0220597476338268JJ
common0JJ
system0NN
equitable0JJ
share0.0252035516550537NN
economic0.128463821595706JJ
benefit0NN
activity0.0295821503613099NN

Key steps toward redressing inequities in the use of global resources are the U

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.450063809841169
WordScorePoS
key0.0271683202880942NN
global0.0182280170776635JJ
resource0.0572167664438909NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.386766735268524
WordScorePoS
key0.0528409850971592NN
global0.00354525553489471JJ
resource0.0317953333768269NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.384577064774816
WordScorePoS
key0.0625160381065121NN
global0.0251662980592747JJ
resource0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.340555697696869
WordScorePoS
key0.0297950283197006NN
global0.0119942111830662JJ
resource0.0358563662904843NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.324192145211771
WordScorePoS
key0NN
global0JJ
resource0.0739147683583536NN

Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Kyoto Protocol

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.941650329222247
WordScorePoS
framework0.0291713033871158NN
convention0.0828215106044499NN
climate0.291881734282273NN
change0.402565546215053NN

The protocol is structured to reflect the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities between developed and developing countries

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

It recognizes that industrial nations have emitted the majority of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere causing the majority of the harm and places greater demands on them

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.656622713645776
WordScorePoS
recognize0.0368585655748969VB
industrial0.318320101004075JJ
nation0NN
majority0NN
greenhouse0NN
gas0NN
cause0NN
harm0NN
demand0.030745604615229NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.420121317322998
WordScorePoS
recognize0VB
industrial0JJ
nation0.0396106020715138NN
majority0.0792212041430275NN
greenhouse0NN
gas0NN
cause0NN
harm0.0488696285210061NN
demand0NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.413107362369644
WordScorePoS
recognize0VB
industrial0.0414107553022249JJ
nation0.0671298309154199NN
majority0NN
greenhouse0.0671298309154199NN
gas0.0671298309154199NN
cause0NN
harm0NN
demand0NN

It sets binding quantified commitments for industrial countries to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions by with the understanding that the agreement would include emission reduction efforts by developing nations some time after

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.771281626915429
WordScorePoS
set0NN
commitment0.0414107553022249NN
industrial0.0414107553022249JJ
country0NN
reduce0.00375696197697663VB
greenhouse0.0671298309154199NN
gas0.0671298309154199NN
emission0.19598742448524NN
agreement0.0236803262479443NN
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reduction0.0403047273067529NN
effort0.0171695137813101NN
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nation0.0671298309154199NN
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.360792761721357
WordScorePoS
set0NN
commitment0NN
industrial0.318320101004075JJ
country0NN
reduce0VB
greenhouse0NN
gas0NN
emission0NN
agreement0NN
include0VB
reduction0NN
effort0.0188543197850406NN
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nation0NN
time0.0188543197850406NN

One important aspect of the Kyoto Protocol is the unique set of provisions that allow industrial nations to meet their commitments through actions not only within their borders but also outside

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.639863978896934
WordScorePoS
aspect0NN
set0NN
provision0NN
industrial0.318320101004075JJ
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action0.0135141354781442NN
border0NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.545901103806168
WordScorePoS
aspect0.0414107553022249NN
set0NN
provision0NN
industrial0.0414107553022249JJ
nation0.0671298309154199NN
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commitment0.0414107553022249NN
action0.0369195714265843NN
border0.0548233071065585NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.410203826626757
WordScorePoS
aspect0NN
set0.0978661089756501NN
provision0NN
industrial0JJ
nation0.0299586785922821NN
meet0VB
commitment0.0739231123597559NN
action0.0109843026967392NN
border0NN

One of these provisions the Clean Development Mechanism helps address the perceived inequality of obligations and the costs of compliance

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.903346694333291
WordScorePoS
provision0NN
clean0JJ
development0.0177346522508396NN
mechanism0NN
help0NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
obligation0NN
cost0.0660824365173543NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.244694467193927
WordScorePoS
provision0NN
clean0JJ
development0.0469463607292177NN
mechanism0.147846224719512NN
help0NN
inequality0NN
obligation0NN
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Label: 7, with a score of: 0.157062740353375
WordScorePoS
provision0NN
clean0.125032076213024JJ
development0NN
mechanism0NN
help0NN
inequality0NN
obligation0NN
cost0NN

It allows industrial countries to purchase emission reduction credits generated from activities that reduce greenhouse gas emissions in developing countries and to apply these credits against their obligations under the Protocol

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.717357907358457
WordScorePoS
industrial0.0414107553022249JJ
country0NN
emission0.19598742448524NN
reduction0.0403047273067529NN
credit0NN
generate0VB
activity0.0201523636533764NN
reduce0.00375696197697663VB
greenhouse0.0671298309154199NN
gas0.0671298309154199NN
develop0VB
obligation0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.498091302962358
WordScorePoS
industrial0.318320101004075JJ
country0NN
emission0NN
reduction0NN
credit0.0602029956716497NN
generate0VB
activity0NN
reduce0VB
greenhouse0NN
gas0NN
develop0VB
obligation0NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.321648032246106
WordScorePoS
industrial0JJ
country0NN
emission0.0625160381065121NN
reduction0NN
credit0NN
generate0VB
activity0NN
reduce0.00838876601975825VB
greenhouse0.0749457204978913NN
gas0.0749457204978913NN
develop0VB
obligation0NN

It thus assists industrial countries in meeting their commitments under the Kyoto Protocol more cost effectively and promotes sustainable development in developing countries through supporting greater investments in cleaner more efficient technologies as well as forestry projects

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.61046980146078
WordScorePoS
assist0VB
industrial0.318320101004075JJ
country0NN
commitment0NN
cost0NN
effectively0RB
promote0.00825124851366066VB
sustainable0.00901749491165909JJ
development0.0330049940546426NN
develop0VB
support0.0277502419802315NN
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cleaner0JJR
efficient0JJ
technology0.0810848128688654NN
forestry0NN
project0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.501231431332689
WordScorePoS
assist0.048933054487825VB
industrial0JJ
country0NN
commitment0.0739231123597559NN
cost0NN
effectively0RB
promote0.0100599344419752VB
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development0.0469463607292177NN
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support0.0451108483130998NN
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cleaner0JJR
efficient0JJ
technology0.109843026967392NN
forestry0NN
project0NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.329910679742947
WordScorePoS
assist0VB
industrial0JJ
country0NN
commitment0NN
cost0NN
effectively0RB
promote0.00838876601975825VB
sustainable0.0104774661535722JJ
development0NN
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support0.0188084899376888NN
investment0.0383371018038178NN
cleaner0.0924643738905717JJR
efficient0JJ
technology0.109914925284606NN
forestry0NN
project0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.313338205289693
WordScorePoS
assist0VB
industrial0JJ
country0NN
commitment0NN
cost0.0277064208763707NN
effectively0RB
promote0.0148712355431627VB
sustainable0.0162522423871414JJ
development0.022306853314744NN
develop0VB
support0.00833571598658786NN
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cleaner0JJR
efficient0.108503934593034JJ
technology0NN
forestry0NN
project0.0664302389559493NN

Fairness in processes is also an issue

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.667419388914429
WordScorePoS
process0.0737171311497939NN
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.505369322059527
WordScorePoS
process0.0558185411034276NN
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Label: 13, with a score of: 0.303889679567541
WordScorePoS
process0NN
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In negotiating the Kyoto Protocol as in most global treaty negotiations industrial nations had greater power at the negotiating table

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.772958878685936
WordScorePoS
negotiate0VB
global0JJ
negotiation0NN
industrial0.318320101004075JJ
nation0NN
power0.0454743001434393NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.543409970947628
WordScorePoS
negotiate0.0548233071065585VB
global0.0375696197697663JJ
negotiation0NN
industrial0.0414107553022249JJ
nation0.0671298309154199NN
power0NN

An imbalance of technical expertise lack of adequate public support for the issues and problems forming coalitions because of diverse interests have attenuated the bargaining power for many developing countries

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.341839037455292
WordScorePoS
technical0JJ
expertise0NN
lack0NN
adequate0JJ
public0.0285977592242194NN
support0NN
issue0NN
form0.158049144643351NN
power0NN
develop0VB
country0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.428881680659409
WordScorePoS
technical0JJ
expertise0NN
lack0.0753297582301286NN
adequate0.0519476926891779JJ
public0NN
support0.0184786920895884NN
issue0NN
form0.0884167543187491NN
power0NN
develop0VB
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Label: 11, with a score of: 0.374152818576764
WordScorePoS
technical0.0373517915079663JJ
expertise0NN
lack0.0229054731708393NN
adequate0.0631828116343571JJ
public0.0583751976558017NN
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issue0NN
form0NN
power0NN
develop0VB
country0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.366331184965904
WordScorePoS
technical0JJ
expertise0.048933054487825NN
lack0NN
adequate0JJ
public0.0390556786919513NN
support0.0451108483130998NN
issue0.0299586785922821NN
form0NN
power0.036961556179878NN
develop0VB
country0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.323346843701328
WordScorePoS
technical0.030745604615229JJ
expertise0NN
lack0.0565629593551219NN
adequate0JJ
public0.0160169090870187NN
support0.0277502419802315NN
issue0NN
form0NN
power0.0454743001434393NN
develop0VB
country0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.317409592813023
WordScorePoS
technical0JJ
expertise0NN
lack0NN
adequate0JJ
public0.0727679293221751NN
support0NN
issue0NN
form0.100540298425703NN
power0NN
develop0VB
country0NN

The United States the single largest emitter of greenhouse gases has announced that it is not becoming party to the Kyoto Protocol significantly reducing the protocol efficacy

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.750901138995465
WordScorePoS
unite0.0828215106044499VB
single0JJ
largest0JJS
greenhouse0.0671298309154199NN
gas0.0671298309154199NN
party0.0548233071065585NN
significantly0RB
reduce0.00375696197697663VB

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.43115492349441
WordScorePoS
unite0VB
single0JJ
largest0JJS
greenhouse0.0749457204978913NN
gas0.0749457204978913NN
party0NN
significantly0RB
reduce0.00838876601975825VB

With the protocol having come into effect in February the United States will be mere observer at the Meetings of the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol but because of the size of its emissions the other parties will not want to ignore U

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.932981219946047
WordScorePoS
effect0NN
unite0.0828215106044499VB
party0.0548233071065585NN
size0NN
emission0.19598742448524NN

concerns

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Equitable access to information is an important ingredient for more equitable use of global resources

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.422032638590031
WordScorePoS
equitable0.0221298700466866JJ
access0.0128821355880844NN
information0.0675706773907211NN
global0JJ
resource0.0185001613201543NN

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.376166483187873
WordScorePoS
equitable0.0502364757923669JJ
access0.00731085509381114NN
information0NN
global0.00936547854413134JJ
resource0.0104991907358033NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.350080333798884
WordScorePoS
equitable0.017987180284335JJ
access0.00314118376811005NN
information0.0219686053934784NN
global0.0201198688839505JJ
resource0.0375923735942499NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.328073375022858
WordScorePoS
equitable0.0214456704626236JJ
access0.00749031153171887NN
information0.0130963126055467NN
global0.0119942111830662JJ
resource0.0358563662904843NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.303064428283214
WordScorePoS
equitable0JJ
access0.00232174891244877NN
information0.0365348149782971NN
global0.022306853314744JJ
resource0.0416785799329393NN

The UN ECE Convention on Access to Information Public Participation in Decision making and Access to Justice in Environmental Matters Aarhus Convention deals with public participation in environmental management and access to information on environmental issues

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.503519271025992
WordScorePoS
convention0NN
access0.00690021170452351NN
information0.0241291244414115NN
public0.0285977592242194NN
participation0.0548954478802642NN
decision0.0464294830712827NN
justice0.214981650384708NN
environmental0JJ
management0NN
issue0NN

The Convention adopted in and in force among parties since grants citizens the right to impose obligations on public authorities and parties to international environmental conventions including information disclosure access to information public participation in environmental decision making and access to justice

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.513319930875841
WordScorePoS
convention0NN
adopt0VB
force0NN
party0NN
obligation0NN
public0.0285977592242194NN
international0.0189945307832458JJ
environmental0JJ
include0VB
information0.0241291244414115NN
access0.00690021170452351NN
participation0.0548954478802642NN
decision0.0464294830712827NN
justice0.214981650384708NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.414623516181196
WordScorePoS
convention0NN
adopt0.0285529457667019VB
force0.0465610847355851NN
party0NN
obligation0NN
public0.0727679293221751NN
international0.00402768349408688JJ
environmental0JJ
include0VB
information0.02046578088155NN
access0.00780347258345989NN
participation0.0465610847355851NN
decision0.0393804437159645NN
justice0NN

A Convention Compliance Committee has been established to which citizens and NGOs can bring allegations of noncompliance

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT Providing development assistance to help build endowments In shaping global inequities rules and processes interact with unequal endowments

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.475377208332714
WordScorePoS
world0NN
development0.0368309542451156NN
report0NN
provide0.013214597504793VB
assistance0NN
build0VB
global0.00736619084902312JJ
rule0.162386273072618NN
process0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.552197516371901
WordScorePoS
world0.00418824502414673NN
development0.0469463607292177NN
report0NN
provide0.00601568197638796VB
assistance0.0499801157438617NN
build0.0499801157438617VB
global0.0201198688839505JJ
rule0.0739231123597559NN
process0NN

Even if all the reforms suggested in the previous sections were implemented many poor countries would still not be able to participate in global markets because of their limited endowments of skills capital infrastructure knowledge and ideas

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.597469951774822
WordScorePoS
reform0NN
suggest0VB
previous0JJ
implement0VB
poor0JJ
country0NN
global0.00558555252470789JJ
market0NN
limited0JJ
skill0.407534682675042NN
infrastructure0NN
knowledge0.0416255041156371NN
idea0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.415144998720138
WordScorePoS
reform0NN
suggest0VB
previous0JJ
implement0.0450489732120807VB
poor0.150659516460257JJ
country0NN
global0JJ
market0NN
limited0.120266261535276JJ
skill0NN
infrastructure0NN
knowledge0NN
idea0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.381168437212095
WordScorePoS
reform0NN
suggest0.0602029956716497VB
previous0JJ
implement0VB
poor0JJ
country0NN
global0JJ
market0.0377086395700813NN
limited0JJ
skill0NN
infrastructure0.192202909044225NN
knowledge0NN
idea0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.320848421592026
WordScorePoS
reform0NN
suggest0VB
previous0JJ
implement0.0109267235789154VB
poor0.0548141757796873JJ
country0NN
global0.0119942111830662JJ
market0.0913569596328122NN
limited0JJ
skill0NN
infrastructure0.0155217067874935NN
knowledge0.0595900566394012NN
idea0NN

Action to build endowments is primarily domestic through private and public investments in infrastructure and other areas

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.617075130937036
WordScorePoS
action0.0135141354781442NN
build0.030745604615229VB
primarily0RB
domestic0.0520080474473126JJ
private0.0368585655748969JJ
public0.0160169090870187NN
investment0.0377086395700813NN
infrastructure0.192202909044225NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.55829415025471
WordScorePoS
action0.0109843026967392NN
build0.0499801157438617VB
primarily0RB
domestic0.0634082886861185JJ
private0.0898760357768464JJ
public0.0390556786919513NN
investment0.0766240489430275NN
infrastructure0.0130185595639838NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.379559393797221
WordScorePoS
action0.0409315617631NN
build0VB
primarily0RB
domestic0.0393804437159645JJ
private0.0558185411034276JJ
public0.0727679293221751NN
investment0NN
infrastructure0.024255976440725NN

Can domestic action be supported by aid

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.550992859935131
WordScorePoS
domestic0.0695218668857431JJ
action0NN
support0.024730129581725NN
aid0.0607878664258118NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.459708668803887
WordScorePoS
domestic0JJ
action0NN
support0.00625975725959118NN
aid0.123094312756122NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.424700723938883
WordScorePoS
domestic0.0634082886861185JJ
action0.0109843026967392NN
support0.0451108483130998NN
aid0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.331478880288003
WordScorePoS
domestic0.0520080474473126JJ
action0.0135141354781442NN
support0.0277502419802315NN
aid0NN

Better development assistance From an equity perspective the main roles of aid are to help countries build the endowments of those who are resourcepoor generally through no fault of their own and avoid extreme deprivation which justifies to some extent the use of aid to support current consumption

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.501711707372474
WordScorePoS
development0.022306853314744NN
assistance0NN
perspective0NN
aid0NN
country0NN
build0VB
avoid0VB
extreme0JJ
extent0NN
support0.00833571598658786NN
current0.0332151194779746JJ
consumption0.332151194779746NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.495249573612096
WordScorePoS
development0.0164833460638534NN
assistance0NN
perspective0NN
aid0NN
country0NN
build0.0614198493690006VB
avoid0VB
extreme0.294526332970048JJ
extent0NN
support0.0184786920895884NN
current0JJ
consumption0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.431680738334136
WordScorePoS
development0.0055149369084567NN
assistance0.0410992516792148NN
perspective0NN
aid0.0607878664258118NN
country0NN
build0VB
avoid0VB
extreme0JJ
extent0NN
support0.024730129581725NN
current0JJ
consumption0.147812295323721NN

The focus on building endowments implies that both the level of aid and its effectiveness matter

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.503295073584109
WordScorePoS
focus0NN
building0.149940347231585NN
level0.0138997399903163NN
aid0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.524852489215023
WordScorePoS
focus0NN
building0.109790895760528NN
level0.0610668815653026NN
aid0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.378129444672903
WordScorePoS
focus0NN
building0NN
level0NN
aid0.123094312756122NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.365492451607958
WordScorePoS
focus0.0373517915079663NN
building0.0747035830159326NN
level0.00692515656684925NN
aid0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.336391224004761
WordScorePoS
focus0.0410992516792148NN
building0NN
level0.00761994916892276NN
aid0.0607878664258118NN

Enhancing aid effectiveness

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.746954563376651
WordScorePoS
enhance0VB
aid0.123094312756122NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.443902846307216
WordScorePoS
enhance0.0123650647908625VB
aid0.0607878664258118NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.364985765800796
WordScorePoS
enhance0.0601477977507998VB
aid0NN

If the goal is to equalize opportunities for the poor aid effectiveness is crucial

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.555493182952917
WordScorePoS
goal0NN
opportunity0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
aid0NN
crucial0JJ

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.453858164441524
WordScorePoS
goal0NN
opportunity0NN
poor0JJ
aid0.123094312756122NN
crucial0JJ

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.357343962448174
WordScorePoS
goal0NN
opportunity0.0361300980868102NN
poor0JJ
aid0.0607878664258118NN
crucial0JJ

Aid that sustains corruption or marginal projects or is used to increase the resources at the disposal of the rich does not help

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.73929334849009
WordScorePoS
aid0NN
sustain0VB
corruption0.322472475577062NN
project0NN
increase0NN
resource0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.345974609216131
WordScorePoS
aid0NN
sustain0.0332151194779746VB
corruption0NN
project0.0664302389559493NN
increase0.00958677785775002NN
resource0.0416785799329393NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.315213016466068
WordScorePoS
aid0.123094312756122NN
sustain0VB
corruption0NN
project0NN
increase0.0143984997539974NN
resource0NN

Aid effectiveness hinges crucially on aid delivery modalities and on the fairness and transparency of domestic political processes

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.577638355045586
WordScorePoS
aid0.123094312756122NN
transparency0NN
domestic0JJ
political0JJ
process0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.485304490703199
WordScorePoS
aid0NN
transparency0NN
domestic0.0393804437159645JJ
political0.111637082206855JJ
process0.0558185411034276NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.448376942418741
WordScorePoS
aid0.0607878664258118NN
transparency0NN
domestic0.0695218668857431JJ
political0JJ
process0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.381474190146928
WordScorePoS
aid0NN
transparency0NN
domestic0.0520080474473126JJ
political0.0368585655748969JJ
process0.0737171311497939NN

Birdsall cites seven deadly sins impatience with institution building failure to exit failure to evaluate pretending that participation equals ownership failure to collaborate stingy and unreliable financing and underfunding of regional and global programs in addition to tying aid to the use of consultants and firms from the donor country and allocating it according to political priorities

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.600026858895406
WordScorePoS
institution0.274477239401321NN
building0.109790895760528NN
participation0.0548954478802642NN
equal0.033663879505068JJ
ownership0NN
financing0NN
regional0JJ
global0.00736619084902312JJ
addition0NN
aid0NN
firm0NN
country0NN
political0JJ
priority0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.342732102718853
WordScorePoS
institution0.0249900578719309NN
building0.149940347231585NN
participation0NN
equal0JJ
ownership0NN
financing0.036961556179878NN
regional0.0422721924574123JJ
global0.0201198688839505JJ
addition0NN
aid0NN
firm0NN
country0NN
political0JJ
priority0NN

Existing aid planning and delivery practices are rooted in political and incentive constraints that the donors face so change is difficult and slow

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.718912513422534
WordScorePoS
exist0VB
aid0NN
plan0.0291713033871158NN
practice0NN
political0JJ
incentive0NN
constraint0NN
change0.402565546215053NN
slow0JJ

But some current directions are promising emphasizing results including through tracking indicators of intermediate actions and final outcomes related to the MDGs moving away from ex ante conditionality and progres sively shifting design and management from donors to countries

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

The United Kingdom Commission for Africa recommended major shift away from ex ante conditionality toward new partnership in which African countries continue to work to improve governance and accountability and donors deliver more cheaper more predictable aid

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.819029907494681
WordScorePoS
unite0.036961556179878VB
commission0NN
africa0IN
recommend0VB
major0JJ
partnership0.3914644359026NN
african0IN
country0NN
continue0VB
improve0.0183291958415182VB
governance0NN
accountability0.048933054487825NN
deliver0.0299586785922821VB
predictable0JJ
aid0NN

High levels of aid reduce the need for domestic tax efforts which have historically helped strengthen overall accountability of governments and citizen demand for quality services so particular attention should be paid to revenue collection

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.53426664765931
WordScorePoS
level0.0138997399903163NN
aid0NN
reduce0.00335331148065841VB
domestic0.0634082886861185JJ
tax0.036961556179878NN
effort0NN
help0NN
strengthen0.0120313639527759VB
accountability0.048933054487825NN
government0.048933054487825NN
demand0NN
quality0.00916459792075908NN
service0NN
attention0NN
pay0NN
revenue0.0978661089756501NN
collection0.048933054487825NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.380050989652678
WordScorePoS
level0.00761994916892276NN
aid0.0607878664258118NN
reduce0.0055149369084567VB
domestic0.0695218668857431JJ
tax0NN
effort0NN
help0NN
strengthen0.00989353561471291VB
accountability0NN
government0NN
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quality0.030144637392549NN
service0.0197870712294258NN
attention0NN
pay0.0695218668857431NN
revenue0NN
collection0NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.364003751678371
WordScorePoS
level0.00692515656684925NN
aid0NN
reduce0.0200483235258943VB
domestic0.0315914058171786JJ
tax0NN
effort0.0229054731708393NN
help0NN
strengthen0.0179828714372571VB
accountability0NN
government0NN
demand0NN
quality0.0136980135278128NN
service0.0269743071558856NN
attention0.08955644059472NN
pay0.0315914058171786NN
revenue0NN
collection0NN

The preparation of poverty reduction strategies is key if imperfect instrument to shift to country led processes with greater participation and monitoring of how public resources are spent

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.656156659107041
WordScorePoS
poverty0.269969049497485NN
reduction0NN
strategy0.0442083771593746NN
key0NN
country0NN
lead0NN
process0NN
participation0.0614198493690006NN
monitor0NN
public0NN
resource0.0739147683583536NN

Fragile states pose special challenge

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.714346054375201
WordScorePoS
fragile0JJ
pose0VB
special0.0747035830159326JJ
challenge0.0947742174515357NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.506920252476792
WordScorePoS
fragile0.120266261535276JJ
pose0VB
special0JJ
challenge0NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.312245604008003
WordScorePoS
fragile0JJ
pose0.0517339898971162VB
special0JJ
challenge0.0223459295604043NN

Stabilization and peacekeeping need to be complemented with efforts to build state institutions and legitimacy

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.76191801683467
WordScorePoS
complement0NN
effort0NN
build0VB
institution0.274477239401321NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.479774126103786
WordScorePoS
complement0.0978661089756501NN
effort0NN
build0.0499801157438617VB
institution0.0249900578719309NN

The sequencing of interventions matters there is some evidence that ring fenced long term investment in human capital development and working with NGOs and the private sector can be useful first steps

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.750284487891023
WordScorePoS
intervention0NN
evidence0NN
term0.149793392961411NN
investment0.0766240489430275NN
human0JJ
development0.0469463607292177NN
private0.0898760357768464JJ
sector0.0459744293658165NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.379535749612781
WordScorePoS
intervention0NN
evidence0.12939607756667NN
term0.0396106020715138NN
investment0.0202620733250388NN
human0JJ
development0.0177346522508396NN
private0JJ
sector0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.321610895771647
WordScorePoS
intervention0NN
evidence0NN
term0NN
investment0.0377086395700813NN
human0.011275328195446JJ
development0.0330049940546426NN
private0.0368585655748969JJ
sector0.0565629593551219NN

Technical assistance appears more effective after reforms take off and can help lay the basis for capital investment and service delivery interventions

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.512679383636774
WordScorePoS
technical0JJ
assistance0.0499801157438617NN
effective0.0219686053934784JJ
reform0NN
basis0.048933054487825NN
investment0.0766240489430275NN
service0NN
intervention0NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.419136744015759
WordScorePoS
technical0.124876512346911JJ
assistance0NN
effective0.0365927233505197JJ
reform0NN
basis0NN
investment0NN
service0NN
intervention0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.377046202152604
WordScorePoS
technical0.0410992516792148JJ
assistance0.0410992516792148NN
effective0.0180650490434051JJ
reform0NN
basis0NN
investment0.0252035516550537NN
service0.0197870712294258NN
intervention0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.347972443109728
WordScorePoS
technical0JJ
assistance0NN
effective0.02046578088155JJ
reform0.0911713013253052NN
basis0NN
investment0NN
service0.022416649027415NN
intervention0NN

When domestic political processes are manifestly inequitable and corrupt donors can try to support moves toward more equitable revenue collection and allocation decentralization to lower levels of government which can challenge central control and the strengthening of community based organizations the media and domestic entrepreneurship which can help create middle class with voice and stake in better governance

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.478401652445894
WordScorePoS
domestic0.0634082886861185JJ
political0JJ
process0NN
support0.0451108483130998NN
move0NN
equitable0.017987180284335JJ
revenue0.0978661089756501NN
collection0.048933054487825NN
level0.0138997399903163NN
government0.048933054487825NN
challenge0NN
central0JJ
control0NN
strengthen0.0120313639527759VB
community0NN
base0.017987180284335NN
organization0.0422721924574123NN
media0NNS
entrepreneurship0NN
create0VB
middle0JJ
class0NN
voice0NN
governance0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.401040107847791
WordScorePoS
domestic0.0520080474473126JJ
political0.0368585655748969JJ
process0.0737171311497939NN
support0.0277502419802315NN
move0NN
equitable0.0221298700466866JJ
revenue0NN
collection0NN
level0NN
government0NN
challenge0NN
central0JJ
control0NN
strengthen0VB
community0.0188543197850406NN
base0NN
organization0NN
media0NNS
entrepreneurship0NN
create0.0520080474473126VB
middle0.0602029956716497JJ
class0NN
voice0NN
governance0NN

Improving the allocation of aid

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.750506599671199
WordScorePoS
improve0VB
aid0.123094312756122NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.462519902923567
WordScorePoS
improve0.0150723186962745VB
aid0.0607878664258118NN

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.312115988597963
WordScorePoS
improve0.0511916925627245VB
aid0NN

The distribution of aid matters as well

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.896628537902683
WordScorePoS
aid0.123094312756122NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.442783541946284
WordScorePoS
aid0.0607878664258118NN

A lively debate has taken place in recent years on aid allocation criteria

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.83605344782602
WordScorePoS
aid0.123094312756122NN
criterion0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.412869645829839
WordScorePoS
aid0.0607878664258118NN
criterion0NN

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.361321585198792
WordScorePoS
aid0NN
criterion0.0531983120572613NN

Burnside and Dollar and Collier and Dollar found that aid was more effective in reducing poverty if it was allocated to countries that followed good policies and had good institutions

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.530748100035947
WordScorePoS
dollar0NN
aid0NN
effective0.0482582488828229JJ
reduce0.0220985725470694VB
poverty0NN
country0NN
policy0.0201317944152378NN
institution0.274477239401321NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.482082691042421
WordScorePoS
dollar0NN
aid0NN
effective0JJ
reduce0.0164833460638534VB
poverty0.269969049497485NN
country0NN
policy0.0450489732120807NN
institution0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.418233015295603
WordScorePoS
dollar0NN
aid0NN
effective0.0145231653596925JJ
reduce0.0310356414389692VB
poverty0.05809266143877NN
country0NN
policy0.0848203862485078NN
institution0.0991236547760315NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.353299358289451
WordScorePoS
dollar0NN
aid0.0607878664258118NN
effective0.0180650490434051JJ
reduce0.0055149369084567VB
poverty0.0722601961736204NN
country0NN
policy0.0452169560888236NN
institution0.0410992516792148NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.324753077646131
WordScorePoS
dollar0.048933054487825NN
aid0NN
effective0.0219686053934784JJ
reduce0.00335331148065841VB
poverty0.0109843026967392NN
country0NN
policy0.0641521854453136NN
institution0.0249900578719309NN

They calculated that reallocating actual aid provided in across countries to maximize poverty reduction according to their formula Achieving greater global equity would have led to directing aid to roughly instead of the countries considered and lifted twice as many people out of poverty

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.681622564602608
WordScorePoS
actual0JJ
aid0NN
country0NN
poverty0.269969049497485NN
reduction0NN
achieve0.0113874611101829VB
global0JJ
lead0NN
direct0JJ
lift0NN
people0.0371911007748996NNS

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.422129037871703
WordScorePoS
actual0JJ
aid0.0607878664258118NN
country0NN
poverty0.0722601961736204NN
reduction0NN
achieve0.0152398983378455VB
global0.0220597476338268JJ
lead0.0504071033101074NN
direct0JJ
lift0NN
people0.0106656521351091NNS

Their findings have been questioned by Hansen and Tarp and others who argued that their analysis does not take country conditions into account and is not robust to different specifications

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.739960133701346
WordScorePoS
country0NN
condition0.121575732851624NN
account0NN

If aid effectiveness varies across countries not because of policies but as the result of different country circumstances such as climate different aid allocation rule would maximize the poverty impact of foreign aid

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.424036336904377
WordScorePoS
aid0NN
country0NN
policy0.0450489732120807NN
result0NN
circumstance0NN
climate0.0376648791150643NN
rule0NN
poverty0.269969049497485NN
impact0NN
foreign0JJ

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.415888916262273
WordScorePoS
aid0NN
country0NN
policy0.0102677744436108NN
result0NN
circumstance0NN
climate0.291881734282273NN
rule0NN
poverty0NN
impact0.0437569550806737NN
foreign0JJ

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.253827960920095
WordScorePoS
aid0NN
country0NN
policy0.0201317944152378NN
result0NN
circumstance0NN
climate0NN
rule0.162386273072618NN
poverty0NN
impact0.0285977592242194NN
foreign0JJ

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.41974240294776
WordScorePoS
aid0.0607878664258118NN
country0NN
policy0.0452169560888236NN
result0NN
circumstance0.049270765107907NN
climate0NN
rule0NN
poverty0.0722601961736204NN
impact0NN
foreign0JJ

Cogneau and Naudet suggested an alternative rule for aid allocation and showed that gains in poverty reduction similar to those found by Collier and Dollar could be obtained if aid was directed to countries that have greater structural disadvantages geographic historical or economic as discussed in chapter

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.497010741846004
WordScorePoS
suggest0VB
alternative0NN
rule0NN
aid0NN
gain0NN
poverty0.269969049497485NN
reduction0NN
dollar0NN
obtain0VB
direct0JJ
country0NN
geographic0JJ
historical0JJ
economic0.0959899298575892JJ

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.437716922358883
WordScorePoS
suggest0VB
alternative0NN
rule0NN
aid0.0607878664258118NN
gain0NN
poverty0.0722601961736204NN
reduction0NN
dollar0NN
obtain0VB
direct0JJ
country0NN
geographic0JJ
historical0JJ
economic0.128463821595706JJ

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.220537619237162
WordScorePoS
suggest0VB
alternative0NN
rule0.162386273072618NN
aid0NN
gain0NN
poverty0NN
reduction0NN
dollar0NN
obtain0VB
direct0JJ
country0NN
geographic0JJ
historical0JJ
economic0JJ

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.3375495365968
WordScorePoS
suggest0VB
alternative0NN
rule0NN
aid0NN
gain0NN
poverty0.05809266143877NN
reduction0.0475643836183697NN
dollar0NN
obtain0VB
direct0.0396106020715138JJ
country0NN
geographic0JJ
historical0JJ
economic0.103276847978089JJ

The resulting allocation would spread the risk of poverty more evenly across the world population while reducing global poverty almost as much as the allocation proposed by Collier and Dollar

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.789848686680284
WordScorePoS
result0NN
spread0NN
risk0.0519476926891779NN
poverty0.269969049497485NN
world0.00257343720272548NN
population0NN
reduce0.0164833460638534VB
global0JJ
dollar0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.322374901747471
WordScorePoS
result0NN
spread0NN
risk0NN
poverty0.05809266143877NN
world0.00276879546803864NN
population0.0860640399817412NN
reduce0.0310356414389692VB
global0.0133009891881297JJ
dollar0NN

In sum an equity perspective suggests that an approach that does not take country circumstances into account is likely to ignore important information about need

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.653902799719298
WordScorePoS
perspective0NN
suggest0VB
approach0.0542519672965169NN
country0NN
circumstance0.0332151194779746NN
account0.0577345906651901NN
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.649990444363446
WordScorePoS
perspective0NN
suggest0.0602029956716497VB
approach0NN
country0NN
circumstance0.0368585655748969NN
account0.0160169090870187NN
information0.0675706773907211NN

But an approach that ignores aid effectiveness does not lead to expanded opportunities

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.595175397836244
WordScorePoS
approach0NN
aid0.0607878664258118NN
lead0.0504071033101074NN
expand0.0295821503613099VB
opportunity0.0361300980868102NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.499983043317997
WordScorePoS
approach0NN
aid0.123094312756122NN
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opportunity0NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.465260641729146
WordScorePoS
approach0NN
aid0NN
lead0.0383371018038178NN
expand0.0449973847138318VB
opportunity0.0549574626423028NN

To contribute toward an equalization of opportunities across the world individuals aid should be targeted where the probability is greatest that it effectively reaches those with the most limited opportunities the poorest of the poor in opportunity terms

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.425725066982026
WordScorePoS
contribute0.0249900578719309VB
opportunity0NN
world0.00418824502414673NN
individual0JJ
aid0NN
target0.0898760357768464NN
effectively0RB
reach0NN
limited0JJ
poorest0JJS
poor0.0153248097886055JJ
term0.149793392961411NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.409735124747738
WordScorePoS
contribute0VB
opportunity0NN
world0.00257343720272548NN
individual0JJ
aid0NN
target0NN
effectively0RB
reach0NN
limited0.120266261535276JJ
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poor0.150659516460257JJ
term0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.361324424895439
WordScorePoS
contribute0.0297950283197006VB
opportunity0.0261926252110933NN
world0.0124838525528648NN
individual0JJ
aid0NN
target0.0357189919948307NN
effectively0RB
reach0NN
limited0JJ
poorest0.0297950283197006JJS
poor0.0548141757796873JJ
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.340459624972881
WordScorePoS
contribute0VB
opportunity0.029046330719385NN
world0.00276879546803864NN
individual0.064698038783335JJ
aid0NN
target0NN
effectively0RB
reach0NN
limited0JJ
poorest0.0330412182586772JJS
poor0JJ
term0.0396106020715138NN

That clearly depends on the poverty and deprivation levels in each country and on its government ability and political commitment to deliver the aid where and how it is intended

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.555252413176975
WordScorePoS
depend0VB
poverty0.269969049497485NN
level0.0113874611101829NN
country0NN
government0NN
ability0NN
political0JJ
commitment0NN
deliver0VB
aid0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.397569838616521
WordScorePoS
depend0VB
poverty0.0722601961736204NN
level0.00761994916892276NN
country0NN
government0NN
ability0.0607878664258118NN
political0JJ
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aid0.0607878664258118NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.350685812239555
WordScorePoS
depend0VB
poverty0.0109843026967392NN
level0.0138997399903163NN
country0NN
government0.048933054487825NN
ability0NN
political0JJ
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.349157506262717
WordScorePoS
depend0VB
poverty0.05809266143877NN
level0NN
country0NN
government0NN
ability0NN
political0.0792212041430275JJ
commitment0NN
deliver0.0396106020715138VB
aid0NN

But more research is needed to fully understand the causal mechanisms

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.751921848921217
WordScorePoS
research0NN
fully0RB
mechanism0.147846224719512NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.529008938436623
WordScorePoS
research0.104016094894625NN
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In practice recent research showed that many donors indeed seem to rely on both good policies and poor initial conditions

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.459419682559895
WordScorePoS
practice0NN
research0NN
rely0VB
policy0.0450489732120807NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
condition0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.466671374753256
WordScorePoS
practice0.0703006268489394NN
research0NN
rely0.0332151194779746VB
policy0.0203215381458133NN
poor0.0339811641917276JJ
condition0.0409791940864438NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.3915407263866
WordScorePoS
practice0NN
research0NN
rely0VB
policy0.0452169560888236NN
poor0JJ
condition0.121575732851624NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.300054819535606
WordScorePoS
practice0NN
research0.0528748274225028NN
rely0.0749457204978913VB
policy0NN
poor0JJ
condition0NN

A study of donor agencies by Dollar and Levin found that aid was positively correlated with measure of good policies and with per capita GDP and the agencies that focused the most on good policies also directed their aid to poor countries

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.480651774913197
WordScorePoS
study0NN
agency0NN
dollar0NN
aid0NN
positively0RB
measure0.103895385378356NN
policy0.0450489732120807NN
capita0NN
gdp0NN
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direct0JJ
poor0.150659516460257JJ
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.470175210573357
WordScorePoS
study0NN
agency0NN
dollar0NN
aid0.0607878664258118NN
positively0RB
measure0.0347609334428716NN
policy0.0452169560888236NN
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gdp0NN
focus0.0410992516792148NN
direct0JJ
poor0JJ
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However some fragile states aid orphans receive less aid than predicted by their policy and institutional strength mostly because of disproportionately low flows from bilateral donors while others aid darlings received more

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.816866869941746
WordScorePoS
fragile0JJ
aid0.123094312756122NN
receive0.0814816979556159VB
predict0VB
policy0NN
institutional0JJ
flow0NN

Increasing aid levels

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.728842546836827
WordScorePoS
increase0.0143984997539974NN
aid0.123094312756122NN
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.400318481482648
WordScorePoS
increase0.00711043475673939NN
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.323712495765278
WordScorePoS
increase0NN
aid0NN
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Conditional on effectiveness and distribution levels of aid do matter

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.753116701910378
WordScorePoS
level0NN
aid0.123094312756122NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.418533296234985
WordScorePoS
level0.00761994916892276NN
aid0.0607878664258118NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.373619929391297
WordScorePoS
level0.0610668815653026NN
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Aid levels fell between and both as share of rich countries gross national income GNI and in nominal terms

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.674787394311159
WordScorePoS
aid0NN
level0.0138997399903163NN
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share0.0766240489430275NN
country0NN
gross0.0249900578719309JJ
national0.0134132459226336JJ
income0.017987180284335NN
gnus0.146799163463475NN
term0.149793392961411NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.327047404720224
WordScorePoS
aid0NN
level0NN
fall0NN
share0NN
country0NN
gross0JJ
national0.00886732612541978JJ
income0.166475342664294NN
gnus0NN
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Label: 3, with a score of: 0.383067098832399
WordScorePoS
aid0.123094312756122NN
level0NN
fall0.123094312756122NN
share0NN
country0NN
gross0JJ
national0.00558382296134999JJ
income0NN
gnus0NN
term0NN

Calls for more aid to help countries achieve the MDGs have resonated loudly in recent international gatherings

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.767130527076229
WordScorePoS
aid0.123094312756122NN
country0NN
achieve0.00385756426954823VB
international0JJ

At the International Conference on Financing for Development in Monterrey rich countries committed to increasing their aid flows significantly

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.58303915511624
WordScorePoS
international0.00402768349408688JJ
conference0.18234260265061NN
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increase0.00402768349408688NN
aid0NN
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significantly0RB

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.507602274148053
WordScorePoS
international0JJ
conference0NN
financing0.0307735781890304NN
development0.00837573444202498NN
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increase0.0143984997539974NN
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significantly0RB

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.393739397390471
WordScorePoS
international0.0189945307832458JJ
conference0NN
financing0NN
development0.0368309542451156NN
country0NN
increase0NN
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flow0.0811931365363091NN
significantly0RB

Net aid flows indeed increased significantly in in nominal and real terms reaching billion

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.507260728144017
WordScorePoS
aid0NN
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increase0.00432344066632653NN
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.483846595788323
WordScorePoS
aid0NN
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Label: 3, with a score of: 0.452544362265561
WordScorePoS
aid0.123094312756122NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.300631561822153
WordScorePoS
aid0NN
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Label: 7, with a score of: 0.300074765106045
WordScorePoS
aid0NN
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increase0.0162235147372888NN
significantly0RB
term0.0749457204978913NN
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Three major factors were behind these increases continuing growth in bilateral grants but with large share going to technical cooperation debt forgiveness emergency and disaster relief and administrative costs the provision of reconstruction aid to Afghanistan and Iraq by the United States in

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.59946272514928
WordScorePoS
major0JJ
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growth0NN
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relief0.048933054487825NN
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provision0NN
aid0NN
unite0.036961556179878VB

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.447305174784399
WordScorePoS
major0.0214106369326177JJ
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growth0.208565600657229NN
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disaster0NN
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cost0NN
provision0NN
aid0.0607878664258118NN
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Label: 11, with a score of: 0.286620028396188
WordScorePoS
major0JJ
increase0.00323105002784081NN
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growth0NN
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technical0.0373517915079663JJ
cooperation0NN
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billion to Afghanistan and

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

billion to Iraq and the depreciation of the U

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

dollar

Label: 17, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
dollar0.048933054487825NN

While there was small increase in new development assistance to Sub Saharan Africa in even after accounting for debt relief and emergency assistance Highly Indebted Poor Countries HIPC received less in real terms in than the year before

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.873146985962426
WordScorePoS
increase0.00432344066632653NN
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poor0.0153248097886055JJ
country0NN
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term0.149793392961411NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.243860905404407
WordScorePoS
increase0NN
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saharan0.0442083771593746JJ
africa0IN
accounting0NN
debt0NN
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highly0RB
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poor0.150659516460257JJ
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On the positive side the International Development Association the soft lending arm of the World Bank recently received replenishment for which is at least percent higher than the previous one and represents the largest funding increase in two decades

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.4761293001109
WordScorePoS
positive0JJ
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Label: 13, with a score of: 0.472155416809652
WordScorePoS
positive0JJ
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arm0NN
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These recent increases notwithstanding aid flows remain small not just in relation to need but also in comparison to domestic human development and safety net programs that aim to equalize opportunities and ensure against deprivation

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.516712008797284
WordScorePoS
increase0.00711043475673939NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.38445396910252
WordScorePoS
increase0.00285817158600878NN
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Label: 3, with a score of: 0.317920368082565
WordScorePoS
increase0.0143984997539974NN
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ensure0.00837573444202498VB

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.302956235135682
WordScorePoS
increase0.00323105002784081NN
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flow0NN
remain0VB
relation0NN
domestic0.0315914058171786JJ
human0.0273960270556257JJ
development0.0100241617629471NN
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aim0NN
opportunity0.0164178645080222NN
ensure0.00501208088147356VB

Such programs generally account for more than percent of GDP in donor countries

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.668891754233186
WordScorePoS
account0.0141533244035107NN
gdp0.0531983120572613NN
country0NN

Official development assistance ODA by contrast was only

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.936168402687689
WordScorePoS
official0.0739231123597559NN
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assistance0.0499801157438617NN
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percent of donor countries GNI in

Label: 17, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
country0NN
gnus0.146799163463475NN

Only Denmark Luxembourg the Netherlands Norway and Sweden meet the U

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.944106140672428
WordScorePoS
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target of providing ODA equal to or greater than

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.803372012833994
WordScorePoS
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oda0.1957322179513NN
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.345510062585881
WordScorePoS
target0NN
provide0.0112083245137075VB
oda0NN
equal0.114211783066808JJ

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.305714719556189
WordScorePoS
target0.0499016491051341NN
provide0.0100202166857628VB
oda0NN
equal0.051052537468787JJ

WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT Table

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.557885995940362
WordScorePoS
world0.00464349782489754NN
development0.022306853314744NN
report0.0409791940864438NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.419953944381463
WordScorePoS
world0.00418824502414673NN
development0.0469463607292177NN
report0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.3286817118747
WordScorePoS
world0.00087176582269799NN
development0.00837573444202498NN
report0.0307735781890304NN

ODA as share of GNI and simulation for Net ODA millions Country Austria Net ODA millions ODA as of GNI ODA as of GNI ODA as of GNI Simulation

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.999122200280897
WordScorePoS
oda0.1957322179513NN
share0.0766240489430275NN
gnus0.146799163463475NN
million0CD
country0NN

Belgium

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Denmark

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Finland

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

France

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Germany

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Greece

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Ireland

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Italy

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Luxembourg

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Netherlands

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Spain

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Sweden

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Portugal United Kingdom

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.91318849194418
WordScorePoS
unite0.0828215106044499VB

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.407537456169018
WordScorePoS
unite0.036961556179878VB

Australia

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Canada

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Japan

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

EU members total New Zealand Norway Switzerland

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.62423395560285
WordScorePoS
total0.0528748274225028NN

United States

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.91318849194418
WordScorePoS
unite0.0828215106044499VB

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.407537456169018
WordScorePoS
unite0.036961556179878VB

DAC members total

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.62423395560285
WordScorePoS
total0.0528748274225028NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.553307254365265
WordScorePoS
total0.0468670845659596NN

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.348457073659399
WordScorePoS
total0.0295155485671997NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.307000426893118
WordScorePoS
total0.0260040237236563NN

Source OECD DAC

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.792237489264932
WordScorePoS
source0NN
oecd0.108503934593034NN

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.447990153032111
WordScorePoS
source0.0613562156822703NN
oecd0NN

Note DAC Development Assistance Committee EU European Union GNI gross national income ODA official development assistance

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.812200169116432
WordScorePoS
development0.0469463607292177NN
assistance0.0499801157438617NN
gnus0.146799163463475NN
gross0.0249900578719309JJ
national0.0134132459226336JJ
income0.017987180284335NN
oda0.1957322179513NN
official0.0739231123597559NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.39685979931894
WordScorePoS
development0.0177346522508396NN
assistance0.0330412182586772NN
gnus0NN
gross0JJ
national0.00886732612541978JJ
income0.166475342664294NN
oda0NN
official0.0488696285210061NN

Figure

Label: 9, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
figure0.0602029956716497NN

More subsidies than aid Aid and agricultural subsidies relative to GDP in OECD DAC countries Percent of GDP

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.65626019501878
WordScorePoS
subsidy0.162850158165781NN
aid0NN
agricultural0JJ
relative0JJ
gdp0.0531983120572613NN
oecd0NN
country0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.488243618790308
WordScorePoS
subsidy0.0357189919948307NN
aid0NN
agricultural0.250032943963815JJ
relative0JJ
gdp0NN
oecd0NN
country0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.373906362825149
WordScorePoS
subsidy0NN
aid0.123094312756122NN
agricultural0JJ
relative0JJ
gdp0NN
oecd0NN
country0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.366579444551389
WordScorePoS
subsidy0.0664302389559493NN
aid0NN
agricultural0JJ
relative0JJ
gdp0NN
oecd0.108503934593034NN
country0NN

Agricultural subsidies Aid

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.775113214161818
WordScorePoS
agricultural0.250032943963815JJ
subsidy0.0357189919948307NN
aid0NN

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.441737373009108
WordScorePoS
agricultural0JJ
subsidy0.162850158165781NN
aid0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.333898099711373
WordScorePoS
agricultural0JJ
subsidy0NN
aid0.123094312756122NN

Japan European Union United States Sources OECD DAC and OECD

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.850174363512628
WordScorePoS
unite0VB
source0NN
oecd0.108503934593034NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.372684255243297
WordScorePoS
unite0.0828215106044499VB
source0.0123065238088614NN
oecd0NN

All OECD DAC countries percent of GNI

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.804175604475285
WordScorePoS
oecd0NN
country0NN
gnus0.146799163463475NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.59439178760041
WordScorePoS
oecd0.108503934593034NN
country0NN
gnus0NN

Many countries are not on track to meet their Monterrey commitments table

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.699088918314163
WordScorePoS
country0NN
meet0.0881366997038154VB
commitment0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.586348579328084
WordScorePoS
country0NN
meet0VB
commitment0.0739231123597559NN

Aid also is low in comparison with other uses of public resources

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.541625259755044
WordScorePoS
aid0.123094312756122NN
public0.021678073222951NN
resource0NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.386563866224205
WordScorePoS
aid0NN
public0.0583751976558017NN
resource0.0449504361447405NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.377057070008401
WordScorePoS
aid0NN
public0.0727679293221751NN
resource0.0280166088658745NN

Agricultural subsidies for instance were almost five times larger than aid in

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.750865409180314
WordScorePoS
agricultural0.250032943963815JJ
subsidy0.0357189919948307NN
time0.0182713919265625NN
aid0NN

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.443348934091636
WordScorePoS
agricultural0JJ
subsidy0.162850158165781NN
time0.0166605993001162NN
aid0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.33552586520423
WordScorePoS
agricultural0JJ
subsidy0NN
time0.0127591822694525NN
aid0.123094312756122NN

Japan the European Union and the United States had subsidies equal to

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.647641276462399
WordScorePoS
unite0VB
subsidy0.162850158165781NN
equal0JJ

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.454210581098328
WordScorePoS
unite0VB
subsidy0NN
equal0.114211783066808JJ

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.329374128036192
WordScorePoS
unite0.0828215106044499VB
subsidy0NN
equal0JJ

percent of GDP and aid of

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.83605344782602
WordScorePoS
gdp0NN
aid0.123094312756122NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.41286964582984
WordScorePoS
gdp0NN
aid0.0607878664258118NN

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.361321585198792
WordScorePoS
gdp0.0531983120572613NN
aid0NN

percent respectively figure

Label: 9, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
figure0.0602029956716497NN

Rich countries should deliver on their Monterrey commitments this alone would add around billion to development assistance by

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.729398777155412
WordScorePoS
country0NN
deliver0.0299586785922821VB
commitment0.0739231123597559NN
add0VB
development0.0469463607292177NN
assistance0.0499801157438617NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.461633279842092
WordScorePoS
country0NN
deliver0VB
commitment0NN
add0.0804764811724088VB
development0.0055149369084567NN
assistance0.0410992516792148NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.328312093009715
WordScorePoS
country0NN
deliver0.0396106020715138VB
commitment0NN
add0VB
development0.0177346522508396NN
assistance0.0330412182586772NN

To make further progress toward the

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.647350155234585
WordScorePoS
progress0.0591643007226199NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.491577064366258
WordScorePoS
progress0.0449274832628543NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.366689467569006
WordScorePoS
progress0.0335134328085675NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.327819552060155
WordScorePoS
progress0.0299609328954485NN

percent goal countries could establish intermediate targets for

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.914604581770739
WordScorePoS
goal0NN
country0NN
establish0.048933054487825VB
target0.0898760357768464NN

But again higher aid that is poorly spent supports corrupt regimes or undermines domestic accountability can hinder rather than support greater equity

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.676214047410166
WordScorePoS
aid0NN
poorly0RB
support0.0451108483130998NN
regime0.048933054487825NN
domestic0.0634082886861185JJ
accountability0.048933054487825NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.483359372075281
WordScorePoS
aid0.0607878664258118NN
poorly0RB
support0.024730129581725NN
regime0NN
domestic0.0695218668857431JJ
accountability0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.364633793961085
WordScorePoS
aid0.123094312756122NN
poorly0RB
support0.00625975725959118NN
regime0NN
domestic0JJ
accountability0NN

Achieving greater global equity Additional debt relief

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.966545389329487
WordScorePoS
achieve0.00463324666343875VB
global0.0201198688839505JJ
additional0.036961556179878JJ
debt0.342531381414775NN
relief0.048933054487825NN

Aid should not be undermined by debt payments

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.928221192844813
WordScorePoS
aid0NN
debt0.342531381414775NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.333571625895913
WordScorePoS
aid0.123094312756122NN
debt0NN

Multilateral debt the largest share of debt for the HIPC is the result of loans received in the and new loans while generally on more concessional terms continue to add to the debt burden

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.97861441639202
WordScorePoS
multilateral0.048933054487825JJ
debt0.342531381414775NN
largest0JJS
share0.0766240489430275NN
result0NN
receive0VB
concessional0.048933054487825JJ
term0.149793392961411NN
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burden0.036961556179878NN

Supporters of debt relief argue that debt payments divert scarce resources from health and education and other propoor spending

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.868580333225588
WordScorePoS
debt0.342531381414775NN
relief0.048933054487825NN
scarce0JJ
resource0.0375923735942499NN
health0NN
education0NN
spending0NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.274947681795734
WordScorePoS
debt0NN
relief0NN
scarce0JJ
resource0NN
health0NN
education0.244244978014045NN
spending0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.232624951054951
WordScorePoS
debt0NN
relief0NN
scarce0JJ
resource0NN
health0.191387734041787NN
education0.0152605842304358NN
spending0NN

There has been progress in the last decade

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.758322630887099
WordScorePoS
progress0NN
decade0.124232265906675NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.361143120518113
WordScorePoS
progress0.0591643007226199NN
decade0NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.337220550678076
WordScorePoS
progress0NN
decade0.055245183797332NN

In debt relief was not on the agenda of international organizations partly because of financing issues and partly because of concerns about creating moral hazard if debts are forgiven governments of borrowing countries may think they are really not expected to repay

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.970615818966327
WordScorePoS
debt0.342531381414775NN
relief0.048933054487825NN
agenda0.0739231123597559NN
international0.00648516099948979JJ
organization0.0422721924574123NN
financing0.036961556179878NN
issue0.0299586785922821NN
create0VB
hazard0NN
government0.048933054487825NN
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Over the following five years thanks to strong grassroots mobilization in rich countries effective research on the impact of debt and committed leadership in some rich countries and the World Bank the HIPC Initiative was launched and then expanded

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.805987061008759
WordScorePoS
strong0JJ
mobilization0.036961556179878NN
country0NN
effective0.0219686053934784JJ
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debt0.342531381414775NN
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world0.00418824502414673NN
bank0.036961556179878NN
initiative0.036961556179878NN
expand0VB

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.301083498185994
WordScorePoS
strong0JJ
mobilization0NN
country0NN
effective0JJ
research0.0528748274225028NN
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debt0NN
leadership0NN
world0.00261936653839306NN
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expand0.0449973847138318VB

As of March countries had received debt relief expected to amount to about billion over time up from

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.905057088667065
WordScorePoS
country0NN
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debt0.342531381414775NN
relief0.048933054487825NN
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The ratio of debt service to exports for HIPC has declined roughly by half to percent

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.91259411135468
WordScorePoS
ratio0NN
debt0.342531381414775NN
service0NN
export0.110884668539634NN
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Poverty reducing expenditures in the countries that receive HIPC assistance are estimated to have increased from

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.651986035931491
WordScorePoS
poverty0.269969049497485NN
reduce0.0164833460638534VB
expenditure0NN
country0NN
receive0VB
assistance0NN
estimate0NN
increase0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.431829265579158
WordScorePoS
poverty0.05809266143877NN
reduce0.0310356414389692VB
expenditure0.064698038783335NN
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assistance0.0330412182586772NN
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increase0.00285817158600878NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.413517349506634
WordScorePoS
poverty0.00914534810831654NN
reduce0.01675146888405VB
expenditure0NN
country0NN
receive0.0814816979556159VB
assistance0NN
estimate0.059903311017139NN
increase0.0143984997539974NN

percent of GDP in to

Label: 14, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
gdp0.0531983120572613NN

percent of GDP in

Label: 14, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
gdp0.0531983120572613NN

Even so many countries continue to bear an unsustainable debt burden and more needs to be done

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.933736540795675
WordScorePoS
country0NN
continue0VB
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debt0.342531381414775NN
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The agreements reached in October to extend the HIPC Initiative and in June to grant percent debt cancellation of the debt owed to the African Development Bank IMF and World Bank to countries are important steps

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.935597257754124
WordScorePoS
agreement0NN
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initiative0.036961556179878NN
debt0.342531381414775NN
african0IN
development0.0469463607292177NN
bank0.036961556179878NN
world0.00418824502414673NN
country0NN

This and any further debt relief should truly be additional rather than substitute fresh aid

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.906686712201841
WordScorePoS
debt0.342531381414775NN
relief0.048933054487825NN
additional0.036961556179878JJ
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aid0NN

Further debt relief should also be accompanied by careful consideration of debt sustainability issues including increasing grants for very low income countries to avoid the buildup of unsustainable debt in the future

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.960947955482205
WordScorePoS
debt0.342531381414775NN
relief0.048933054487825NN
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sustainability0.036961556179878NN
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increase0.00432344066632653NN
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future0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.139583590001033
WordScorePoS
debt0NN
relief0NN
careful0JJ
sustainability0NN
issue0NN
include0VB
increase0.00285817158600878NN
income0.166475342664294NN
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future0NN

Innovative mechanisms to fund development assistance

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.831489212984875
WordScorePoS
mechanism0.147846224719512NN
fund0NN
development0.0469463607292177NN
assistance0.0499801157438617NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.348602471111967
WordScorePoS
mechanism0NN
fund0.055245183797332NN
development0.0100241617629471NN
assistance0.0373517915079663NN

Several innovative mechanisms to expand development assistance are under discussion including the International Financing Facility IFF global taxes and vol untary contributions

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.714740496661739
WordScorePoS
mechanism0.147846224719512NN
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development0.0469463607292177NN
assistance0.0499801157438617NN
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international0.00648516099948979JJ
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facility0NN
global0.0201198688839505JJ
tax0.036961556179878NN
contribution0NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.410842460027055
WordScorePoS
mechanism0NN
expand0.0299609328954485VB
development0.0279277626235394NN
assistance0NN
include0VB
international0.00360073990568919JJ
financing0NN
facility0.0815069365350084NN
global0.00558555252470789JJ
tax0NN
contribution0.0499016491051341NN

The IFF would make future aid available for immediate use frontload aid and possibly reduce volatility

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.808965750647559
WordScorePoS
future0NN
aid0.123094312756122NN
reduce0.01675146888405VB
volatility0NN

It is an option for some donors such as France and the United Kingdom given their accounting and legislative frameworks but not for others who would not be able to make long term commitments or consider them off budget

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.746311282332896
WordScorePoS
unite0.036961556179878VB
accounting0NN
framework0.0130185595639838NN
term0.149793392961411NN
commitment0.0739231123597559NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.456490992590077
WordScorePoS
unite0VB
accounting0.0924643738905717NN
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term0.0749457204978913NN
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Label: 13, with a score of: 0.418298238643183
WordScorePoS
unite0.0828215106044499VB
accounting0NN
framework0.0291713033871158NN
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Even when feasible the IFF would move aid off budget in the short term but it would expand financing for development only if it increased overall aid levels rather than simply shift future aid forward

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.400528421247189
WordScorePoS
feasible0JJ
move0NN
aid0NN
term0.149793392961411NN
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Label: 3, with a score of: 0.672247992482201
WordScorePoS
feasible0JJ
move0NN
aid0.123094312756122NN
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Proposals involving global tax instruments have also been advanced including Tobin tax on short term capital movements taxes related to pollution such as global carbon tax an international aviation fuel tax and maritime pollution tax taxes on arms sales and surcharges on multinational profits and on value added or income taxes

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.432935566311357
WordScorePoS
involve0VB
global0.0201198688839505JJ
tax0.036961556179878NN
advance0NN
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pollution0NN
carbon0NN
international0.00648516099948979JJ
fuel0NN
arm0NN
add0VB
income0.017987180284335NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.243770272485465
WordScorePoS
involve0.0488696285210061VB
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tax0NN
advance0NN
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term0.0396106020715138NN
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pollution0NN
carbon0NN
international0.00571634317201755JJ
fuel0NN
arm0NN
add0VB
income0.166475342664294NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.318772669445151
WordScorePoS
involve0VB
global0.0251662980592747JJ
tax0NN
advance0.0625160381065121NN
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term0.0749457204978913NN
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carbon0.0625160381065121NN
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fuel0.0749457204978913NN
arm0NN
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income0.0449973847138318NN

These proposals would need to be assessed on the basis of the revenues they could generate their efficiency collectability feasibility and not least their impact on equity

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.471363849240538
WordScorePoS
basis0NN
revenue0NN
generate0VB
efficiency0.134992154141495NN
impact0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.512591410926781
WordScorePoS
basis0.048933054487825NN
revenue0.0978661089756501NN
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efficiency0NN
impact0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.44166419088597
WordScorePoS
basis0NN
revenue0NN
generate0VB
efficiency0.039884692535803NN
impact0.0866018859977851NN

Voluntary contributions from individuals corporations private foundations and NGOs another source of development assistance alongside public aid are increasing

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.49024878354003
WordScorePoS
contribution0NN
individual0JJ
private0.0898760357768464JJ
foundation0NN
source0.0109843026967392NN
development0.0469463607292177NN
assistance0.0499801157438617NN
public0.0390556786919513NN
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increase0.00432344066632653NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.408452749509599
WordScorePoS
contribution0NN
individual0JJ
private0.0558185411034276JJ
foundation0.0558185411034276NN
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public0.0727679293221751NN
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increase0.00402768349408688NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.340593404967479
WordScorePoS
contribution0NN
individual0JJ
private0JJ
foundation0NN
source0NN
development0.00837573444202498NN
assistance0NN
public0.021678073222951NN
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increase0.0143984997539974NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.309418186237142
WordScorePoS
contribution0NN
individual0JJ
private0.0368585655748969JJ
foundation0.0368585655748969NN
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assistance0NN
public0.0160169090870187NN
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But effectiveness is an issue for private assistance too

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.857299441103727
WordScorePoS
issue0.0299586785922821NN
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As seen for the December Asian tsunami private charity can be mobilized faster than public resources

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.685876962157972
WordScorePoS
december0NNP
private0.0898760357768464JJ
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faster0RBR
public0.0390556786919513NN
resource0.0375923735942499NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.418917287091849
WordScorePoS
december0NNP
private0.0558185411034276JJ
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faster0RBR
public0.0727679293221751NN
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But private contributions are influenced by press coverage more than actual need contributors were much less generous for the Iranian earthquake that hit in February which was virtually ignored in the news

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Moreover lack of coordination fragmentation and infrastructure bottlenecks such as bad roads and lack of electricity and telecommunications which cannot generally be alleviated through private charity can hinder its effectiveness

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.716812083015428
WordScorePoS
lack0.0565629593551219NN
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Label: 7, with a score of: 0.357408754153476
WordScorePoS
lack0.0383371018038178NN
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electricity0.0625160381065121NN
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.351172916818469
WordScorePoS
lack0NN
coordination0.0978661089756501NN
infrastructure0.0130185595639838NN
bad0JJ
road0NN
electricity0NN
private0.0898760357768464JJ

Moreover alignment with recipient country strategies needs to be ensured

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.656020367094197
WordScorePoS
country0NN
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Transitions to greater equity Equity enhancing changes in global policies and institutions come about through action by governments and coalitions of governments often within international fora informed leadership and grassroots mobilization analysis and policy research to inform alter WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT natives and networks that disseminate those alternatives

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.420446788336554
WordScorePoS
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.581709070132148
WordScorePoS
enhance0.0601477977507998VB
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This section looks at some examples illustrating the change processes it does not attempt to be comprehensive or to assess the weight of individual factors

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.903506675026601
WordScorePoS
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Examples include developed country governments that take initiative unilaterally such as the countries that have already reached the target of

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.742000283886241
WordScorePoS
include0VB
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percent of GNI for developing assistance or that cancelled large portion of the debts owed to them by the poorest countries as well as governments acting jointly to form coalitions for change

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.740962469286633
WordScorePoS
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Label: 13, with a score of: 0.542345920539059
WordScorePoS
gnus0NN
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.199081573632608
WordScorePoS
gnus0NN
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poorest0JJS
country0NN
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The latter are becoming more frequent in trade negotiations in which group of large developing countries including Brazil China and India is spearheading proposals for greater trade liberalization

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

way to spur equity enhancing policy changes by developed countries is to accompany calls for change with tracking mechanisms

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.785701744491895
WordScorePoS
enhance0VB
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.470728759343406
WordScorePoS
enhance0.0601477977507998VB
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The eighth MDG relates to greater provision of aid and debt relief and more equitable trade policies

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.866775874829196
WordScorePoS
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relief0.048933054487825NN
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Progress toward this goal has been reviewed in September as part of the Millennium Summit

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WordScorePoS
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Another exercise to monitor rich country policies conducted by the Center for Global Development and Foreign Policy magazine is the Commitment to Development Index

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.64398980584851
WordScorePoS
monitor0.0599173571845643NN
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commitment0.0739231123597559NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.5792513818523
WordScorePoS
monitor0.0396106020715138NN
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commitment0NN

The index examines more indicators than the eighth MDG including environment security investment and technology Center for Global Development

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.518785517499208
WordScorePoS
include0VB
environment0NN
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investment0.0766240489430275NN
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Label: 7, with a score of: 0.482774168403268
WordScorePoS
include0VB
environment0NN
security0.0625160381065121NN
investment0.0383371018038178NN
technology0.109914925284606NN
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.35589600947209
WordScorePoS
include0VB
environment0.0221298700466866NN
security0NN
investment0.0377086395700813NN
technology0.0810848128688654NN
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development0.0330049940546426NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.348236254728529
WordScorePoS
include0VB
environment0.0214456704626236NN
security0.0893850849591018NN
investment0.0182713919265625NN
technology0.0130963126055467NN
global0.0119942111830662JJ
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While there are questions about the methodology particularly on aggregating scores in various areas the index exposes how some countries do better in some areas than in others Norway for instance does well on aid but poorly on trade Switzerland scores poorly on trade but does better on environment the United States scores poorly on environment but has with Canada the most favorable migration policies and how all countries have considerable opportunities to improve their policies

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.50537142020021
WordScorePoS
country0NN
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trade0.0237821918091848NN
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migration0.12939607756667NN
policy0.0848203862485078NN
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improve0.0121171980355011VB

Citizen mobilization

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.926265330255926
WordScorePoS
mobilization0.0908430554521382NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.376872044553426
WordScorePoS
mobilization0.036961556179878NN

Citizen mobilization combining both grassroots and middle class interest groups across countries has grown in recent years

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.567579324201774
WordScorePoS
mobilization0.0908430554521382NN
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In some cases an international social movement network or alliance has emerged to try to influence the global agenda

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.435700596983476
WordScorePoS
international0.00571634317201755JJ
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.428386106658708
WordScorePoS
international0.00531301439641424JJ
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.389447156449276
WordScorePoS
international0.0189945307832458JJ
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.364007389473443
WordScorePoS
international0.00648516099948979JJ
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.347416032787072
WordScorePoS
international0.0023966944644375JJ
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influence0.0542519672965169NN
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An example is the launching of the Enhanced HIPC Initiative in

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.708772288598872
WordScorePoS
enhance0.0188084899376888VB
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.618555294272238
WordScorePoS
enhance0.0601477977507998VB
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The original HIPC Initiative benefited some countries but progress was slow and there were several problems

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.575943740893125
WordScorePoS
initiative0NN
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progress0.0591643007226199NN
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Label: 7, with a score of: 0.443962611629837
WordScorePoS
initiative0.0924643738905717NN
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Label: 3, with a score of: 0.363474487861713
WordScorePoS
initiative0NN
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.349995943648022
WordScorePoS
initiative0NN
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By these were largely recognized but an expanded initiative needed to garner support in creditor countries and in the World Bank and IMF governing committees because it required additional funding

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.489589713459081
WordScorePoS
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.432879250374962
WordScorePoS
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Label: 7, with a score of: 0.429024829004549
WordScorePoS
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.414885197542492
WordScorePoS
recognize0VB
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The Jubilee campaign which combined awareness of the pernicious effects of excessive debt with call to debt forgiveness inspired by the Christian Jubilee idea mobilized hundreds of thousands of people in countries such as Germany Italy the United States and United Kingdom

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.931248886728284
WordScorePoS
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The governments of these countries took notice and finally agreed to various actions expanding the HIPC Initiative and canceling bilateral debt

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.925461280712771
WordScorePoS
government0.048933054487825NN
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Other examples of pressure by civil society organizations leading to changes in rules are the campaigns to reform World Bank policies on indigenous peoples resettlement and other safeguards

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.465505828534014
WordScorePoS
pressure0NN
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.556125714065681
WordScorePoS
pressure0NN
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.318807983517036
WordScorePoS
pressure0.0440683498519077NN
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.312244801323937
WordScorePoS
pressure0NN
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In second set of cases international rules already exist on paper and social movements bring them into effect by making them visible and insisting that they be implemented

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.392324781158335
WordScorePoS
set0NN
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.614320887769197
WordScorePoS
set0.0978661089756501NN
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Label: 11, with a score of: 0.41339871452557
WordScorePoS
set0NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.353338670759495
WordScorePoS
set0NN
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In many cases this process happens at the country level but it involves an interaction with global rule and policy changes

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.60543022756271
WordScorePoS
process0NN
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.41518623327978
WordScorePoS
process0NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.354622007337508
WordScorePoS
process0NN
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.312963785832039
WordScorePoS
process0NN
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The ethical trade initiatives discussed earlier are citizen mobilizations to enforce global and local laws

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.686294871669432
WordScorePoS
trade0NN
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.395320837847081
WordScorePoS
trade0.0539615408530051NN
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Similarly efforts by indigenous movements NGOs and other activists ensured that ILO Covenant on indigenous peoples was recognized as having legal weight in practice in various countries

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Experience shows that citizen mobilization is most effective when it builds broad based coalitions for change across countries and groups

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.812798870580149
WordScorePoS
experience0.0335649154577099NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.356107192906235
WordScorePoS
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But citizen mobilization also poses risks

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.744094650317544
WordScorePoS
mobilization0.0908430554521382NN
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Label: 15, with a score of: 0.386036717937371
WordScorePoS
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Label: 3, with a score of: 0.366809547143219
WordScorePoS
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Label: 11, with a score of: 0.329250968575483
WordScorePoS
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Civil society movements may partly counter unequal formal channels but they are highly imperfect mechanisms of aggregating voice and their accountability is often unclear

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.889942656195945
WordScorePoS
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In recent years there have been instances of NGO campaigns that have led to perverse outcomes such as donors withdrawing from infrastructure and resettlement projects only to see governments Achieving greater global equity move ahead anyway without international monitoring of social and environmental consequences

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.464264022766326
WordScorePoS
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.474534541080233
WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.367754230810745
WordScorePoS
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Analysis and research

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.846812573620657
WordScorePoS
research0.104016094894625NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.430462888793871
WordScorePoS
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Socioeconomic analysis and policy research also contribute to making particular domains of inequity objects of public debate and action

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.413389689690124
WordScorePoS
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.404924243461558
WordScorePoS
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.38915409987706
WordScorePoS
policy0.0641521854453136NN
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.326517234595959
WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.325892083580992
WordScorePoS
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Label: 14, with a score of: 0.325525191690995
WordScorePoS
policy0NN
research0.0229784274580034NN
contribute0.0815049608642826VB
public0NN
action0.0119417512090511NN

Global analysis of gender discrimination and missing girls and women box

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.912153748758488
WordScorePoS
global0JJ
gender0.196902218579822NN
discrimination0.111637082206855NN
girl0.393804437159645NN
woman0.221979360474357NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.308966956393484
WordScorePoS
global0.00558555252470789JJ
gender0.10561808200669NN
discrimination0NN
girl0.140824109342254NN
woman0.0610612445035112NN

has fostered public action to redress gender inequities

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.825165663930728
WordScorePoS
foster0JJ
public0.0727679293221751NN
action0.0409315617631NN
gender0.196902218579822NN

Ex ante analysis and policy research are also vital ingredients for informing the design of policy proposals

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.408048967050463
WordScorePoS
policy0.011275328195446NN
research0.104016094894625NN
vital0JJ

A vast body of recent research including serious impact evaluations has focused on efficient and effective ways to achieve the MDGs

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.602189231929471
WordScorePoS
vast0JJ
research0NN
include0VB
impact0.0866018859977851NN
focus0NN
efficient0.108503934593034JJ
effective0JJ
achieve0.0154106104202498VB

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.463919265979821
WordScorePoS
vast0JJ
research0.104016094894625NN
include0VB
impact0.0160169090870187NN
focus0.030745604615229NN
efficient0JJ
effective0JJ
achieve0.0114006914853063VB

The more research is conducted by and with developing country researchers the more likely it is that its results will inform policymaking

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.63435904286481
WordScorePoS
research0.104016094894625NN
conduct0NN
develop0VB
country0NN
researcher0NN
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Some of these key elements have been missing in failed attempts at change

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.87281651317806
WordScorePoS
key0NN
change0.402565546215053NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.364822764367862
WordScorePoS
key0.0625160381065121NN
change0.105749654845006NN

Analysis and policy research is carried out and technical solutions are proposed the political will to implement them is missing however because political leaders do not think the issue is important or coalitions are not formed that ensure sufficient support

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.265109977378148
WordScorePoS
policy0.0201317944152378NN
research0NN
technical0JJ
solution0NN
political0JJ
implement0VB
issue0NN
form0.158049144643351NN
ensure0.0220985725470694VB
sufficient0JJ
support0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.490378949932341
WordScorePoS
policy0.0341506708422088NN
research0NN
technical0JJ
solution0NN
political0.111637082206855JJ
implement0VB
issue0NN
form0.100540298425703NN
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sufficient0JJ
support0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.381872329987424
WordScorePoS
policy0.011275328195446NN
research0.104016094894625NN
technical0.030745604615229JJ
solution0.0368585655748969NN
political0.0368585655748969JJ
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issue0NN
form0NN
ensure0.00412562425683033VB
sufficient0JJ
support0.0277502419802315NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.349784159747355
WordScorePoS
policy0.0848203862485078NN
research0NN
technical0JJ
solution0NN
political0.0792212041430275JJ
implement0.0121171980355011VB
issue0NN
form0NN
ensure0.00886732612541978VB
sufficient0JJ
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In other cases grassroots mobilization is strong but it lacks well developed implementable proposals for reform

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.716216961002857
WordScorePoS
mobilization0.0908430554521382NN
strong0JJ
lack0.0753297582301286NN
develop0VB
reform0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.439788039256859
WordScorePoS
mobilization0NN
strong0.0454743001434393JJ
lack0.0565629593551219NN
develop0VB
reform0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.39295496609175
WordScorePoS
mobilization0NN
strong0JJ
lack0NN
develop0VB
reform0.0911713013253052NN

Indeed some NGO campaigns have led to perverse outcomes as when international organizations have withdrawn support for projects under international criticism only to see governments proceed without international monitoring of social and environmental safeguards

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.431939732929655
WordScorePoS
lead0NN
outcome0.0330412182586772NN
international0.00571634317201755JJ
organization0.02794560829783NN
support0NN
project0NN
government0NN
monitor0.0396106020715138NN
social0.101310366625194JJ
environmental0.0237821918091848JJ
safeguard0VB

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.383647662896581
WordScorePoS
lead0NN
outcome0NN
international0.00648516099948979JJ
organization0.0422721924574123NN
support0.0451108483130998NN
project0NN
government0.048933054487825NN
monitor0.0599173571845643NN
social0JJ
environmental0JJ
safeguard0VB

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.371713287953456
WordScorePoS
lead0.0169905820958638NN
outcome0NN
international0.0023966944644375JJ
organization0NN
support0.00833571598658786NN
project0.0664302389559493NN
government0NN
monitor0.0332151194779746NN
social0.0169905820958638JJ
environmental0.0598270388037045JJ
safeguard0VB

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.356725379798756
WordScorePoS
lead0.0504071033101074NN
outcome0NN
international0.00355521737836969JJ
organization0.0347609334428716NN
support0.024730129581725NN
project0NN
government0NN
monitor0NN
social0.0504071033101074JJ
environmental0.0295821503613099JJ
safeguard0VB

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.347193859902515
WordScorePoS
lead0NN
outcome0NN
international0JJ
organization0NN
support0.0224752180723703NN
project0NN
government0NN
monitor0NN
social0.0458109463416786JJ
environmental0.0537696560159885JJ
safeguard0.0731385760866977VB

International organizations

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.59978500486435
WordScorePoS
international0.00648516099948979JJ
organization0.0422721924574123NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.471343317003767
WordScorePoS
international0.00355521737836969JJ
organization0.0347609334428716NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.414090025290902
WordScorePoS
international0.00571634317201755JJ
organization0.02794560829783NN

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.340487761290514
WordScorePoS
international0.00470029406779661JJ
organization0.0229784274580034NN

International financial institutions can help bring about global equity enhancing action through setting agendas and providing focal point for international negotiations

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.646380066218818
WordScorePoS
international0.0189945307832458JJ
financial0.016515769558553JJ
institution0.274477239401321NN
bring0VB
global0.00736619084902312JJ
enhance0VB
action0NN
set0NN
agenda0.0811931365363091NN
provide0.013214597504793VB
negotiation0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.538728728059694
WordScorePoS
international0.00648516099948979JJ
financial0.0150369494376999JJ
institution0.0249900578719309NN
bring0VB
global0.0201198688839505JJ
enhance0.0601477977507998VB
action0.0109843026967392NN
set0.0978661089756501NN
agenda0.0739231123597559NN
provide0.00601568197638796VB
negotiation0.036961556179878NN

Their dispute settlement and enforcement mechanisms help ensure that their policies are implemented

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.675425623374375
WordScorePoS
settlement0NN
mechanism0.147846224719512NN
ensure0.00335331148065841VB
policy0.0641521854453136NN
implement0.0458229896037954VB

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.497523638113395
WordScorePoS
settlement0.146277152173395NN
mechanism0NN
ensure0.00501208088147356VB
policy0.0136980135278128NN
implement0.0273960270556257VB

But the governance structures of the World Bank and IMF have not evolved in line with the increased size and role of emerging market developing and transition countries in the world economy

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.522396594534163
WordScorePoS
governance0NN
structure0NN
world0.0124838525528648NN
bank0.0881366997038154NN
line0NN
increase0.0128868286091919NN
size0NN
emerge0VB
market0.0913569596328122NN
develop0VB
country0NN
economy0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.500713068871696
WordScorePoS
governance0NN
structure0NN
world0.00172202218602071NN
bank0NN
line0.0410992516792148NN
increase0.00711043475673939NN
size0.049270765107907NN
emerge0VB
market0.0252035516550537NN
develop0VB
country0NN
economy0.0821985033584295NN

Moreover small and low income countries have limited role in their decision making processes

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.522332199802643
WordScorePoS
income0.166475342664294NN
country0NN
limited0JJ
decision0.02794560829783NN
process0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.581441207229536
WordScorePoS
income0.0442083771593746NN
country0NN
limited0.120266261535276JJ
decision0.0519476926891779NN
process0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.495319816687528
WordScorePoS
income0.110649350233433NN
country0NN
limited0JJ
decision0NN
process0.0737171311497939NN

Developed country governments have majority of the votes on the boards of the IMF and World Bank and two executive directors represent more than African countries

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Several options to enhance voice in the IMF and World Bank have been explored but limited progress has been made

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.528174509671314
WordScorePoS
enhance0.0184786920895884VB
voice0NN
world0.00257343720272548NN
bank0NN
limited0.120266261535276JJ
progress0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.47657650550415
WordScorePoS
enhance0.0268922747178632VB
voice0NN
world0.0124838525528648NN
bank0.0881366997038154NN
limited0JJ
progress0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.445824350368939
WordScorePoS
enhance0.0601477977507998VB
voice0NN
world0.00418824502414673NN
bank0.036961556179878NN
limited0JJ
progress0.017987180284335NN

In April the ministers of the intergovernmental Group of Twenty Four urged that new quota formula be developed voting rights depend on quotas which would give greater weight to measures of gross domestic product measured in purchasing power parity terms

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.562149591110776
WordScorePoS
intergovernmental0JJ
quota0.048933054487825NN
develop0VB
rights0NNS
depend0VB
measure0NN
gross0.0249900578719309JJ
domestic0.0634082886861185JJ
product0.017987180284335NN
power0.036961556179878NN
parity0NN
term0.149793392961411NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.394027475546809
WordScorePoS
intergovernmental0JJ
quota0NN
develop0VB
rights0.0347609334428716NNS
depend0VB
measure0.0347609334428716NN
gross0.0410992516792148JJ
domestic0.0695218668857431JJ
product0.0591643007226199NN
power0NN
parity0NN
term0NN

They also suggested that in order to strengthen the voice of small and low income countries basic votes should be increased to restore their original share of total voting power

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.43599664609656
WordScorePoS
suggest0VB
strengthen0.00795378154685591VB
voice0.064698038783335NN
income0.166475342664294NN
country0NN
basic0JJ
increase0.00285817158600878NN
restore0VB
share0NN
total0NN
power0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.619887148304456
WordScorePoS
suggest0.0602029956716497VB
strengthen0VB
voice0NN
income0.110649350233433NN
country0NN
basic0.0480507272610562JJ
increase0.0159575617614215NN
restore0VB
share0.0377086395700813NN
total0.0260040237236563NN
power0.0454743001434393NN

Making progress on enhancing the voice and participation of developing countries in the decision making processes of the World Bank and IMF is of fundamental importance to increase the legitimacy of international financial institutions and enhance their effectiveness in fostering greater global equity

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.580983327448852
WordScorePoS
progress0NN
enhance0VB
voice0NN
participation0.0548954478802642NN
develop0VB
country0NN
decision0.0464294830712827NN
process0NN
world0NN
bank0NN
fundamental0.0658099748168827JJ
increase0NN
international0.0189945307832458JJ
financial0.016515769558553JJ
institution0.274477239401321NN
foster0JJ
global0.00736619084902312JJ

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.369926225761352
WordScorePoS
progress0.017987180284335NN
enhance0.0601477977507998VB
voice0NN
participation0NN
develop0VB
country0NN
decision0.0211360962287062NN
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world0.00418824502414673NN
bank0.036961556179878NN
fundamental0JJ
increase0.00432344066632653NN
international0.00648516099948979JJ
financial0.0150369494376999JJ
institution0.0249900578719309NN
foster0.036961556179878JJ
global0.0201198688839505JJ

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.344191143664699
WordScorePoS
progress0.0335134328085675NN
enhance0.0140083044329373VB
voice0NN
participation0.0465610847355851NN
develop0VB
country0NN
decision0.0393804437159645NN
process0.0558185411034276NN
world0.00585260443759492NN
bank0NN
fundamental0.0558185411034276JJ
increase0.00402768349408688NN
international0.00402768349408688JJ
financial0.0140083044329373JJ
institution0NN
foster0JJ
global0JJ

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.319116960763017
WordScorePoS
progress0NN
enhance0.00994073584907126VB
voice0.064698038783335NN
participation0NN
develop0VB
country0NN
decision0.02794560829783NN
process0NN
world0.00276879546803864NN
bank0NN
fundamental0JJ
increase0.00285817158600878NN
international0.00571634317201755JJ
financial0.0298222075472138JJ
institution0.0991236547760315NN
foster0JJ
global0.0133009891881297JJ

The th General Review of IMF Quotas provides an important opportunity to make progress on issues of quotas voice and participation

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.573493957768977
WordScorePoS
review0.036961556179878NN
quota0.048933054487825NN
opportunity0NN
progress0.017987180284335NN
issue0.0299586785922821NN
voice0NN
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.531551819506723
WordScorePoS
review0.0688661930304451NN
quota0NN
opportunity0.02046578088155NN
progress0.0335134328085675NN
issue0NN
voice0NN
participation0.0465610847355851NN

Summary In sum global actions can play key role in redressing inequitable rules and helping equalize endowments

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.61367544299024
WordScorePoS
global0.00736619084902312JJ
action0NN
key0NN
rule0.162386273072618NN
help0NN

The rules that govern markets for labor goods ideas capital and the use of natural resources need to become more equitable

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.418925083576911
WordScorePoS
rule0.162386273072618NN
market0NN
idea0NN
natural0JJ
resource0NN
equitable0JJ

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.413161829819879
WordScorePoS
rule0.0739231123597559NN
market0.030649619577211NN
idea0NN
natural0JJ
resource0.0375923735942499NN
equitable0.017987180284335JJ

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.383511372648977
WordScorePoS
rule0NN
market0.0913569596328122NN
idea0NN
natural0JJ
resource0.0358563662904843NN
equitable0.0214456704626236JJ

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.363738421132547
WordScorePoS
rule0NN
market0NN
idea0.0731385760866977NN
natural0.0229054731708393JJ
resource0.0449504361447405NN
equitable0JJ

Domestic action to build the endowments of the poor can be supported through aid but not if aid is poorly spent supports corrupt regimes or undermines domestic accountability

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.392825126435386
WordScorePoS
domestic0JJ
action0.0269969049497485NN
build0.0614198493690006VB
poor0.150659516460257JJ
support0.0184786920895884NN
aid0NN
poorly0RB
regime0NN
accountability0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.556709941057473
WordScorePoS
domestic0.0634082886861185JJ
action0.0109843026967392NN
build0.0499801157438617VB
poor0.0153248097886055JJ
support0.0451108483130998NN
aid0NN
poorly0RB
regime0.048933054487825NN
accountability0.048933054487825NN

Changes will require above all greater accountability at the global level with greater representation of poor people interests in rule setting bodies

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.437887858297999
WordScorePoS
require0VB
accountability0NN
global0.00736619084902312JJ
level0.0610668815653026NN
representation0NN
poor0JJ
people0NNS
rule0.162386273072618NN
set0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.377974971005992
WordScorePoS
require0VB
accountability0NN
global0JJ
level0.0113874611101829NN
representation0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
people0.0371911007748996NNS
rule0NN
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.560643425521213
WordScorePoS
require0.0211360962287062VB
accountability0.048933054487825NN
global0.0201198688839505JJ
level0.0138997399903163NN
representation0NN
poor0.0153248097886055JJ
people0.00432344066632653NNS
rule0.0739231123597559NN
set0.0978661089756501NN

focus on drug access Balancing access to medicines for the world poor with incentives for pharmaceutical innovation What the best way to expand access to drugs in developing countries while preserving incentives for pharmaceutical research

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.295324115315089
WordScorePoS
focus0NN
drug0NN
access0.00514687440545096NN
medicine0NN
world0.00257343720272548NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
incentive0NN
innovation0NN
expand0VB
develop0VB
country0NN
research0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.523449802854965
WordScorePoS
focus0.030745604615229NN
drug0NN
access0.0128821355880844NN
medicine0NN
world0.00257642711761688NN
poor0JJ
incentive0NN
innovation0.122982418460916NN
expand0VB
develop0VB
country0NN
research0.104016094894625NN

A possible solution entails recognizing that medicine markets are far from uniform and that both the nature of diseases and the income of countries matter for access and incentives

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.601200511059784
WordScorePoS
solution0NN
recognize0VB
medicine0.123094312756122NN
market0NN
nature0NN
disease0.215415047323213NN
income0NN
country0NN
access0.00610236075888593NN
incentive0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.328192350152441
WordScorePoS
solution0NN
recognize0VB
medicine0NN
market0.0202620733250388NN
nature0NN
disease0NN
income0.166475342664294NN
country0NN
access0.00138439773401932NN
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.317631432847675
WordScorePoS
solution0NN
recognize0VB
medicine0NN
market0.0169905820958638NN
nature0.162755901889551NN
disease0NN
income0NN
country0NN
access0.00232174891244877NN
incentive0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.409900227323386
WordScorePoS
solution0.0368585655748969NN
recognize0.0368585655748969VB
medicine0NN
market0.0377086395700813NN
nature0NN
disease0NN
income0.110649350233433NN
country0NN
access0.0128821355880844NN
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.34700140209508
WordScorePoS
solution0.0357189919948307NN
recognize0VB
medicine0NN
market0.0913569596328122NN
nature0NN
disease0NN
income0.0643370113878709NN
country0NN
access0.00749031153171887NN
incentive0NN

ome diseases such as malaria mainly affect poor countries but they have received little D investment and few treatments are available

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.850369601593977
WordScorePoS
disease0.215415047323213NN
malaria0.20370424488904NN
affect0.00625975725959118VB
poor0JJ
country0NN
receive0.0814816979556159VB
investment0NN
treatment0.0624189222007589NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.308915052913909
WordScorePoS
disease0NN
malaria0NN
affect0.0184786920895884VB
poor0.150659516460257JJ
country0NN
receive0VB
investment0.0376648791150643NN
treatment0NN

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.333597870035803
WordScorePoS
disease0.103230094596636NN
malaria0NN
affect0.0209983814716066VB
poor0.0642010940957526JJ
country0NN
receive0VB
investment0NN
treatment0.0348974218717993NN

Much attention has been devoted in recent years to creating the right incentives and structuring financing to increase D investment in drugs for diseases that affect poor countries for which commercial potential does not provide enough stimulus

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.473904005032222
WordScorePoS
attention0NN
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financing0.0307735781890304NN
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poor0JJ
country0NN
commercial0JJ
potential0NN
provide0.0100171139310145VB

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.430209225883355
WordScorePoS
attention0NN
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poor0.150659516460257JJ
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provide0.0295703421524739VB

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.357096217269699
WordScorePoS
attention0.041835863322702NN
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poor0.0642010940957526JJ
country0NN
commercial0JJ
potential0NN
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.335941705819763
WordScorePoS
attention0NN
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structure0.048933054487825NN
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drug0NN
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affect0VB
poor0.0153248097886055JJ
country0NN
commercial0JJ
potential0NN
provide0.00601568197638796VB

Policy initiatives include the following Increasing research through public sector institutions for example programs coordinated by the U

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.549791321070336
WordScorePoS
policy0.0201317944152378NN
initiative0NN
include0VB
increase0NN
research0NN
public0.0285977592242194NN
sector0NN
institution0.274477239401321NN
coordinate0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.429377494229509
WordScorePoS
policy0.0641521854453136NN
initiative0.036961556179878NN
include0VB
increase0.00432344066632653NN
research0NN
public0.0390556786919513NN
sector0.0459744293658165NN
institution0.0249900578719309NN
coordinate0.036961556179878NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.347040006932978
WordScorePoS
policy0.0848203862485078NN
initiative0NN
include0VB
increase0.00285817158600878NN
research0NN
public0.0172128079963482NN
sector0NN
institution0.0991236547760315NN
coordinate0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.346723326791029
WordScorePoS
policy0.011275328195446NN
initiative0NN
include0VB
increase0.0159575617614215NN
research0.104016094894625NN
public0.0160169090870187NN
sector0.0565629593551219NN
institution0NN
coordinate0NN

National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases the World Health Organization Special Programme for Research and Training in Tropical Diseases and the nonprofit Drugs for Neglected Diseases Initiative founded by Medécins Sans Frontiérès

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.884677101642094
WordScorePoS
national0.00558382296134999JJ
disease0.215415047323213NN
world0.00087176582269799NN
health0.191387734041787NN
organization0.0175975629039954NN
special0JJ
programme0.00914534810831654NN
research0.0175975629039954NN
training0.020806307400253NN
tropical0.0407408489778079JJ
drug0.0407408489778079NN
neglect0.0407408489778079NN
initiative0NN

Establishing public private partnerships such as the Medicines for Malaria Venture and the Malaria Vaccine Initiative the International AIDS Vaccine Initiative and the Global Alliance for Tuberculosis Drug Development

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.839885998994554
WordScorePoS
establish0VB
public0.021678073222951NN
private0JJ
partnership0NN
medicine0.123094312756122NN
malaria0.20370424488904NN
vaccine0.162963395911232NN
initiative0NN
international0JJ
aid0.123094312756122NN
global0.013959557403375JJ
tuberculosis0.162963395911232NN
drug0.0407408489778079NN
development0.00837573444202498NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.490558207053183
WordScorePoS
establish0.048933054487825VB
public0.0390556786919513NN
private0.0898760357768464JJ
partnership0.3914644359026NN
medicine0NN
malaria0NN
vaccine0NN
initiative0.036961556179878NN
international0.00648516099948979JJ
aid0NN
global0.0201198688839505JJ
tuberculosis0NN
drug0NN
development0.0469463607292177NN

Designing purchase commitment for new vaccines AdvancedMarkets

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.887237236183209
WordScorePoS
commitment0NN
vaccine0.162963395911232NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.402466686051737
WordScorePoS
commitment0.0739231123597559NN
vaccine0NN

Sponsored by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation the groundwork has been laid to create markets by having donors commit in advance to paying part of the cost at guaranteed price for new as yet undiscovered vaccine

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.372050075394799
WordScorePoS
foundation0NN
create0VB
market0NN
advance0NN
pay0NN
cost0NN
guarantee0NN
price0NN
vaccine0.162963395911232NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.558711330878463
WordScorePoS
foundation0NN
create0.0695218668857431VB
market0.0252035516550537NN
advance0NN
pay0.0695218668857431NN
cost0NN
guarantee0.0804764811724088NN
price0NN
vaccine0NN

This would give firms an incentive to invest in this area

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.604411840326876
WordScorePoS
firm0.0602029956716497NN
incentive0NN
invest0VB

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.585724955637451
WordScorePoS
firm0NN
incentive0NN
invest0.0583416713841148VB

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.392318472177309
WordScorePoS
firm0NN
incentive0.0390772412228479NN
invest0VB

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.371077916352681
WordScorePoS
firm0NN
incentive0.036961556179878NN
invest0VB

similar initiative has been proposed for agricultural research relevant to developing countries

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.748464103193665
WordScorePoS
initiative0NN
agricultural0.250032943963815JJ
research0.0252000451111224NN
relevant0JJ
develop0VB
country0NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.395233054494264
WordScorePoS
initiative0.0924643738905717NN
agricultural0JJ
research0.0528748274225028NN
relevant0JJ
develop0VB
country0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.383092254912528
WordScorePoS
initiative0NN
agricultural0.0368585655748969JJ
research0.104016094894625NN
relevant0JJ
develop0VB
country0NN

Developing an open source approach to early stage tropical diseases research

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.711055810727945
WordScorePoS
develop0VB
source0NN
approach0NN
stage0NN
tropical0.0407408489778079JJ
disease0.215415047323213NN
research0.0175975629039954NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.461649849120853
WordScorePoS
develop0VB
source0.0135141354781442NN
approach0NN
stage0.0602029956716497NN
tropical0JJ
disease0NN
research0.104016094894625NN

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.427501638262199
WordScorePoS
develop0VB
source0.0613562156822703NN
approach0NN
stage0NN
tropical0JJ
disease0.103230094596636NN
research0NN

The idea is to harness the expertise and resources of academic scientists students public sector researchers and others who may be happy to spend some of their time doing research on tropical diseases either for altruism or scientific curiosity similar to what happens with open source software

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.468533460594868
WordScorePoS
idea0NN
expertise0NN
resource0NN
scientist0NN
public0.021678073222951NN
sector0NN
researcher0NN
time0.0127591822694525NN
research0.0175975629039954NN
tropical0.0407408489778079JJ
disease0.215415047323213NN
scientific0JJ
source0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.392549501174807
WordScorePoS
idea0NN
expertise0NN
resource0.0185001613201543NN
scientist0NN
public0.0160169090870187NN
sector0.0565629593551219NN
researcher0NN
time0.0188543197850406NN
research0.104016094894625NN
tropical0JJ
disease0NN
scientific0.030745604615229JJ
source0.0135141354781442NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.365986122749754
WordScorePoS
idea0NN
expertise0NN
resource0.0416785799329393NN
scientist0.0542519672965169NN
public0.028867295332595NN
sector0.0169905820958638NN
researcher0.0542519672965169NN
time0.0169905820958638NN
research0NN
tropical0JJ
disease0NN
scientific0.0277064208763707JJ
source0NN

Leads that emerge could then feed into any of the other schemes for the next stages of development and clinical testing

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.621422493947414
WordScorePoS
lead0.0188543197850406NN
emerge0VB
stage0.0602029956716497NN
development0.0330049940546426NN

Providing patent protection in poor countries for drugs primarily for their markets would not by itself provide sufficient incentives because their purchasing power is very low

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.648313026302414
WordScorePoS
provide0.0295703421524739VB
protection0.122839698738001NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
country0NN
drug0NN
primarily0RB
market0NN
sufficient0JJ
incentive0NN
power0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.4546487059565
WordScorePoS
provide0.0215170467912497VB
protection0NN
poor0.0548141757796873JJ
country0NN
drug0NN
primarily0RB
market0.0913569596328122NN
sufficient0.0440683498519077JJ
incentive0NN
power0NN

But even small increase in market based research incentives could be useful part of larger strategy to address the treatment of diseases specific to the developing world

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.666120701283635
WordScorePoS
increase0.0143984997539974NN
market0NN
base0.0149758277542848NN
research0.0175975629039954NN
incentive0NN
strategy0.0149758277542848NN
treatment0.0624189222007589NN
disease0.215415047323213NN
specific0JJ
develop0VB
world0.00087176582269799NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.313373171707501
WordScorePoS
increase0.0159575617614215NN
market0.0377086395700813NN
base0NN
research0.104016094894625NN
incentive0NN
strategy0NN
treatment0NN
disease0NN
specific0JJ
develop0VB
world0.00257642711761688NN

Other diseases have global incidence and worldwide markets and they are an important cause of death and disability among the poor

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.760412152593828
WordScorePoS
disease0.215415047323213NN
global0.013959557403375JJ
incidence0.0407408489778079NN
worldwide0RB
market0NN
death0.193573191943949NN
disability0NN
poor0JJ

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.247069511611834
WordScorePoS
disease0NN
global0JJ
incidence0NN
worldwide0RB
market0NN
death0NN
disability0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.338335470574981
WordScorePoS
disease0.103230094596636NN
global0.00936547854413134JJ
incidence0NN
worldwide0RB
market0NN
death0.0295155485671997NN
disability0NN
poor0.0642010940957526JJ

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.300704521293449
WordScorePoS
disease0NN
global0.0119942111830662JJ
incidence0NN
worldwide0RB
market0.0913569596328122NN
death0.0252000451111224NN
disability0NN
poor0.0548141757796873JJ

In the high mortality regions of the world cardiovascular disease is estimated to cause greater share of the total disease burden than malaria and other tropical diseases combined

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.944074588059422
WordScorePoS
mortality0.276962203701274NN
region0.124837844401518NN
world0.00087176582269799NN
disease0.215415047323213NN
estimate0.059903311017139NN
share0NN
total0NN
burden0NN
malaria0.20370424488904NN
tropical0.0407408489778079JJ

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.130339753572532
WordScorePoS
mortality0NN
region0.184259548107002NN
world0.00257343720272548NN
disease0NN
estimate0NN
share0NN
total0NN
burden0NN
malaria0NN
tropical0JJ

Although many people in poor countries suffer from global diseases they are an insignificant part of the commercial market

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.475438170252439
WordScorePoS
people0.00539943740774902NNS
poor0JJ
country0NN
suffer0VB
global0.013959557403375JJ
disease0.215415047323213NN
commercial0JJ
market0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.380414090617269
WordScorePoS
people0.0371911007748996NNS
poor0.150659516460257JJ
country0NN
suffer0VB
global0JJ
disease0NN
commercial0JJ
market0NN

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.491655891078253
WordScorePoS
people0.024149913320522NNS
poor0.0642010940957526JJ
country0NN
suffer0.041835863322702VB
global0.00936547854413134JJ
disease0.103230094596636NN
commercial0JJ
market0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.444826841414128
WordScorePoS
people0.0257736572183839NNS
poor0.0548141757796873JJ
country0NN
suffer0.0357189919948307VB
global0.0119942111830662JJ
disease0NN
commercial0JJ
market0.0913569596328122NN

Estimates suggest that currently almost half of the world people live in countries that together represent less than percent of global spending on drugs for cardiovascular disease

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.719809080279858
WordScorePoS
estimate0.059903311017139NN
suggest0VB
world0.00087176582269799NN
people0.00539943740774902NNS
live0.0300513417930436VB
country0NN
represent0VB
global0.013959557403375JJ
spending0NN
drug0.0407408489778079NN
disease0.215415047323213NN

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.428238862854774
WordScorePoS
estimate0NN
suggest0VB
world0.00438651305628668NN
people0.024149913320522NNS
live0.0252018374089947VB
country0NN
represent0.0516150472983178VB
global0.00936547854413134JJ
spending0NN
drug0NN
disease0.103230094596636NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.336247564148117
WordScorePoS
estimate0.0221298700466866NN
suggest0.0602029956716497VB
world0.00257642711761688NN
people0.0186171553883251NNS
live0.00740117451847634VB
country0NN
represent0VB
global0JJ
spending0.0602029956716497NN
drug0NN
disease0NN

Because of the great asymmetries in markets many of the poor could be allowed generic access to important classes of drugs without damaging research incentives

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.42026935193545
WordScorePoS
market0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
access0.00514687440545096NN
class0NN
drug0NN
research0NN
incentive0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.639827539947718
WordScorePoS
market0.0913569596328122NN
poor0.0548141757796873JJ
access0.00749031153171887NN
class0.0583416713841148NN
drug0NN
research0.0252000451111224NN
incentive0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.417033786103543
WordScorePoS
market0.0377086395700813NN
poor0JJ
access0.0128821355880844NN
class0NN
drug0NN
research0.104016094894625NN
incentive0NN

The foreign filing license approach described below is feasible way to attain this outcome

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.546462236646208
WordScorePoS
foreign0.036961556179878JJ
approach0NN
feasible0JJ
attain0.048933054487825VB
outcome0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.521117497231303
WordScorePoS
foreign0.0488696285210061JJ
approach0NN
feasible0JJ
attain0VB
outcome0.0330412182586772NN

global drug sales in each disease class see figure below

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.861631621389073
WordScorePoS
global0.013959557403375JJ
drug0.0407408489778079NN
disease0.215415047323213NN
class0NN
figure0NN

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.359164590237334
WordScorePoS
global0.00936547854413134JJ
drug0NN
disease0.103230094596636NN
class0NN
figure0NN

Along the horizontal axis of the figure are disease classes listed with those concentrated in poor countries toward the left and those with worldwide incidence toward the right

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.697290165586647
WordScorePoS
figure0NN
disease0.215415047323213NN
class0NN
poor0JJ
country0NN
worldwide0RB
incidence0.0407408489778079NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.410115092788352
WordScorePoS
figure0NN
disease0NN
class0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
country0NN
worldwide0RB
incidence0NN

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.455769798679505
WordScorePoS
figure0NN
disease0.103230094596636NN
class0NN
poor0.0642010940957526JJ
country0NN
worldwide0RB
incidence0NN

Along the vertical axis are countries ordered by per capita income

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.716826069902687
WordScorePoS
country0NN
capita0NN
income0.166475342664294NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.476444965336779
WordScorePoS
country0NN
capita0NN
income0.110649350233433NN

The white area shows the generic region that would be created by the policy

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.765346930682136
WordScorePoS
region0.184259548107002NN
create0.0519476926891779VB
policy0.0450489732120807NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.339705422625328
WordScorePoS
region0.124837844401518NN
create0VB
policy0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.312224234061141
WordScorePoS
region0NN
create0.0695218668857431VB
policy0.0452169560888236NN

Within the generic region firms would be able to manufacture and trade in generic products without any political or procedural complexity arising from the patent system

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.67559925167022
WordScorePoS
region0NN
firm0.0602029956716497NN
manufacture0.240811982686599NN
trade0NN
product0.0442597400933733NN
political0.0368585655748969JJ
arise0VB
system0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.417606740348512
WordScorePoS
region0.184259548107002NN
firm0NN
manufacture0NN
trade0NN
product0NN
political0JJ
arise0VB
system0.0519476926891779NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.302161893817303
WordScorePoS
region0.0297950283197006NN
firm0NN
manufacture0NN
trade0.0214456704626236NN
product0NN
political0JJ
arise0.0440683498519077VB
system0.0756001353333673NN

The generic region would be recalculated each year to accommodate changes in income and the evolution of markets

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.557966825544331
WordScorePoS
region0.184259548107002NN
income0.0442083771593746NN
market0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.456052126741369
WordScorePoS
region0NN
income0.166475342664294NN
market0.0202620733250388NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.453003230167557
WordScorePoS
region0.0297950283197006NN
income0.0643370113878709NN
market0.0913569596328122NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.362321479123563
WordScorePoS
region0NN
income0.110649350233433NN
market0.0377086395700813NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.304880326931227
WordScorePoS
region0.124837844401518NN
income0NN
market0NN

Because diseases to the left are more concentrated in developing countries the percent of global markets cutoff is reached at lower levels of real GDP per capita

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.579799243468912
WordScorePoS
disease0.215415047323213NN
develop0VB
country0NN
global0.013959557403375JJ
market0NN
reach0NN
level0NN
gdp0NN
capita0NN

It may seem counterintuitive to propose differentiating in this way but it is precisely for diseases that are concentrated in developing countries that some incentive for product development may need to come from sales in the developing world

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.720286216307294
WordScorePoS
disease0.215415047323213NN
develop0VB
country0NN
incentive0NN
product0NN
development0.00837573444202498NN
world0.00087176582269799NN

The proposed generic region Countries ordered by real GDP per capita Generic region Legally binding commitments not to enforce patent rights The proposal considered here would have inventors in developed countries make legally binding commitments to their own governments not to enforce patent rights in certain pharmaceutical markets

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.646312145394671
WordScorePoS
region0.184259548107002NN
country0NN
gdp0NN
capita0NN
commitment0NN
enforce0VB
rights0.0519476926891779NNS
develop0VB
government0NN
market0NN

These markets would be defined as those together representing the bottom say percent of Rest of the world no change Concentrated Global in LDCs Disease classes Source Lanjouw

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.677331499930159
WordScorePoS
market0NN
represent0VB
bottom0NN
world0.00351929966767313NN
change0.402565546215053NN
global0.0375696197697663JJ
disease0NN
class0NN
source0.0123065238088614NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.342031715699751
WordScorePoS
market0NN
represent0VB
bottom0NN
world0.00087176582269799NN
change0NN
global0.013959557403375JJ
disease0.215415047323213NN
class0NN
source0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.390498889479807
WordScorePoS
market0.0913569596328122NN
represent0VB
bottom0NN
world0.0124838525528648NN
change0.0756001353333673NN
global0.0119942111830662JJ
disease0NN
class0.0583416713841148NN
source0.0130963126055467NN

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.341596431520283
WordScorePoS
market0NN
represent0.0516150472983178VB
bottom0NN
world0.00438651305628668NN
change0NN
global0.00936547854413134JJ
disease0.103230094596636NN
class0NN
source0.0613562156822703NN

Focus on drug access The poorest countries falling below the dashed line would be allowed generics on all pharmaceuticals

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.68124736672993
WordScorePoS
focus0NN
drug0.0407408489778079NN
access0.00610236075888593NN
poorest0JJS
country0NN
fall0.123094312756122NN
line0NN

Countries higher up such as India would have mixed situation

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.650426114935323
WordScorePoS
country0NN
situation0.0631828116343571NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.534767843685244
WordScorePoS
country0NN
situation0.0519476926891779NN

They would be in the TRIPS environment for diseases concentrated in the developing world while in the generic region for more global diseases

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.872199112597886
WordScorePoS
trip0.0407408489778079NN
environment0NN
disease0.215415047323213NN
develop0VB
world0.00087176582269799NN
region0.124837844401518NN
global0.013959557403375JJ

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.26659828272301
WordScorePoS
trip0NN
environment0NN
disease0NN
develop0VB
world0.00257343720272548NN
region0.184259548107002NN
global0JJ

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.31422818158668
WordScorePoS
trip0NN
environment0NN
disease0.103230094596636NN
develop0VB
world0.00438651305628668NN
region0NN
global0.00936547854413134JJ

For markets in the gray area above the curved line the policy as no effect

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.491254086905446
WordScorePoS
market0.0913569596328122NN
line0NN
policy0NN
effect0.0440683498519077NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.454175916657879
WordScorePoS
market0.0377086395700813NN
line0.030745604615229NN
policy0.011275328195446NN
effect0.0454743001434393NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.404536919987526
WordScorePoS
market0.0252035516550537NN
line0.0410992516792148NN
policy0.0452169560888236NN
effect0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.381185672929222
WordScorePoS
market0.0202620733250388NN
line0NN
policy0.0848203862485078NN
effect0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.343892691407016
WordScorePoS
market0.030649619577211NN
line0NN
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Both the responsibilities and the flexibilities of TRIPS remain unchanged

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 3, with a score of: 0.556500225349098
WordScorePoS
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The size of the generic region depends on two parameters the ceiling income level here and more important the global sales cutoff here percent

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.519544890437089
WordScorePoS
size0NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.475208675822258
WordScorePoS
size0.0396106020715138NN
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.319513291383528
WordScorePoS
size0.0368585655748969NN
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.319213143824591
WordScorePoS
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Label: 3, with a score of: 0.300645659883013
WordScorePoS
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The proposal would be implemented by having inventors in developed countries make legally binding commitment to their own governments not to enforce patent rights in the generic region as part of obtaining license to make foreign patent filings the foreign filing license

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.597653604726584
WordScorePoS
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Firms would continue to obtain patents wherever they like and no decisions related to the policy would be needed at the time of applying for patent

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WordScorePoS
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WordScorePoS
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.306310282527683
WordScorePoS
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Instead decisions that relate to the policy about where to enforce patent rights would arise only after products have reached the market

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.354798097736534
WordScorePoS
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.328775859835627
WordScorePoS
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.321548793917748
WordScorePoS
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To ensure compliance the patent holder would lose the right to enforce the domestic patent on the same product if the holder were to break the commitment and begin an enforcement action in one of the proscribed markets

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WordScorePoS
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Implementation would need to be coordinated across the developed countries that have pharmaceutical research activity including at least Canada Europe Japan and the United States

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WordScorePoS
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The policy would require legislation to amend the patent code in each country

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.46363056589796
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.335225792312036
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.320219517994044
WordScorePoS
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.317784619658348
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In the United States and the United Kingdom this would include adding an inventor declaration to an existing foreign filing license process other countries would need to put foreign filing license provision into their codes

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

The classification of countries and disease classes could be carried out by an international organization and reviewed annually

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 6, with a score of: 0.361998027702621
WordScorePoS
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Developing countries would not be required to take any action to implement this policy

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WordScorePoS
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WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.333541954115632
WordScorePoS
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Label: 13, with a score of: 0.313657119630374
WordScorePoS
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They would continue to take steps to comply with TRIPS and any bilateral treaty obligations in accord with their current plans

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.53653835343861
WordScorePoS
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Label: 13, with a score of: 0.492982225887298
WordScorePoS
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The countries in the generic region could be treated as one country from the viewpoint of patents

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.803472845684744
WordScorePoS
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Label: 3, with a score of: 0.544361576487689
WordScorePoS
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Production could be based in any one country and drugs could be exported to all other countries in that group without any costs associated with patents and compulsory licensing

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.563082639749113
WordScorePoS
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.483201963926968
WordScorePoS
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.435612095665881
WordScorePoS
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So if any country in the generic region had the ability to produce given drug then all other countries in the region could take advantage of its production capacity

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.642569753621013
WordScorePoS
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Label: 3, with a score of: 0.517300774282326
WordScorePoS
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.351283667911382
WordScorePoS
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This would help get around the problem that most small countries do not have the capacity or market size to make domestic production of generic drugs viable activity

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.55846356120988
WordScorePoS
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.387988324145704
WordScorePoS
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.387744003145116
WordScorePoS
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.343629973999113
WordScorePoS
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.328836531814636
WordScorePoS
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Firms have been willing to make voluntarily commitment not to exercise patent rights in the poorest countries

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

The foreign filing license proposal discussed here would take that commitment and convert it into reliable part of the global rules based system

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.410285973408047
WordScorePoS
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.397851904602745
WordScorePoS
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.642201242125844
WordScorePoS
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Source Lanjouw

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.73415387760794
WordScorePoS
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Label: 7, with a score of: 0.32879500351909
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.323029740864511
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Epilogue This report has argued that equity has central place in the interpretation of development experience and in the design of development policy and that this place has been inadequately understood and undervalued in much current thinking

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

We do not propose however yet another new framework for development

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.454948349879117
WordScorePoS
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.3882535717506
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.367813232285931
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.366722397417972
WordScorePoS
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Instead recognizing the importance of equity that is equality of opportunity and the avoidance of absolute deprivation implies the need to integrate and extend existing approaches

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WordScorePoS
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In this epilogue we seek to place the analysis and messages of the report in the context of some of the major contemporary strands of thinking and action in development

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WordScorePoS
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Four broad strands of thinking have been at the core of development discourse and practice over the last three decades or so the central role of markets as resource allocation mechanisms the importance of human development the role of institutions and focus on empowerment

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.464870201100115
WordScorePoS
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.422582151016792
WordScorePoS
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.406598239213614
WordScorePoS
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The first strand emphasizes the superiority of markets over central planning as broad mechanisms to allocate resources and determine the evolution of economic activity

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WordScorePoS
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WordScorePoS
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Label: 14, with a score of: 0.363368627263081
WordScorePoS
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WordScorePoS
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.311591095510983
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This has long been understood in economics but there was time when it was minority view among development economists

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.455548144719842
WordScorePoS
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The situation had definitely changed by the as first India and then China moved away from planning and the importance of incentives in determining individual behavior as consumers producers and regulators became more widely understood

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.602815037073095
WordScorePoS
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The rapid and sustained growth that followed in those two countries underlined the point

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.580047311639955
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.366000807524586
WordScorePoS
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In the the economic transition away from planning in the formerly communist states of Eastern Europe and Central Asia dispelled any serious view that development was possible without markets and the private sector

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.497609137820943
WordScorePoS
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.358100483163537
WordScorePoS
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WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.317466006785237
WordScorePoS
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.306606330762637
WordScorePoS
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Although the resulting Washington Consensus is sometimes interpreted as antistate this is not the main message that survives after more measured consideration

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WordScorePoS
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Instead just as events in the confirmed that markets were essential for development they also showed that good governments are essential for well functioning markets

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WordScorePoS
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WordScorePoS
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Markets operate within framework determined by institutions and they work only as well as those institutions do

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.340469108707431
WordScorePoS
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They work best therefore when capable state maintains order within the rule of law provides effective regulation macroeconomic stability and other public goods and corrects other market failures

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.477972986538749
WordScorePoS
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.378393888555709
WordScorePoS
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The second strand sees human development as central to the development process through the expansion of the skills health and capacity of all people to engage in social and economic activities and to manage the risks they face

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.463688444003964
WordScorePoS
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Label: 3, with a score of: 0.276947998146163
WordScorePoS
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health0.191387734041787NN
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engage0VB
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activity0NN
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risk0.0703902516159815NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.245832919410625
WordScorePoS
human0.0150723186962745JJ
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central0JJ
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.336301169152018
WordScorePoS
human0JJ
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.315983163288623
WordScorePoS
human0JJ
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Label: 11, with a score of: 0.304246066649017
WordScorePoS
human0.0273960270556257JJ
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engage0VB
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Although the World Development Report was on Human Development U

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.434273429430976
WordScorePoS
world0.00464349782489754NN
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.424254574991297
WordScorePoS
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agencies notably the UNDP in their series of Human Development Reports United Nations later took the lead in putting these concerns at the center of the development agenda

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.538073068355049
WordScorePoS
agency0NN
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Label: 13, with a score of: 0.390798077119304
WordScorePoS
agency0NN
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In this they have been followed rightly by the whole development community

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.43532458886144
WordScorePoS
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.394083601764685
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.32987594024704
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.318957342754947
WordScorePoS
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.309171464622437
WordScorePoS
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For the World Bank the World Development Report on Poverty marked the beginning of multiyear process of making poverty reduction the overarching objective of the institution building on these first two strands of development thought

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.585770834916828
WordScorePoS
world0.00257343720272548NN
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.464045136447283
WordScorePoS
world0NN
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.370977118080093
WordScorePoS
world0.00418824502414673NN
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poverty0.0109843026967392NN
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objective0.0299586785922821NN
institution0.0249900578719309NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.307938203975157
WordScorePoS
world0.00276879546803864NN
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The Report argued that poverty reduction required two part strategy employment creation through market based growth and expansion of Epilogue human capital especially through broadbased provisioning of social services

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.71232096116996
WordScorePoS
report0NN
poverty0.0722601961736204NN
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employment0.173804667214358NN
creation0.160952962344818NN
market0.0252035516550537NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.470245724241191
WordScorePoS
report0NN
poverty0.269969049497485NN
reduction0NN
require0VB
strategy0.0442083771593746NN
employment0NN
creation0NN
market0NN
base0.0442083771593746NN
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human0JJ
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social0.112994637345193JJ
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During the the third and fourth strands of thought rose to prominence

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.914307478423604
WordScorePoS
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The third strand emphasized the role of institutions in development building both on trends in academic thought and on development practice across many organizations

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.729394356524728
WordScorePoS
institution0.274477239401321NN
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.495514922376185
WordScorePoS
institution0.0249900578719309NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.303404602548551
WordScorePoS
institution0.0991236547760315NN
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It reflected the acknowledgment that markets however important do not work in vacuum

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.637806283759353
WordScorePoS
reflect0VB
market0.0913569596328122NN

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.513169895268778
WordScorePoS
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.404714513987826
WordScorePoS
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They need rules and the institutional enforcement of those rules

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.848544342101348
WordScorePoS
rule0.162386273072618NN
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.482853611611478
WordScorePoS
rule0.0739231123597559NN
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The emphasis on institutions took variety of forms focus on the costs of corruption broader concern with governance support for judicial reform and greater practical understanding of the need for welldesigned accountable and effective public regulation of privatized monopolies

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.8906537280337
WordScorePoS
institution0.274477239401321NN
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The fourth strand sought the empowerment of the people for whom development was supposedly taking place

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.805042720405372
WordScorePoS
seek0VB
empowerment0.273513903975916NN
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development0.0124956749436837NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.489597941396325
WordScorePoS
seek0.120266261535276VB
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If the central goal of development is poverty reduction the poor should have great deal of voice over its directions

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.792173133780976
WordScorePoS
central0JJ
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development0.0164833460638534NN
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poor0.150659516460257JJ
voice0NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.340872969996141
WordScorePoS
central0JJ
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development0.0177346522508396NN
poverty0.05809266143877NN
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voice0.064698038783335NN
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If development needs markets and markets need institutions it should clearly matter how those institutions are governed

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.81715123742547
WordScorePoS
development0.0368309542451156NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.357817508091663
WordScorePoS
development0.0177346522508396NN
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If power helps determine the outcomes in market and government processes alike the distribution of that power over the population must be important for development

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.579974426900258
WordScorePoS
power0.0454743001434393NN
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.436851601365478
WordScorePoS
power0.036961556179878NN
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market0.030649619577211NN
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development0.0469463607292177NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.342377241562362
WordScorePoS
power0NN
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population0.0860640399817412NN
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.303213121525598
WordScorePoS
power0NN
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.301603418663775
WordScorePoS
power0NN
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market0.0913569596328122NN
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population0.0310434135749871NN
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In practical terms the emphasis on empowerment has sought greater participation of the poor in projects affecting them greater preoccupation with the political economy of support for reforms and explorations of the role of culture in development

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.66190080664416
WordScorePoS
term0NN
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participation0.0465610847355851NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.438794795693136
WordScorePoS
term0NN
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.292512241683537
WordScorePoS
term0.149793392961411NN
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Several World Development Reports have sought to integrate the third and fourth strands of thought the Report on the State in Changing World the Report on Building Institutions for Markets and emblematically the millennial Report on Attacking Poverty

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.45599697993062
WordScorePoS
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.446810947382443
WordScorePoS
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.437013598352291
WordScorePoS
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.288488317140861
WordScorePoS
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The Report argued that poverty reduction required an expansion in the opportunities of the poor notably through marketoriented growth the empowerment of the poor and measures that provide security for the poor

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.714707952876546
WordScorePoS
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.359180694644311
WordScorePoS
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.24038975978592
WordScorePoS
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.317694043073647
WordScorePoS
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At the World Bank this synthesis was crystallized in Strategic Framework for development which consisted of two pillars building good climate for investment and empowering the poor

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.497078031441963
WordScorePoS
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Label: 13, with a score of: 0.470367146226421
WordScorePoS
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.401487649365268
WordScorePoS
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.327866575462039
WordScorePoS
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The first pillar combined the strands of thinking on the primacy of markets and on the centrality of institutions

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.834244336152542
WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.362860205469139
WordScorePoS
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It argued that only by having governance institutions that were at once effective and accountable could markets generate the best possible results for investment and growth

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.739988853322057
WordScorePoS
governance0.107490825192354NN
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.397254197165661
WordScorePoS
governance0NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.393116071351614
WordScorePoS
governance0NN
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This theme was explored in the Report Better Investment Climate for Everyone

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.808889389289479
WordScorePoS
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Label: 7, with a score of: 0.42497314799739
WordScorePoS
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The second pillar was also merger of sorts in seeking the empowerment of poor people who should be seen as the driving subjects not as passive objects of development it combined thinking on human development institutions and empowerment

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.702938195560532
WordScorePoS
seek0VB
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.415417742353152
WordScorePoS
seek0VB
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.406998660835449
WordScorePoS
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The Report Making Services Work for Poor People explored these themes in the delivery of basic services

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.729877821121106
WordScorePoS
report0NN
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Label: 11, with a score of: 0.324447555858624
WordScorePoS
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Although the various elements of thinking and policy are complementary and indeed have been considered elements of comprehensive or holistic development process the narratives associated with the different strands have often suffered in practice from two important limitations

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.558569944251
WordScorePoS
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One is tendency to compartmentalize poverty

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.93523444252407
WordScorePoS
poverty0.269969049497485NN

The second is to treat actions in the various realms as separate

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.572491426812187
WordScorePoS
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There is tendency to assign market related and macropolicies to macroeconomic managers and trade ministries as though the investment climate concerned only rich people or as though the poor stood to benefit only indirectly from the trickle down effects of the investments by the rich today

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.404022728611042
WordScorePoS
market0NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.40211560793837
WordScorePoS
market0NN
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.44751193838037
WordScorePoS
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.43408167929584
WordScorePoS
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Conversely it sometimes seems as though empowerment would have no impact on the quality of institutions on the investment opportunities of the poor or on the economy growth process

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.497409577510932
WordScorePoS
empowerment0NN
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.465706411394926
WordScorePoS
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impact0NN
quality0NN
institution0NN
investment0NN
opportunity0.02046578088155NN
poor0JJ
economy0.0465610847355851NN
growth0NN
process0.0558185411034276NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.35610105826808
WordScorePoS
empowerment0NN
impact0.0285977592242194NN
quality0NN
institution0.274477239401321NN
investment0NN
opportunity0NN
poor0JJ
economy0NN
growth0NN
process0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.282310138715808
WordScorePoS
empowerment0NN
impact0NN
quality0NN
institution0NN
investment0.0376648791150643NN
opportunity0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
economy0NN
growth0.0519476926891779NN
process0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.319978894549428
WordScorePoS
empowerment0NN
impact0NN
quality0.0121171980355011NN
institution0.0991236547760315NN
investment0.0202620733250388NN
opportunity0.029046330719385NN
poor0JJ
economy0NN
growth0.11178243319132NN
process0NN

According to this view empowerment should be the preserve of well meaning NGOs and social development folk of little import for economic performance

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.627913940421578
WordScorePoS
view0NN
empowerment0.273513903975916NN
social0.0285529457667019JJ
development0.0124956749436837NN
import0NN
economic0.0727679293221751JJ
performance0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.298913890843433
WordScorePoS
view0NN
empowerment0NN
social0.0504071033101074JJ
development0.0055149369084567NN
import0NN
economic0.128463821595706JJ
performance0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.465297262487658
WordScorePoS
view0NN
empowerment0NN
social0.101310366625194JJ
development0.0177346522508396NN
import0NN
economic0.103276847978089JJ
performance0.064698038783335NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.36551333465451
WordScorePoS
view0NN
empowerment0NN
social0.112994637345193JJ
development0.0164833460638534NN
import0NN
economic0.0959899298575892JJ
performance0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.314087142582947
WordScorePoS
view0.048933054487825NN
empowerment0NN
social0JJ
development0.0469463607292177NN
import0.0978661089756501NN
economic0JJ
performance0NN

Such separation of the two pillars for the investment climate and for empowerment is profoundly misguided

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.64880085006605
WordScorePoS
investment0NN
climate0.291881734282273NN
empowerment0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.607972451036775
WordScorePoS
investment0NN
climate0NN
empowerment0.273513903975916NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.340866060708429
WordScorePoS
investment0.0383371018038178NN
climate0.115011305411453NN
empowerment0NN

The analysis in this report suggests that the root causes of poverty are to be found in the combined deprivations of power and investment opportunities

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.71481372143199
WordScorePoS
report0NN
suggest0VB
poverty0.269969049497485NN
power0NN
investment0.0376648791150643NN
opportunity0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.36457072226257
WordScorePoS
report0NN
suggest0.0602029956716497VB
poverty0NN
power0.0454743001434393NN
investment0.0377086395700813NN
opportunity0.0135141354781442NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.310416717005004
WordScorePoS
report0NN
suggest0VB
poverty0.0722601961736204NN
power0NN
investment0.0252035516550537NN
opportunity0.0361300980868102NN

Lack of incomes lack of WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT access to services lack of assets these deprivations go together with lack of voice lack of power lack of status

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.347995331392567
WordScorePoS
lack0NN
income0.166475342664294NN
world0.00276879546803864NN
development0.0177346522508396NN
report0NN
access0.00138439773401932NN
service0.00795378154685591NN
asset0.0488696285210061NN
voice0.064698038783335NN
power0NN
status0.0488696285210061NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.54780952935432
WordScorePoS
lack0.0753297582301286NN
income0.0442083771593746NN
world0.00257343720272548NN
development0.0164833460638534NN
report0NN
access0.00514687440545096NN
service0.0443555132287109NN
asset0NN
voice0NN
power0NN
status0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.54201004621261
WordScorePoS
lack0.0565629593551219NN
income0.110649350233433NN
world0.00257642711761688NN
development0.0330049940546426NN
report0NN
access0.0128821355880844NN
service0.0148023490369527NN
asset0NN
voice0NN
power0.0454743001434393NN
status0NN

Public action could enhance the investment capabilities of those who have limited opportunities by investing in their human capital and in the infrastructure they use and by ensuring fairness and security in the markets in which they transact

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.54929331784941
WordScorePoS
public0.0160169090870187NN
action0.0135141354781442NN
enhance0.0185001613201543VB
investment0.0377086395700813NN
capability0.0909486002868787NN
limited0JJ
opportunity0.0135141354781442NN
invest0VB
human0.011275328195446JJ
infrastructure0.192202909044225NN
ensure0.00412562425683033VB
security0NN
market0.0377086395700813NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.431289415136347
WordScorePoS
public0NN
action0NN
enhance0.0268922747178632VB
investment0.0182713919265625NN
capability0NN
limited0JJ
opportunity0.0261926252110933NN
invest0.0583416713841148VB
human0JJ
infrastructure0.0155217067874935NN
ensure0.0159922815774215VB
security0.0893850849591018NN
market0.0913569596328122NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.334131304467189
WordScorePoS
public0NN
action0NN
enhance0.0188084899376888VB
investment0.0383371018038178NN
capability0NN
limited0JJ
opportunity0.0549574626423028NN
invest0VB
human0JJ
infrastructure0.0651354046449052NN
ensure0.0251662980592747VB
security0.0625160381065121NN
market0NN

And if public action fails to do that it is because it somehow has been decided otherwise

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.698912833430828
WordScorePoS
public0.0727679293221751NN
action0.0409315617631NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.358833398516282
WordScorePoS
public0.0583751976558017NN
action0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.307596672978644
WordScorePoS
public0.0390556786919513NN
action0.0109843026967392NN

In that case the government will invest in expensive schools or universities rather than in those used by the poor for example

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.734418384169743
WordScorePoS
government0NN
invest0VB
expensive0JJ
school0.208127520578185NN
university0.0815069365350084NN
poor0JJ

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.382023326027449
WordScorePoS
government0NN
invest0VB
expensive0JJ
school0NN
university0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.36247673027113
WordScorePoS
government0NN
invest0.0583416713841148VB
expensive0JJ
school0.0297950283197006NN
university0NN
poor0.0548141757796873JJ

It will not enforce tax collection rather than build rural roads

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.482097889295126
WordScorePoS
enforce0VB
tax0NN
collection0NN
build0VB
rural0.148975141598503JJ
road0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.610599451137859
WordScorePoS
enforce0.107490825192354VB
tax0.0811931365363091NN
collection0NN
build0VB
rural0JJ
road0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.439703685518942
WordScorePoS
enforce0VB
tax0.036961556179878NN
collection0.048933054487825NN
build0.0499801157438617VB
rural0JJ
road0NN

It will allow banks to retain degree of market power and lend to the friends of the government rather than allow for entry and promote competition that forces intermediaries to seek the greatest returns on capital

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.421001222807347
WordScorePoS
bank0NN
degree0.164469921319675NN
market0NN
power0NN
government0NN
promote0.00375696197697663VB
force0NN
seek0VB
return0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.543772652029312
WordScorePoS
bank0.0881366997038154NN
degree0NN
market0.0913569596328122NN
power0NN
government0NN
promote0.00799614078871077VB
force0.0297950283197006NN
seek0VB
return0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.409336291232619
WordScorePoS
bank0.036961556179878NN
degree0NN
market0.030649619577211NN
power0.036961556179878NN
government0.048933054487825NN
promote0.0100599344419752VB
force0NN
seek0VB
return0NN

Observed policies that fail to address inefficient inequities are the result of political choices implicitly or explicitly

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.555807230754562
WordScorePoS
policy0.0848203862485078NN
inefficient0JJ
result0NN
political0.0792212041430275JJ
choice0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.493959410578303
WordScorePoS
policy0.0341506708422088NN
inefficient0JJ
result0NN
political0.111637082206855JJ
choice0NN

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.406407972162851
WordScorePoS
policy0NN
inefficient0JJ
result0.0683326727248364NN
political0JJ
choice0.0516150472983178NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.391516723155446
WordScorePoS
policy0.0203215381458133NN
inefficient0.0542519672965169JJ
result0NN
political0JJ
choice0.0409791940864438NN

Such failures in public action which arise from and perpetuate inequity are also inimical to prosperity

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.61561707598912
WordScorePoS
public0.0583751976558017NN
action0NN
arise0VB
prosperity0.0731385760866977NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.53222826972038
WordScorePoS
public0.0727679293221751NN
action0.0409315617631NN
arise0VB
prosperity0NN

Those who have no opportunities cannot contribute to the development of their countries

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.43826695820974
WordScorePoS
opportunity0NN
contribute0.0815049608642826VB
development0.0036456034155327NN
country0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.400020535839122
WordScorePoS
opportunity0NN
contribute0.0554128417527413VB
development0.022306853314744NN
country0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.370478193290025
WordScorePoS
opportunity0.0261926252110933NN
contribute0.0297950283197006VB
development0.0159922815774215NN
country0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.370254215359339
WordScorePoS
opportunity0NN
contribute0.0249900578719309VB
development0.0469463607292177NN
country0NN

Their potential talents are wasted and capital land and other resources are used in inferior ways

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.525965058623107
WordScorePoS
potential0NN
waste0.138532104381853NN
land0.0144336476662975NN
resource0.0416785799329393NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.526240512606191
WordScorePoS
potential0.0390772412228479NN
waste0NN
land0.123873694868802NN
resource0.0317953333768269NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.327556274126741
WordScorePoS
potential0NN
waste0.0373517915079663NN
land0.0389167984372011NN
resource0.0449504361447405NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.303229820644419
WordScorePoS
potential0NN
waste0.0297950283197006NN
land0.0465651203624806NN
resource0.0358563662904843NN

Unequal control over resources reinforces the unequal concentration of power and this is reflected in worse governance institutions public service delivery agencies are not pushed to become more accountable

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.820194897265423
WordScorePoS
control0NN
resource0NN
reinforce0.0811931365363091VB
concentration0NN
power0NN
reflect0VB
governance0.107490825192354NN
institution0.274477239401321NN
public0.0285977592242194NN
service0NN
agency0NN
accountable0.162386273072618JJ

If all the power brought to bear on regulators is that of the friends of the regulated the quality of regulatory agencies is not likely to improve much

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.433819567504513
WordScorePoS
power0NN
bring0VB
bear0NN
regulate0.106396624114523VB
quality0NN
agency0NN
improve0.00996343157341984VB

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.425887939514647
WordScorePoS
power0NN
bring0.0731385760866977VB
bear0NN
regulate0VB
quality0.0136980135278128NN
agency0NN
improve0.0273960270556257VB

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.398390447813739
WordScorePoS
power0NN
bring0VB
bear0NN
regulate0VB
quality0.076326555629389NN
agency0NN
improve0.0305306222517556VB

Police forces and judicial systems will not treat everyone the same way

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.604456257814137
WordScorePoS
police0.107490825192354NNS
force0NN
system0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.592671663832138
WordScorePoS
police0NNS
force0.0297950283197006NN
system0.0756001353333673NN

These institutional failures only add to the negative effects of inequity on development

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.461398625987227
WordScorePoS
institutional0JJ
add0.0804764811724088VB
effect0NN
development0.0055149369084567NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.450219317640511
WordScorePoS
institutional0.036961556179878JJ
add0VB
effect0NN
development0.0469463607292177NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.444390057146678
WordScorePoS
institutional0.0828215106044499JJ
add0VB
effect0NN
development0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.421091305615993
WordScorePoS
institutional0JJ
add0VB
effect0.0454743001434393NN
development0.0330049940546426NN

Government policies are what they are from Mali to Chile because someone is making them

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.695182666230171
WordScorePoS
government0.048933054487825NN
policy0.0641521854453136NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.521426689263549
WordScorePoS
government0NN
policy0.0848203862485078NN

No group is powerless unless some other group is powerful

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

If an inequitable distribution of opportunities means that the investment climate for large groups is poor this is intimately linked to the lack of power in those groups to affect the decision making processes that could lead to changes in that distribution over time

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.599272560735017
WordScorePoS
opportunity0NN
means0.120266261535276NNS
investment0.0376648791150643NN
climate0.0376648791150643NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
lack0.0753297582301286NN
power0NN
affect0.0184786920895884VB
decision0.0519476926891779NN
process0NN
lead0NN
time0NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.396552796135939
WordScorePoS
opportunity0NN
means0NNS
investment0NN
climate0.291881734282273NN
poor0JJ
lack0NN
power0NN
affect0.0336940052321454VB
decision0NN
process0NN
lead0NN
time0NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.347107082192927
WordScorePoS
opportunity0.0549574626423028NN
means0NNS
investment0.0383371018038178NN
climate0.115011305411453NN
poor0JJ
lack0.0383371018038178NN
power0NN
affect0VB
decision0NN
process0NN
lead0.0383371018038178NN
time0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.333655209347727
WordScorePoS
opportunity0.0135141354781442NN
means0NNS
investment0.0377086395700813NN
climate0NN
poor0JJ
lack0.0565629593551219NN
power0.0454743001434393NN
affect0.00925008066007716VB
decision0NN
process0.0737171311497939NN
lead0.0188543197850406NN
time0.0188543197850406NN

And if power is imbalanced it is because wealth and economic opportunities are uneven

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.724754446843149
WordScorePoS
power0NN
economic0.128463821595706JJ
opportunity0.0361300980868102NN
uneven0.0804764811724088JJ

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.391323521106028
WordScorePoS
power0NN
economic0.103276847978089JJ
opportunity0.029046330719385NN
uneven0JJ

Inequality traps are vicious circles with economic and political inequalities mutually reinforcing one another

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.981621913251975
WordScorePoS
inequality0.635305170773079NN
economic0.103276847978089JJ
political0.0792212041430275JJ
mutually0RB
reinforce0VB

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.0867814836718314
WordScorePoS
inequality0NN
economic0.128463821595706JJ
political0JJ
mutually0RB
reinforce0VB

This report has argued that policy and institutional reforms can help break these inequality traps and turn the vicious circles into virtuous process of greater equality in economic opportunities reinforcing greater political equality and vice versa

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.742909763378247
WordScorePoS
report0NN
policy0.0848203862485078NN
institutional0JJ
reform0NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
process0NN
equality0.0330412182586772NN
economic0.103276847978089JJ
opportunity0.029046330719385NN
reinforce0VB
political0.0792212041430275JJ

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.564766425672009
WordScorePoS
report0NN
policy0.0341506708422088NN
institutional0JJ
reform0.0911713013253052NN
inequality0NN
process0.0558185411034276NN
equality0.18624433894234NN
economic0.0727679293221751JJ
opportunity0.02046578088155NN
reinforce0VB
political0.111637082206855JJ

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.156221675601594
WordScorePoS
report0NN
policy0.0452169560888236NN
institutional0JJ
reform0NN
inequality0NN
process0NN
equality0NN
economic0.128463821595706JJ
opportunity0.0361300980868102NN
reinforce0VB
political0JJ

Reforms can do this in many ways which are closely related to the four strands of thinking discussed above

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.808880196399672
WordScorePoS
reform0.0911713013253052NN
related0JJ

Interventions that build greater human capacities for those with the most limited opportunities generally the poor will prepare them to be more economically productive and more politically effective

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.666077493671812
WordScorePoS
intervention0NN
build0.0614198493690006VB
human0JJ
capacity0NN
limited0.120266261535276JJ
opportunity0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
economically0RB
productive0JJ
effective0JJ

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.36109964140673
WordScorePoS
intervention0NN
build0VB
human0.0150723186962745JJ
capacity0.0123650647908625NN
limited0JJ
opportunity0.0361300980868102NN
poor0JJ
economically0RB
productive0.0985415302158139JJ
effective0.0180650490434051JJ

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.341456574887055
WordScorePoS
intervention0NN
build0VB
human0JJ
capacity0.0179281831452421NN
limited0JJ
opportunity0.0261926252110933NN
poor0.0548141757796873JJ
economically0RB
productive0.0714379839896614JJ
effective0JJ

Processes that redistribute access to land or to infrastructure services or indeed to justice can add both to empowerment and to the investment opportunities of the poor

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.535319535728474
WordScorePoS
process0.0558185411034276NN
access0.00780347258345989NN
land0.024255976440725NN
infrastructure0.024255976440725NN
service0.022416649027415NN
justice0NN
add0VB
empowerment0.273513903975916NN
investment0NN
opportunity0.02046578088155NN
poor0JJ

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.430757848106025
WordScorePoS
process0.0737171311497939NN
access0.0128821355880844NN
land0NN
infrastructure0.192202909044225NN
service0.0148023490369527NN
justice0NN
add0VB
empowerment0NN
investment0.0377086395700813NN
opportunity0.0135141354781442NN
poor0JJ

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.337063099732719
WordScorePoS
process0NN
access0.00514687440545096NN
land0.0319966432858631NN
infrastructure0NN
service0.0443555132287109NN
justice0NN
add0VB
empowerment0NN
investment0.0376648791150643NN
opportunity0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.277174555158774
WordScorePoS
process0NN
access0.00690021170452351NN
land0NN
infrastructure0NN
service0NN
justice0.214981650384708NN
add0VB
empowerment0NN
investment0NN
opportunity0NN
poor0JJ

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.31462447994418
WordScorePoS
process0NN
access0.0157161992303584NN
land0.0325677023224526NN
infrastructure0.0651354046449052NN
service0.0451471467893167NN
justice0NN
add0VB
empowerment0NN
investment0.0383371018038178NN
opportunity0.0549574626423028NN
poor0JJ

And promoting fairness in markets is all about improvements in the quality of institutions that support and complement markets in ways that broaden access and ensure equitable rules

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.693843773869548
WordScorePoS
promote0.0220985725470694VB
market0NN
improvement0NN
quality0NN
institution0.274477239401321NN
support0NN
complement0NN
broaden0.107490825192354VB
access0.00690021170452351NN
ensure0.0220985725470694VB
equitable0JJ
rule0.162386273072618NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.404216390407707
WordScorePoS
promote0.0100599344419752VB
market0.030649619577211NN
improvement0NN
quality0.00916459792075908NN
institution0.0249900578719309NN
support0.0451108483130998NN
complement0.0978661089756501NN
broaden0VB
access0.00314118376811005NN
ensure0.00335331148065841VB
equitable0.017987180284335JJ
rule0.0739231123597559NN

This is consistent with the twin pillars of better investment climate and greater empowerment for the poor

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.552924743784761
WordScorePoS
consistent0JJ
investment0NN
climate0.291881734282273NN
empowerment0NN
poor0JJ

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.518129733774978
WordScorePoS
consistent0JJ
investment0NN
climate0NN
empowerment0.273513903975916NN
poor0JJ

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.428101683421697
WordScorePoS
consistent0JJ
investment0.0376648791150643NN
climate0.0376648791150643NN
empowerment0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ

It makes it clear that for most people in the developing world and certainly for the poor it is not possible to have one without the other

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.769716923482242
WordScorePoS
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A good investment climate is about real economic opportunities

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Equity is about leveling the playing field so that opportunities are available on the basis of talent and efforts rather than on the basis of gender race family background or other predetermined circumstances

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A level economic playing field is not sustainable without level political playing field and vice versa

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If we want better investment climate for everyone we want empowerment

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The combination of both implies equity

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These issues apply with equal force at the global level

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The extraordinary inequalities in opportunity faced by individuals born in different countries reflect different political and economic histories across nations

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While domestic policy is undoubtedly fundamental global interactions help shape Epilogue the context for national economic and social advance

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The Monterrey Consensus explicitly emphasizes the need for compact between rich and poor societies if the Millennium Development Goals are to be achieved

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It recognizes the role of action by rich countries especially in the areas of aid and trade

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For aid this is reflected in the quest to change the donor recipient relationship from one of giving to one of partnership with developing countries clearly in the lead in designing their policies and institutions

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This report underlines the importance of that compact and more equal interna tional partnership

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But it also highlights inequalities in the processes forming the rules of the game in the international playing field

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Inequalities in economic and political power in the global arena influence the design of rules in ways that often restrict rather than expand the opportunities of poorer countries and even more of poorer groups within these countries

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Just as in the domestic context therefore equity and efficiency in the international arena are more likely to be attained by reforms that enhance the power and broaden the economic access of the countries where the world poor live

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Bibliographical Note This Report draws on wide range of World Bank documents and on numerous outside sources

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Background papers were prepared by Martin Andersson Armando Barrientos Carles Boix Leila Chirayath Stijn Claessens Klaus Decker Ashwini Deshpande Leopoldo Fergusson José Fernández Albertos Christer Gunnarsson Emmanuel Gymi Boadi Karla Hoff Markus Jäntti José Antonio Lucero Marco Manacorda Siobhan McInerney Lankford Joy Moncrieffe Enrico Perotti Vibha Pinglé Pablo Querubi Martin Ravallion Michael Ross Juho Saari Rachel SabatesWheeler Carolina Sánchez Páramo Norbert Schady Andrew Shepherd Milena Stefanova and Juhana Vartiainen

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Background papers for the Report are available either on the World Wide Web http www

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worldbank

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org wdr under Background Papers or through the World Development Report office

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The views expressed in these papers are not necessarily those of the World Bank or of this Report

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Many people inside and outside the World Bank gave comments to the team

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Valuable comments and contributions were provided by Nisha Agrawal Asad Alam Sabina Alkire Sudhir Anand Cristian Baeza Gianpaolo Baiocchi Catherine Baker Judy L

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Baker Giorgio Barba Navaretti Catherine Barber Jacques Baudouy Gordon Betcherman Lisa Bhansali Vinay K

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Bhargava Amar Bhattacharya Nancy Birdsall Andrea Brandolini John Bruce Barbara Bruns Donald Bundy Luis Felipe López Calva Shubham Chaudhuri Martha Chen Shaohua Chen Aimee Christensen Denis Cogneau Giovanni Andrea Cornia Anis Dani Roberto Dañino Jishnu Das Klaus Decker Arjan de Haan Klaus Deininger Asli Demirguc Kunt Kemal Dervis Jean Jacques Dethier Shanta Devarajan Peter A

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Dewees Charles Di Leva Mala Escobar Antonio Estache Joan Maria Estebán Shahrokh Fardoust Massimo Florio David Freestone Adrian Fozzard Teresa Genta Fons Vivien Foster M

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Louise Fox Sebastián Galiani Alan Gelb Alec Gershberg Elena Glinskaya Delfin Go Carol Graham Maurizio Guadagni Susana Cordeiro Guerra Isabel Guerrero David Gwatkin Jeff Hammer Patrick Heller Amy Jill Heyman Bert Hofman Patrick Honohan R

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Mukami Kariuki Christine Kessides Homi Kharas Elizabeth King Larry Kohler Jacob Kolster Somik Lall Ruben Lamdany Danny M

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Leipziger Victoria Levin Sandy Lieberman Peter Lindert Amy Luinstra Xubei Luo Bill Maloney Katherine Marshall Siobhan McInerney Lankford Stephen Mink Pradeep Mitra Ed Mountfield Chris Murray Edmundo Murrugarra Mamta Murthi Ijaz Nabi Mustapha K

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Nabli Julia Nielson Pedro Olinto Robert Sullivan Ça˘glar Özden John Page Sheila Page Guillermo Perry Lant Pritchett Agnes Quisumbing Maurizio Ragazzi Robin Michael Rajack Raghuram G

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Rajan Dena Reingold Kaspar Richter Maria Estela Rivero Fuentes Peter Roberts John Roemer Fabio Sánchez Milena Sánchez de Boado Stefano Scarpetta George Schieber Maurice Schiff Jesica Seacor Binayak Sen Shekhar Shah Tony Shorrocks Ricardo Silveira Nistha Sinha Milena Stefanova Nicholas Stern Kalanidhi Subbarao Mark Sundberg Rosa Alonso Terme Vinod Thomas Peter Timmer Bernice K

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Van Bronkhorst Rogier J

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van den Brink Rudolf Van Puymbroeck Tara Vishwanath Adam Wagstaff L

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Alan Winters Ruslan Yemtsov Nobuo Yoshida Mary Eming Young Hassan Zaman and Heng Fu Zou

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Other valuable assistance was provided by Jean Pierre S

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Djomalieu Gytis Kanchas Polly Means Nacer Mohamed Megherbi and Kavita Watsa

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Christopher Neal and Stephen Commins assisted the team with consultations and dissemination

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Despite efforts to compile comprehensive list some who contributed may have been inadvertently omitted

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The team apologizes for any oversights and reiterates its gratitude to all who contributed to this Report

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Background Papers Andersson Martin and Christer Gunnarsson

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Egalitarianism in the Process of Modern Economic Growth The Case of Sweden

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Barrientos Armando

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Cash Transfers for Older People Reduce Poverty and Inequality

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Boix Carles

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Spain Development Democracy and Equity

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Chirayath Leila Caroline Sage and Michael Woolcock

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Customary Law and Policy Reform Engaging with the Plurality of Justice Systems

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Claessens Stijn and Enrico Perotti

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The Links Between Finance and Inequality Channels and Evidence

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de Haan Arjan

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Disparities Within India Poorest Regions Why Do The Same Institutions Work Differently In Different Places

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Decker Klaus Siobhan McInerney Lankford and Caroline Sage

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Human Rights and Equitable Development Ideals Iissues and Implications

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WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT Decker Klaus Caroline Sage and Milena Stefanova

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Law or Justice Building Equitable Legal Institutions

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institution0.0249900578719309NN

Deshpande Ashwini

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Affirmative Action in India and the United States

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.841145587469872
WordScorePoS
action0.0369195714265843NN
unite0.0828215106044499VB

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.336805438429789
WordScorePoS
action0.0109843026967392NN
unite0.036961556179878VB

Hoff Karla

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

What Can Economists Explain by Taking into Account People Perceptions of Fairness

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.582527986764476
WordScorePoS
account0.0577345906651901NN
people0.0119834723221875NNS

Punishing Cheats Bargaining Impasse and Self Perpetuating Inequalities

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.998828889740146
WordScorePoS
inequality0.635305170773079NN

Jäntti Markus Juho Saari and Juhana Vartiainen

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Country Case Study Finland Combining Growth with Equity

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.833056063490662
WordScorePoS
country0NN
study0NN
growth0.208565600657229NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.44648318547415
WordScorePoS
country0NN
study0NN
growth0.11178243319132NN

Lucero José Antonio

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Indigenous Political Voice and the Struggle for Recognition in Ecuador and Bolivia

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.699651732387213
WordScorePoS
indigenous0JJ
political0.0792212041430275JJ
voice0.064698038783335NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.542714625066809
WordScorePoS
indigenous0JJ
political0.111637082206855JJ
voice0NN

Moncrieffe Joy

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Beyond Categories Power Recognition and the Conditions for Equity

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.861957001438882
WordScorePoS
power0NN
condition0.121575732851624NN

Pinglé Vibha

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Faith Equity and Development

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.551245285882582
WordScorePoS
development0.0469463607292177NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.432469942010676
WordScorePoS
development0.0368309542451156NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.38754542632484
WordScorePoS
development0.0330049940546426NN

Rao Vijayendra

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Symbolic Public Goods and the Coordination of Collective Action Comparison of Local Development in India and Indonesia

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.671492106475467
WordScorePoS
public0.0390556786919513NN
coordination0.0978661089756501NN
action0.0109843026967392NN
local0.0130185595639838JJ
development0.0469463607292177NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.407652118473656
WordScorePoS
public0.0727679293221751NN
coordination0NN
action0.0409315617631NN
local0JJ
development0.0124956749436837NN

Ravallion Martin

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Why Should Poor People Care about Inequality

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.907326469221991
WordScorePoS
poor0JJ
people0.00571634317201755NNS
care0NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.265890978023781
WordScorePoS
poor0.150659516460257JJ
people0.0371911007748996NNS
care0NN
inequality0NN

Ross Michael

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Mineral Wealth and Equitable Development

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.481019377577798
WordScorePoS
equitable0.017987180284335JJ
development0.0469463607292177NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.428832062023575
WordScorePoS
equitable0.0299609328954485JJ
development0.0279277626235394NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.408432030640721
WordScorePoS
equitable0.0221298700466866JJ
development0.0330049940546426NN

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.372145395740898
WordScorePoS
equitable0.0502364757923669JJ
development0NN

Sabates Wheeler Rachel

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Asset Inequality and Agricultural Growth How Are Patterns of Asset Inequality Established and Reproduced

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.963321963567393
WordScorePoS
asset0.0488696285210061NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
agricultural0JJ
growth0.11178243319132NN
pattern0NN
establish0VB

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.179131305708876
WordScorePoS
asset0NN
inequality0NN
agricultural0.250032943963815JJ
growth0.0252000451111224NN
pattern0NN
establish0VB

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.135741825488489
WordScorePoS
asset0NN
inequality0NN
agricultural0JJ
growth0.208565600657229NN
pattern0NN
establish0VB

Shepherd Andrew and Emmanuel Gyimah Boadi with Sulley Gariba Sophie Plagerson and Abdul Wahab Musa

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Bridging the North south Divide in Ghana

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Endnotes Overview

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

The infant mortality rates are computed separately at the province level only and do not take into account racial gender or other social differences

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.581341626873001
WordScorePoS
infant0NN
mortality0.276962203701274NN
rate0.0433561464459019NN
level0NN
account0NN
gender0.0175975629039954NN
social0JJ

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.417569689725524
WordScorePoS
infant0NN
mortality0NN
rate0NN
level0.0172651853471334NN
account0NN
gender0.196902218579822NN
social0.0285529457667019JJ

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.413445486225303
WordScorePoS
infant0NN
mortality0NN
rate0.0639932865717261NN
level0.0113874611101829NN
account0NN
gender0.0519476926891779NN
social0.112994637345193JJ

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.317590625846375
WordScorePoS
infant0NN
mortality0.0488696285210061NN
rate0.0172128079963482NN
level0NN
account0.0172128079963482NN
gender0NN
social0.101310366625194JJ

The life expectancy statistics are for race and gender groups and do not take regional or income differences into account

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.507847970431925
WordScorePoS
life0NN
expectancy0NN
race0.0488696285210061NN
gender0NN
regional0JJ
income0.166475342664294NN
account0.0172128079963482NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.460575782206378
WordScorePoS
life0.0140083044329373NN
expectancy0NN
race0NN
gender0.196902218579822NN
regional0JJ
income0NN
account0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.363774378091103
WordScorePoS
life0.0184786920895884NN
expectancy0NN
race0NN
gender0.0519476926891779NN
regional0.0519476926891779JJ
income0.0442083771593746NN
account0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.333393678173447
WordScorePoS
life0NN
expectancy0NN
race0NN
gender0NN
regional0.0260040237236563JJ
income0.110649350233433NN
account0.0160169090870187NN

The real differences between typical individuals with the listed characteristics are therefore likely to be understated

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

In addition Nthabiseng life expectancy could be much lower if she were to become infected with HIV AIDS as are many young South African women

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.919339078159218
WordScorePoS
addition0NN
life0.0250390290383647NN
expectancy0.0407408489778079NN
infected0.0407408489778079JJ
hiv0.448149338755887NN
aid0.123094312756122NN
south0RB
african0IN
woman0.0381514605760894NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.303042160082654
WordScorePoS
addition0NN
life0.0140083044329373NN
expectancy0NN
infected0JJ
hiv0NN
aid0NN
south0RB
african0IN
woman0.221979360474357NN

Data come from Day and Hedberg

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.920957232708901
WordScorePoS
datum0NN
day0.25973846344589NN

Predicted years of schooling rely on disaggregated information by province sex race rural urban location consumption expenditure quintile and mother education from the Labor Force Survey and the Income and Expenditure Survey for which were carried out by the South Africa Statistics Office

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.644775544547114
WordScorePoS
predict0VB
schooling0NN
rely0VB
disaggregate0VB
information0NN
sex0.064698038783335NN
race0.0488696285210061NN
rural0.0330412182586772JJ
urban0.0488696285210061JJ
location0NN
consumption0NN
expenditure0.064698038783335NN
quintile0.064698038783335NN
mother0NN
education0.0121171980355011NN
force0NN
survey0.064698038783335NN
income0.166475342664294NN
south0RB
africa0IN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.380880439336633
WordScorePoS
predict0VB
schooling0NN
rely0.0332151194779746VB
disaggregate0VB
information0.0365348149782971NN
sex0NN
race0NN
rural0JJ
urban0JJ
location0NN
consumption0.332151194779746NN
expenditure0NN
quintile0NN
mother0NN
education0.0101607690729067NN
force0NN
survey0NN
income0NN
south0RB
africa0IN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.372628270676452
WordScorePoS
predict0VB
schooling0NN
rely0VB
disaggregate0VB
information0NN
sex0NN
race0NN
rural0.0373517915079663JJ
urban0.27622591898666JJ
location0NN
consumption0.08955644059472NN
expenditure0NN
quintile0NN
mother0NN
education0NN
force0NN
survey0NN
income0NN
south0RB
africa0IN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.24267436813564
WordScorePoS
predict0VB
schooling0NN
rely0VB
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information0.0182963616752599NN
sex0NN
race0NN
rural0JJ
urban0JJ
location0NN
consumption0NN
expenditure0NN
quintile0NN
mother0NN
education0.244244978014045NN
force0NN
survey0NN
income0NN
south0RB
africa0IN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.236816118454806
WordScorePoS
predict0VB
schooling0NN
rely0VB
disaggregate0VB
information0.0130963126055467NN
sex0NN
race0NN
rural0.148975141598503JJ
urban0JJ
location0NN
consumption0NN
expenditure0NN
quintile0NN
mother0NN
education0NN
force0.0297950283197006NN
survey0NN
income0.0643370113878709NN
south0RB
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Label: 3, with a score of: 0.230080530163899
WordScorePoS
predict0VB
schooling0.0407408489778079NN
rely0VB
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information0.00914534810831654NN
sex0NN
race0NN
rural0JJ
urban0JJ
location0NN
consumption0NN
expenditure0NN
quintile0NN
mother0.162963395911232NN
education0.0152605842304358NN
force0.020806307400253NN
survey0NN
income0NN
south0RB
africa0IN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.188548042670164
WordScorePoS
predict0VB
schooling0NN
rely0VB
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information0NN
sex0NN
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rural0JJ
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location0NN
consumption0.147812295323721NN
expenditure0NN
quintile0NN
mother0NN
education0.0150723186962745NN
force0.0410992516792148NN
survey0NN
income0NN
south0RB
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Predicted monthly consumption expenditures in for persons with those characteristics were Rand adjusted for purchasing power parity for Nthabiseng and Rand for Pieter

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.720968654179338
WordScorePoS
predict0VB
consumption0.332151194779746NN
expenditure0NN
person0NN
characteristic0JJ
power0NN
parity0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.385053062504369
WordScorePoS
predict0VB
consumption0.147812295323721NN
expenditure0NN
person0.0295821503613099NN
characteristic0JJ
power0NN
parity0NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.42781679472796
WordScorePoS
predict0VB
consumption0.08955644059472NN
expenditure0NN
person0.107539312031977NN
characteristic0JJ
power0NN
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The average white male with highly educated mother who lives in Cape Town and is in the top percent of the distribution happens to be in the ninety ninth percentile of the overall income distribution

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.688573159707127
WordScorePoS
average0.146608885563018NN
highly0RB
educate0VB
mother0NN
life0NN
income0.166475342664294NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.503080208740472
WordScorePoS
average0NN
highly0RB
educate0.0407408489778079VB
mother0.162963395911232NN
life0.0250390290383647NN
income0NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.382828403996438
WordScorePoS
average0.1656430212089NN
highly0RB
educate0VB
mother0NN
life0.00842350130803634NN
income0NN

Data come from the Labor Force Survey and the Income and Expenditure Survey for

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.849959137330912
WordScorePoS
datum0NN
force0NN
survey0.064698038783335NN
income0.166475342664294NN
expenditure0.064698038783335NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.368025410565949
WordScorePoS
datum0.0454743001434393NN
force0NN
survey0NN
income0.110649350233433NN
expenditure0NN

There are also income consumption and other differences Sven can expect to earn month compared with the South African mean of Nthabiseng will have month

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.771631209715958
WordScorePoS
income0NN
consumption0.332151194779746NN
expect0.0332151194779746VB
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african0IN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.351585696423334
WordScorePoS
income0.166475342664294NN
consumption0NN
expect0VB
compare0VB
south0RB
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.312170486989893
WordScorePoS
income0NN
consumption0.147812295323721NN
expect0VB
compare0VB
south0RB
african0IN

If Sven had been even luckier and had been born at the same rank in Sweden income distribution as Pieter occupied in South Africa his expected monthly earnings would climb to

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.636118008388524
WordScorePoS
bear0NN
income0.166475342664294NN
occupy0VB
south0RB
africa0IN
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Sven will be able to visit any country on whim whereas Nthabiseng and Pieter can expect to spend hours waiting for visa which they may or may not obtain

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

In some cases such as China decollectivization of agriculture in the late reform may lead to more efficiency broader opportunities and yet greater intrarural income inequality

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.863905192993979
WordScorePoS
agriculture0NN
reform0NN
lead0NN
efficiency0NN
opportunity0.029046330719385NN
income0.166475342664294NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.284164573719862
WordScorePoS
agriculture0NN
reform0NN
lead0.0383371018038178NN
efficiency0.134992154141495NN
opportunity0.0549574626423028NN
income0.0449973847138318NN
inequality0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.249040366337302
WordScorePoS
agriculture0.148975141598503NN
reform0NN
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efficiency0NN
opportunity0.0261926252110933NN
income0.0643370113878709NN
inequality0NN

China experience and the decompression of wages in number of transition economies in Europe and Central Asia is good illustration of more general point because equity refers to fair processes and equal opportunities it cannot be inferred from income distributions alone

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.388414282588102
WordScorePoS
experience0NN
economy0NN
central0JJ
asia0IN
fair0JJ
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equal0.0202620733250388JJ
opportunity0.029046330719385NN
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Label: 7, with a score of: 0.458887647371134
WordScorePoS
experience0NN
economy0.0625160381065121NN
central0.0924643738905717JJ
asia0IN
fair0JJ
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opportunity0.0549574626423028NN
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.426706828980522
WordScorePoS
experience0NN
economy0.0465610847355851NN
central0JJ
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process0.0558185411034276NN
equal0.114211783066808JJ
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income0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.356188355279844
WordScorePoS
experience0NN
economy0NN
central0JJ
asia0IN
fair0JJ
process0.0737171311497939NN
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opportunity0.0135141354781442NN
income0.110649350233433NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.354491140280308
WordScorePoS
experience0NN
economy0NN
central0.0440683498519077JJ
asia0IN
fair0.0440683498519077JJ
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equal0.0182713919265625JJ
opportunity0.0261926252110933NN
income0.0643370113878709NN

Greater fairness will generally lead to lower income inequality but not always

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.972375025903985
WordScorePoS
lead0NN
income0.166475342664294NN
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And not all policies that reduce inequality increase equity

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.977174977057562
WordScorePoS
policy0.0848203862485078NN
reduce0.0310356414389692VB
inequality0.635305170773079NN
increase0.00285817158600878NN

Mazumder

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Other interactions between unequal opportunities and social conditions are also of societal concern including links between inequality and crime and between inequality and health

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.954567349337639
WordScorePoS
opportunity0.029046330719385NN
social0.101310366625194JJ
condition0NN
include0VB
inequality0.635305170773079NN
crime0NN
health0.0405241466500776NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.167495570090841
WordScorePoS
opportunity0NN
social0JJ
condition0NN
include0VB
inequality0.0307735781890304NN
crime0NN
health0.191387734041787NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.142362621584099
WordScorePoS
opportunity0NN
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crime0.214981650384708NN
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We review them briefly in the report but focus on the channels of more direct significance to equity

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.534849144981112
WordScorePoS
review0NN
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There may be many sound economic reasons for these riskadjusted interest rates to vary including fixed administrative loan costs greater informational asymmetries and the like

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.338370919604253
WordScorePoS
sound0NN
economic0.128463821595706JJ
rate0NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.558221417674116
WordScorePoS
sound0.0519476926891779NN
economic0.0959899298575892JJ
rate0.0639932865717261NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.491426844731571
WordScorePoS
sound0NN
economic0.103276847978089JJ
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The point is that this affects poorer groups more in ways unrelated to their investment opportunities thus leading to both greater inefficiency and the perpetuation of inequalities

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.938922511281704
WordScorePoS
affect0VB
investment0.0202620733250388NN
opportunity0.029046330719385NN
lead0NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN

These averages are based on actual episodes and refer to the total growth elasticity of poverty reduction inclusive of any changes in inequality

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.860834410228797
WordScorePoS
average0.146608885563018NN
base0NN
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growth0.11178243319132NN
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reduction0.0475643836183697NN
inclusive0.0172128079963482JJ
inequality0.635305170773079NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.33713187067002
WordScorePoS
average0NN
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growth0.0519476926891779NN
poverty0.269969049497485NN
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inclusive0.0319966432858631JJ
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.255935605292502
WordScorePoS
average0NN
base0NN
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growth0.208565600657229NN
poverty0.0722601961736204NN
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inclusive0.0214106369326177JJ
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Label: 13, with a score of: 0.174397775339794
WordScorePoS
average0.1656430212089NN
base0NN
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growth0NN
poverty0NN
reduction0.0403047273067529NN
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Low and high inequality refers to Gini coefficient of

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.998828889740146
WordScorePoS
inequality0.635305170773079NN

The partial elasticity of poverty to growth assuming no change in the Lorenz curve shows similar decline but not to zero see chapter

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.638537446492439
WordScorePoS
poverty0NN
growth0NN
change0.402565546215053NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.482247237612561
WordScorePoS
poverty0.269969049497485NN
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.42069096453982
WordScorePoS
poverty0.0722601961736204NN
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change0NN
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While equity enhancing redistribution will usually be from richer groups to poorer groups it could happen that good redistributions will be to groups that are not poor especially those in the middle

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.565367021403644
WordScorePoS
enhance0.0184786920895884VB
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poor0.150659516460257JJ
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.665548885101613
WordScorePoS
enhance0.0185001613201543VB
happen0.120405991343299VB
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This will depend on the nature of the market failure

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.701943678609521
WordScorePoS
depend0VB
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.496255386867825
WordScorePoS
depend0.0357189919948307VB
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Label: 14, with a score of: 0.384509665072203
WordScorePoS
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For example the initial beneficiaries of less captured financial system may be small and medium entrepreneurs

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.527633364345541
WordScorePoS
capture0NN
financial0.0370951943725875JJ
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medium0.0607878664258118NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.455838907996387
WordScorePoS
capture0NN
financial0.00896409157262106JJ
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.379629631893588
WordScorePoS
capture0NN
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Benefits to the poor will occur when enhanced access to financial services among middleclass entrepreneurs translates into faster growth and job creation

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.742822200604659
WordScorePoS
benefit0NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.400541198178631
WordScorePoS
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faster0RBR
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Chapter

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

This formulation draws loosely on Roemer but it is also related to the works of Dworkin Dworkin and Sen

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

See Rawls

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

See Acemoglu and Robinson Bourguignon and Verdier and Ferreira

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

This theme is one that recurs across many disciplines in sociology and anthropology see Bourdieu Bourdieu and Tilly in economics see Engerman and Sokoloff Bénabou and Piketty

Label: 6, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
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See Acemoglu and Robinson for various perspectives on the interconnections among cultural social and economic inequality and Stewart for general discussion of groupbased inequalities

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.972982046837929
WordScorePoS
perspective0NN
cultural0JJ
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.117976197770369
WordScorePoS
perspective0NN
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Appadurai

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

See Bourdieu on symbolic violence for more on this

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.845280189899725
WordScorePoS
violence0.164686343640793NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.477965102353318
WordScorePoS
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Steele

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Appadurai

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

See Rao and Walton for more on such inequalities of agency

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.995215226694605
WordScorePoS
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See also Birdsall Graham and Sabbot and Thorbecke

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WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.419953944381463
WordScorePoS
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Label: 3, with a score of: 0.3286817118747
WordScorePoS
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.302482130891403
WordScorePoS
world0NN
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Too much and too little are used here with respect to the social optimum

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WordScorePoS
respect0NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.568327521722767
WordScorePoS
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The choices are usually privately rational

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.621796290616524
WordScorePoS
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The role of high inequality of political power and wealth as barrier to economic development in the modern era is rapidly growing area of research

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WordScorePoS
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WordScorePoS
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WordScorePoS
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Striking results are reported in Sokoloff and Khan Engerman and Sokoloff Acemoglu Johnson and Robinson and Banerjee and others

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Overviews of the broad set of research questions are Engerman and Sokoloff Hoff and Acemoglu Johnson and Robinson

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This is so if the distribution of talents and informational asymmetries between employers and employees are similar between men and women

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WordScorePoS
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woman0.221979360474357NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.367968606877158
WordScorePoS
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Notice that the efficiency gain does not satisfy the Pareto criterion

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WordScorePoS
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WordScorePoS
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WordScorePoS
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Some individual men might lose out

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.584886716177263
WordScorePoS
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.39838908438245
WordScorePoS
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The efficiency criterion here is first order dominance under the anonymity axiom

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WordScorePoS
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WordScorePoS
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WordScorePoS
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Of course the intrinsic valuation of equity may be reflected in the appropriate distributional weights underpinning these benefits

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This has been recurrent theme in development economics and at the World Bank

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WordScorePoS
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WordScorePoS
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WordScorePoS
development0NN
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For an influential early treatment see Chenery and others

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WordScorePoS
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WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.396513256617878
WordScorePoS
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World Bank

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.375629786620639
WordScorePoS
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World Bank

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.918499615257701
WordScorePoS
world0.0124838525528648NN
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.375629786620639
WordScorePoS
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Focus on Palanpur

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 11, with a score of: 0.538370320860902
WordScorePoS
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.443151997628628
WordScorePoS
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The study was launched out of the Agricultural Economics Research Centre of the University of Delhi and Oxford University and then continued from the London School of Economics

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WordScorePoS
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WordScorePoS
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Drèze Lanjouw and Sharma

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Drèze Lanjouw and Sharma

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Chapter

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Filmer

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

See for instance Wilkinson and Wilkinson

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

High rank on the other hand can be protective of health including enhancing one resistance to infectious disease

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WordScorePoS
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Fujii

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Interestingly for each of the three population groupings the relative gap in infant mortality between groups rose in approximately half of the countries and fell in the other half

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WordScorePoS
population0NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.316481283864338
WordScorePoS
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WordScorePoS
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Chaudhury and others

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Araujo Ferreira and Schady use new data set constructed from individual record data in household surveys for countries

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.454737681148005
WordScorePoS
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Qualitatively similar results were also obtained by Castello and Domenech and Thomas Wang and Fan both of which rely on the Barro and Lee international education data set

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WordScorePoS
result0NN
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.436689934203001
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See for example Kanbur

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

See Kanbur Elbers and others

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Wan Lu and Chen

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

These correlations hold whether or not between group inequality is measured on the basis of the conventional or alternative methodology

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.267712320507269
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They also hold after controlling for outliers although South Africa is particularly influential observation in the regression of inequality on social group differences

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WordScorePoS
hold0NN
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The results also hold when all the between group shares are combined into single count indicator that reflects whether particular country has higher than median value of the between group share for particular population breakdown

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WordScorePoS
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Bourguignon and Morrisson

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Li Squire and Zou

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

The consumption module in India National Sample Survey was slightly modified between the round and the compromising both poverty and inequality comparisons over time

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WordScorePoS
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WordScorePoS
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WordScorePoS
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Deaton and Kozel provide clear overview of the issues and their implications

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Deaton and Drèze Sen and Himanshu and Banerjee and Piketty all document increases in inequality but by varying amounts

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WordScorePoS
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These estimates are all predicated on certain assumptions given the fundamental problems of data comparability referred to above

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Khan and Sen

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Narayan and Yoshida

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Nepal National Planning Commission

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 11, with a score of: 0.498825554022668
WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.340693374690967
WordScorePoS
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For sociological perspective on the inheritance of inequality see Erikson and Goldthrope

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Solon

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Mazumder

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Hertz for South Africa Dunn for Brazil

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Solon

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

World Bank

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.375629786620639
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Jha Rao and Woolcock forthcoming

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Appadurai

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See for example Fernández Kelly on life in the U

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

inner city

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Appadurai

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This term comes from Nussbaum and her work on gender discrimination and development although the core idea has long intellectual history in social science

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It is also important to note that the appearance of internalizing disadvantage for example working slowly being tardy can actually be covert strategy used by marginalized groups to subvert systems over which they otherwise have little influence

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See Scott

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

If income inequality static measure is good proxy for social mobility dynamic concept then these theories find support in the large literature on income inequality and crime

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See for example Demombynes and Özler for discussion of the subject at the country level and Fajnzylber Lederman and Loayza among others on the cross country level relationship between income inequality and crime

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WordScorePoS
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See Narayan for categorization of approaches and case studies

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See Petesch Smulovitz and Walton

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Gibson and Woolcock for methodological details on the broader research project of which this study is part and the evidence base on which the assertions made here rest see Barron Smith and Woolcock

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See also Rao on the related idea of such spaces as symbolic public goods

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Maynard Casagrande and Piper

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Oster has recently argued that hepatitis affects offspring ratios and has suggested that geographic patterns of hepatitis prevalence can explain about percent of the missing women

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The magnitude of the hepatitis effect is currently still the subject of controversy see e

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Klasen

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Endnotes

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Das Gupta and others

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Lloyd forthcoming with original data from The Center for Reproductive Law and Policy

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Lloyd forthcoming

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Agarwal Deere and León

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Mason and Carlsson forthcoming

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Rahman and Rao

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Kabeer

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Kabeer

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

This disparity is less apparent in enrollments in primary school which has become more equitable over the last decade

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Browning and Chiappori

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See Strauss Mwabu and Beegle for an excellent survey of economic models of intrahousehold allocation

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Thomas

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Lundberg Pollak and Wales

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Quisumbing and Maluccio

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Heise Ellsberg and Gottemoeller

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Kabeer

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Rahman and Rao

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Munshi and Rosenzweig forthcoming

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Quisumbing Estudillo and Otsuka

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Das Gupta and others

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Chapter

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Deaton

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The large differences in mortality do not just exist between rich and poor countries or between different groups of citizens in poor countries only

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In the median age at death in Australia for indigenous people was roughly years less than that for nonindigenous males which was approximately years Australian Bureau of Statistics

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Botswana which has one of the highest HIV AIDS infection rates in the world has seen its life expectancy drop from its peak of years in the mid to years in

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Bourguignon Levin and Rosenblatt

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See the following quotes that nicely demonstrate the debate on globalization and the inequality of incomes Globalization raises incomes and the poor participate fully The Economist May

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There is plenty of evidence that current patterns of growth and globalization are widening income disparities

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Policy Director of Oxfam letter to The Economist June

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Doing this in practice requires household survey data and various adjustments and assumptions all far from simple which is why so many people discuss international or intercountry inequality using National Accounts data instead of global inequality

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Pritchett

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It is important to note that all the evidence presented here refer to intercountry or international inequality in life expectancy at birth and not to global inequalities because we do not use any evidence on within country differences in life expectancy

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Goesling and Firebaugh

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Note that the declines in life expectancy for the mainly SubSaharan African countries do not seem to be direct result of changes in infant mortality which in many cases continued to decline

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However as Cornia and Menchini argue the rate of decline in infant mortality also slowed down significantly in the last decade which cannot be explained solely by the changes in Europe and Central Asia and Sub Saharan Africa

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Deaton

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Pritchett forthcoming

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The richest quintile is defined based on an asset index created by Filmer and Pritchett

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One example of such decomposition is Pradhan Sahn and Younger who claim that less than one third of the world inequality in child health is attributable to differences between countries

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Gwatkin

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Again the richest decile here is defined based on the asset index by Filmer and Pritchett

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Preston as cited in Deaton

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Also note that all of the countries that are significantly below the curve that is those with much lower life expectancy at birth than their GDP per capita would predict such as South Africa are in Sub Saharan Africa

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See Deaton

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In fact Cornia and Menchini cite the rise in parents literacy and female education as the main reason behind the remarkable declines in infant mortality rates in Latin America and the Caribbean and Middle East and North Africa in the s

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The increase in inequality between countries in life expectancy at birth in the is also confirmed by Goesling and Firebaugh

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A recent paper by Brainerd and Cuttler cites increased alcohol use and psychosocial stress brought on by an unpredictable future as the two main contributors to the decline in life expectancy in Russia and other countries of the former Soviet Union

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This figure in Morocco compares with roughly threequarters of the same cohort in Indonesia and Turkey and about percent in Colombia and Philippines

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While making these comparisons between countries the reader should bear in mind the discussion on the comparability of these data from box

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and not interpret these differences literally

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The urban and rural figures for China and India have not been corrected for cost of living differences

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Given that rural urban price differentials have been increasing over time and are significant today Chen and Ravallion the figures here exaggerate the differences in living standards between the rural and urban Chinese

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Kolm proposed the following class of absolute measures of inequality   κ µ− i ln   κ  i  where κ> is parameter that captures inequality aversion

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Atkinson and Brandolini discuss changes in international as well as global inequality

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We use only their results on international inequality to make our point on the trend differences when one switches from relative concept of inequality to an absolute one

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Such as Milanovic

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See Firebaugh and Goesling Sala Martin

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Our analysis shows that we can estimate GE that is mean log deviation from grouped data especially if the number of groups is larger than without any significant bias using our smoothing techniques

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The difficulties in assembling database to calculate global inequality over such long time period are detailed in Bourguignon and Morrisson

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Pritchett

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∑ WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT

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Bourguignon Levin and Rosenblatt

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Ravallion as cited in Bourguignon Levin and Rosenblatt

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See for example Chen and Ravallion

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Vietnam and Thailand practically eliminated day poverty during this period

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The projections for meeting some of the other Millennium Development Goals do not give one cause for greater optimism

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East Asia and Europe and Central Asia are close to the target on primary education while others are falling behind

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A handful of countries are on track to attain the child mortality goal mainly in Latin America and the Caribbean

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Only percent of the developing world population is expected to achieve the maternal mortality goal

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Halving the proportion of people without access to safe water and sanitation will require providing about

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billion people with access to safe water and billion with basic sanitation facilities between and

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At current rates of service expansion only about one fifth of countries are on track

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org millenniumgoals for more details on the goals targets and nearly indicators that comprise the Millennium Development Goals

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Deaton

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The rules of the game at the global level and especially the process of setting those rules will be discussed in great detail in chapter

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Voting shares in the soft lending arm of the World Bank the International Development Association are similar Part countries hold percent of the vote and Part II countries percent

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Developing countries are somewhat better represented in regional development banks but developed countries hold large voting shares there too

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In all other cases the delegates in charge of economic matters may be covering in addition to the WTO also UNCTAD ITU ILO and WIPO

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Each country belongs to one of the following four categories based on its GDP per capita in low income lower middle income higher middle income and high income

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López as cited in Deaton

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Pritchett and Pritchett

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Firebaugh and Goesling

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Sala Martin

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Pritchett attributes this phrase to Gerschenkron

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Pritchett

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As cited in Goesling and Firebaugh

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As cited in Sala Martin

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Goesling and Firebaugh

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Focus on empowerment

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Evans

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See Petesch Smulovitz and Walton for the interactions between opportunity structure and the agency of subordinate groups

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Chaudhuri and Heller

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Baiocchi Chaudhuri and Heller

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Chaudhuri Harilal and Heller

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The concepts of terms of recognition and capacity to aspire come from Appadurai capacity to engage is from Gibson and Woolcock

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Rao and Walton

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On the origins structure and goals of KDP see Guggenheim forthcoming

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.869170108406392
WordScorePoS
origin0.036961556179878NN
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goal0NN

Gibson and Woolcock

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Barron Diprose and Woolcock

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

In his second inaugural address Roosevelt also suggested that avoiding deprivation in outcomes was legitimate policy aim

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.663440785054145
WordScorePoS
suggest0VB
avoid0VB
outcome0.0330412182586772NN
legitimate0.064698038783335JJ
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aim0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.371492418265226
WordScorePoS
suggest0.0602029956716497VB
avoid0VB
outcome0.030745604615229NN
legitimate0JJ
policy0.011275328195446NN
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As he put it The test of our progress is not whether we add more to the abundance of those who have much it is whether we provide enough for those who have too little Washington DC January

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.777825444447298
WordScorePoS
progress0.0591643007226199NN
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There tends to be less agreement on the importance of inequality in specific outcome spaces

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.98065131023105
WordScorePoS
agreement0.02794560829783NN
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outcome0.0330412182586772NN
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Writing about income inequality Feldstein argues that increases in inequality caused by larger incomes at the very top warrant no policy attention and represent pure Pareto improvements to which only spiteful egalitarians would object

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.964044776223326
WordScorePoS
income0.166475342664294NN
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Michel Ferry online consultation message dated October a

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

As chapter also indicated this is not equivalent to saying that implementing redistributions is free of tradeoffs particularly in the short run or that terrible inefficiencies cannot arise if redistributions are implemented in ways that pay no heed to incentives

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.567981525689544
WordScorePoS
equivalent0JJ
implement0.0458229896037954VB
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We return to these difficult policy issues in chapters and

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.631436745793015
WordScorePoS
return0.107490825192354NN
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.465631076327894
WordScorePoS
return0NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.419664702341515
WordScorePoS
return0NN
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Chapter

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

See Pinglé

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Plato The Laws quoted in Cowell

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.902019034996083
WordScorePoS
law0.164686343640793NN

The reason for this reputation is the combination of utilitarian objective with set of rather restrictive assumptions about individual utilities individual preferences can be represented by utility function ii cardinal utility levels are meaningful indicators of the individual well being iii utilities can be compared across different people iv the utility functions are increasing but concave that is increase at declining rate in incomes and all individuals have identical utility functions

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.624583279627792
WordScorePoS
objective0NN
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function0NN
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people0.00571634317201755NNS
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rate0.0172128079963482NN
income0.166475342664294NN

If they all hold then for fixed level of aggregate income the greatest sum of utilities is achieved by an equal division of incomes across all individuals

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.651498244962289
WordScorePoS
hold0NN
level0NN
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individual0.064698038783335JJ

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.507290853467014
WordScorePoS
hold0.18234260265061NN
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.347483793402171
WordScorePoS
hold0NN
level0NN
income0.110649350233433NN
achieve0.0114006914853063VB
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individual0JJ

Sen

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

For example within German Courts the standard of what is equitable is based on the opinion of all those people who think in equitable and just terms Palandt article

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.622504964877746
WordScorePoS
standard0NN
equitable0.017987180284335JJ
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people0.00432344066632653NNS
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For example within common law jurisdictions key principles that guide the application of equity include the principles of unconscionability undue influence duress and unjust enrichment

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.494328498193816
WordScorePoS
common0JJ
law0.164686343640793NN
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transaction has been deemed unconscionable where one party to transaction is at special disadvantage in dealing with the other party because illness ignorance inexperience impaired faculties financial need or other circumstances affect his ability to conserve his own interests and the other party unconscientiously takes advantage of the opportunity thus placed in his hands High Court of Australia Blomley v

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Ryan CLR at p

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

per Kitto J

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Aristotle The Nicomachean Ethics book chapter BC

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Kritzer p

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

For more detailed discussion of the philosophical evolution of the concept see Alland and Rials

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

The Chancellory Courts have their origin in the residual discretionary power of the King generally exercised by the Chancellor Endnotes to correct or overturn cases in which justice could not be obtained by common law court

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.893899994668948
WordScorePoS
origin0NN
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In the common law tradition equitable jurisdiction is also associated with number of well established principles sometimes called the maxims of equity

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.61499088506371
WordScorePoS
common0JJ
law0.164686343640793NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.488375650804731
WordScorePoS
common0JJ
law0.0330412182586772NN
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principle0.0977392570420122NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.387927457415313
WordScorePoS
common0JJ
law0NN
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Examples of these include He who seeks equity must do equity that is claimant who seeks equitable relief must be prepared to act fairly toward the defendant future conduct He who comes to equity must come with clean hands similar to the previous principle but related to the claimant past conduct Equity looks at intent rather than form equity is more concerned with substance than form

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.467541961973738
WordScorePoS
include0VB
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Label: 7, with a score of: 0.17575246946938
WordScorePoS
include0VB
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equitable0JJ
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conduct0NN
clean0.125032076213024JJ
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Cadiet

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

See Arnaud and Draï

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Preamble to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.602314887372773
WordScorePoS
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Label: 3, with a score of: 0.396853460230292
WordScorePoS
universal0.0182906962166331JJ
declaration0.0407408489778079NN
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rights0.0175975629039954NNS

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.356140119969448
WordScorePoS
universal0.0182963616752599JJ
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Note also Article purposes of Charter promoting and encouraging respect for human rights and for fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race sex language or religion Article sovereign equality of all members indicates balance between the principles of sovereignty and noninterference and of respect for human rights Article universal respect for and observance of human rights

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.623998517256664
WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.404249515273061
WordScorePoS
promote0.00886732612541978VB
encourage0.02794560829783VB
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Other references to human rights include Articles and

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.685199537228698
WordScorePoS
human0.0170753354211044JJ
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.371410036112423
WordScorePoS
human0JJ
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include0VB

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.360854557155556
WordScorePoS
human0.0152653111258778JJ
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Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action Vienna Declaration UNGA CONF

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

July

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

This was issued by the U

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.652480175420358
WordScorePoS
issue0.0335649154577099NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.582377270929913
WordScorePoS
issue0.0299586785922821NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.484877649503095
WordScorePoS
issue0.0249430985430622NN

World Conference on Human Rights Vienna Austria June

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.931393423600279
WordScorePoS
world0.00585260443759492NN
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human0.0170753354211044JJ
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Rights identified in the UDHR include the right without any discrimination to equal protection before the law Article the right to take part in the government of his country directly or through freely chosen representatives Article and the right to education Article

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.441329849403159
WordScorePoS
rights0.0352060273355634NNS
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education0.244244978014045NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.43527988951377
WordScorePoS
rights0NNS
identify0VB
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discrimination0NN
equal0.033663879505068JJ
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law0.164686343640793NN
government0NN
country0NN
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.599505025746987
WordScorePoS
rights0.078760887431929NNS
identify0VB
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discrimination0.111637082206855NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.412092624568526
WordScorePoS
rights0.0519476926891779NNS
identify0VB
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discrimination0.0736315832425121NN
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There exist several different characterizations of the core human rights treaties

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.559028642075995
WordScorePoS
exist0VB
human0.0170753354211044JJ
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Label: 11, with a score of: 0.421004399896583
WordScorePoS
exist0.04477822029736VB
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One is the International Bill of Rights which comprises the Universal Declaration on Human Rights the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the International Covenant on Economic Social and Cultural Rights

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.361902807483698
WordScorePoS
international0.00355521737836969JJ
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.608301334183818
WordScorePoS
international0.00402768349408688JJ
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.455694314343495
WordScorePoS
international0.00531301439641424JJ
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.332234675287468
WordScorePoS
international0.00571634317201755JJ
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human0JJ
civil0JJ
political0.0792212041430275JJ
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Another conceptualization is that there are six major human rights treaties the ICCPR the ICESCR the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination ICERD the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women CEDAW the Convention Against Torture CAT and the Convention on the Rights of the Child CRC

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.613188909339237
WordScorePoS
major0JJ
human0.0170753354211044JJ
rights0.078760887431929NNS
convention0NN
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.375068367355751
WordScorePoS
major0.0285977592242194JJ
human0JJ
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.379098516201746
WordScorePoS
major0JJ
human0JJ
rights0.0519476926891779NNS
convention0NN
elimination0NN
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woman0.0450489732120807NN
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.319282379118798
WordScorePoS
major0.0214106369326177JJ
human0.0150723186962745JJ
rights0.0347609334428716NNS
convention0NN
elimination0.0607878664258118NN
form0.0591643007226199NN
discrimination0NN
woman0.0452169560888236NN
torture0VB
child0.0452169560888236NN

None of these characterizations should be taken as exhaustive or exclusive there are several other extremely important human rights treaties beyond these both within the U

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.685199537228698
WordScorePoS
human0.0170753354211044JJ
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system and outside it in regional systems

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.647052971590535
WordScorePoS
system0.0756001353333673NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.571647087595925
WordScorePoS
system0.0519476926891779NN
regional0.0519476926891779JJ

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.347640755413441
WordScorePoS
system0.0315914058171786NN
regional0.0315914058171786JJ

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.31011676622689
WordScorePoS
system0.0211360962287062NN
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The OHCHR lists seven core international human rights instruments the six above plus the International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of Migrant Workers and the Members of their Families

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.594029305431075
WordScorePoS
international0.00355521737836969JJ
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convention0NN
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migrant0.121575732851624NN
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.489219783332446
WordScorePoS
international0.00402768349408688JJ
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convention0NN
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migrant0NN
worker0NN
family0.0465610847355851NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.421074792769643
WordScorePoS
international0.00531301439641424JJ
human0JJ
rights0.0519476926891779NNS
convention0NN
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migrant0NN
worker0NN
family0NN

In addition to this mention should also be made of the Genocide Convention

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.774200944922752
WordScorePoS
addition0NN
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Henrich and others report on Ultimatum Games played in small scale societies around the world

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WordScorePoS
report0NN
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In an Indonesian experiment Cameron found that high offers persisted in games played with locally very high monetary stakes

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See for instance Fehr and Schmidt on theory of inequity aversion and Rabin on model of behavior that takes other people intentions directly into account

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Ibid

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Terry Carey and Callan

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

This is the question in the United States General Social Survey which was fielded every year between and

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.688986716445817
WordScorePoS
unite0VB
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survey0.064698038783335NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.468963026112233
WordScorePoS
unite0VB
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field0NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.343735128965407
WordScorePoS
unite0.0828215106044499VB
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A similar question is included in the Euro Barometer surveys which are also used in the study

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Subjective well being or happiness surveys have also been used to test the relative income hypothesis in number of different settings

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.811582356960922
WordScorePoS
survey0.064698038783335NN
relative0JJ
income0.166475342664294NN
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.388457615216345
WordScorePoS
survey0NN
relative0JJ
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Following on original work by Easterlin which suggested that despite sustained economic growth people in some rich countries were not growing any happier number of recent studies have found that reported well being rises with personal income but declines with the income of other people in person reference group

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.595219416204499
WordScorePoS
suggest0VB
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income0.166475342664294NN
decline0.02794560829783NN
person0.0237821918091848NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.341849099239124
WordScorePoS
suggest0VB
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income0NN
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.474221592549167
WordScorePoS
suggest0.0602029956716497VB
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grow0.0188543197850406VB
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income0.110649350233433NN
decline0NN
person0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.312771855271917
WordScorePoS
suggest0VB
sustained0JJ
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growth0.0519476926891779NN
people0.0371911007748996NNS
country0NN
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income0.0442083771593746NN
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This is usually interpreted to mean that well being is driven at least in part by relative incomes rather than purely by their absolute levels

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.622587943445057
WordScorePoS
drive0NN
relative0JJ
income0.166475342664294NN
level0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.413808737695667
WordScorePoS
drive0NN
relative0JJ
income0.110649350233433NN
level0NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.310175112623285
WordScorePoS
drive0.0414107553022249NN
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level0.0415277415054218NN

See Graham and Felton for Latin America Ravallion and Lokshin for the Russian Federation and Luttmer for the United States

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The relative income literature is of tangential interest for this report because it provides additional backing for the idea that one position in society in relation to others matters both for individual behavior and for welfare

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.725934164787727
WordScorePoS
relative0JJ
income0.166475342664294NN
report0NN
additional0JJ
idea0NN
society0.0237821918091848NN
relation0.064698038783335NN
individual0.064698038783335JJ
welfare0NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.332195784095141
WordScorePoS
relative0.0731385760866977JJ
income0NN
report0NN
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idea0.0731385760866977NN
society0NN
relation0NN
individual0JJ
welfare0NN

See De Ferranti and others for an earlier discussion of this data

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.851744941703599
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datum0.0739231123597559NN

The professions included skilled factory worker doctor in private practice chairman of large national company lawyer shop assistant federal cabinet minister judge of the nation highest court owner manager of large factory and unskilled worker

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Respondents were also asked about their own income

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.756711939782219
WordScorePoS
income0.166475342664294NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.502955471427553
WordScorePoS
income0.110649350233433NN

Countries in the ISSP sample include the following Austria Australia Canada France Germany Italy Israel Japan the Netherlands New Zealand Norway Portugal Spain Sweden Switzerland the United Kingdom and the United States

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

This figure is an update based on more recent data of an original figure that appeared in Ravallion and Chen

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.806124534196783
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.446654278103502
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See once again Ravallion and Chen and Bourguignon

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Using slightly different dataset and decomposition technique that also accounts for the differential sensitivity of different poverty measures to changes in mean incomes Kraay forthcoming finds that the growth share in this variance is closer to percent

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.598690415977442
WordScorePoS
slightly0RB
account0NN
differential0JJ
poverty0.269969049497485NN
measure0.103895385378356NN
income0.0442083771593746NN
growth0.0519476926891779NN
share0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.512600412542903
WordScorePoS
slightly0RB
account0.0172128079963482NN
differential0.0488696285210061JJ
poverty0.05809266143877NN
measure0NN
income0.166475342664294NN
growth0.11178243319132NN
share0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.434082925315449
WordScorePoS
slightly0RB
account0NN
differential0JJ
poverty0.0722601961736204NN
measure0.0347609334428716NN
income0NN
growth0.208565600657229NN
share0.0252035516550537NN

In sample of long spells only that share rises to percent

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.67033146216572
WordScorePoS
share0NN
rise0.120914181920259NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.424793104905684
WordScorePoS
share0.0766240489430275NN
rise0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.33173640186954
WordScorePoS
share0.0377086395700813NN
rise0.0221298700466866NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.321479951754882
WordScorePoS
share0.0365427838531249NN
rise0.0214456704626236NN

Whereas the total growth elasticity of poverty reduction simply relates total change in poverty to the growth in mean incomes without controlling for changes in the relative distribution and is therefore given by ε Tµ ∆P µ ∆µ the partial growth elasticity of poverty reduction controls for changes in inequality

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.656297354022644
WordScorePoS
total0NN
growth0.11178243319132NN
poverty0.05809266143877NN
reduction0.0475643836183697NN
change0NN
income0.166475342664294NN
control0NN
relative0JJ
inequality0.635305170773079NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.528570393699755
WordScorePoS
total0NN
growth0.0519476926891779NN
poverty0.269969049497485NN
reduction0NN
change0NN
income0.0442083771593746NN
control0.0614198493690006NN
relative0JJ
inequality0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.393104937577844
WordScorePoS
total0NN
growth0.208565600657229NN
poverty0.0722601961736204NN
reduction0NN
change0NN
income0NN
control0NN
relative0JJ
inequality0NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.225452315615068
WordScorePoS
total0NN
growth0NN
poverty0NN
reduction0.0403047273067529NN
change0.402565546215053NN
income0NN
control0NN
relative0JJ
inequality0NN

That means that it is calculated for given Lorenz curve  µ   µ   Lt  −  Lt  z µ ∆P µ    ε Pµ

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

∆µ Lt  µ  ∆µ  Lt    WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT This definition like the decomposition on which it is based is pathdependent and the elasticity would be somewhat different if it was calculated on the basis of the final period Lorenz curve rather than the initial one

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

In this report we always use the initial period relative distribution when computing partial growth elasticities

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.750735212136213
WordScorePoS
report0NN
period0NN
relative0JJ
growth0.208565600657229NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.402362654390481
WordScorePoS
report0NN
period0NN
relative0JJ
growth0.11178243319132NN

No regression method is used so no functional form of any kind is imposed on the relationship

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.683060070264625
WordScorePoS
form0.158049144643351NN
kind0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.434517146309502
WordScorePoS
form0.100540298425703NN
kind0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.382121362022034
WordScorePoS
form0.0884167543187491NN
kind0NN

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.314426926994003
WordScorePoS
form0.0195550357485727NN
kind0.0531983120572613NN

This finding is qualitatively consistent with alternative estimates of the relationship between partial and total growth elasticities on the one hand and income inequality on the other

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.917465449714318
WordScorePoS
consistent0JJ
alternative0NN
estimate0NN
total0NN
growth0.11178243319132NN
income0.166475342664294NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.209456538608603
WordScorePoS
consistent0JJ
alternative0NN
estimate0NN
total0NN
growth0.208565600657229NN
income0NN
inequality0NN

See Bourguignon and Ravallion

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

The other four combinations of poverty lines and measures were also computed and the upward sloping pattern is qualitatively robust

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.8324842155901
WordScorePoS
poverty0.269969049497485NN
line0NN
measure0.103895385378356NN
pattern0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.329819763350353
WordScorePoS
poverty0.0722601961736204NN
line0.0410992516792148NN
measure0.0347609334428716NN
pattern0NN

See also Bourguignon Ferreira and Lustig for detailed discussion of seven country studies

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

In fact World Bank finds that on average the poorest percent of the population in each of countries in their study grow

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.69697138912965
WordScorePoS
world0.00276879546803864NN
bank0NN
average0.146608885563018NN
poorest0.0330412182586772JJS
population0.0860640399817412NN
country0NN
study0NN
grow0.0405241466500776VB

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.483425498092184
WordScorePoS
world0.00351929966767313NN
bank0NN
average0.1656430212089NN
poorest0.0279982034978914JJS
population0NN
country0NN
study0NN
grow0.0171695137813101VB

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.40538532143999
WordScorePoS
world0.0124838525528648NN
bank0.0881366997038154NN
average0NN
poorest0.0297950283197006JJS
population0.0310434135749871NN
country0NN
study0NN
grow0.0182713919265625VB

percent for each percentage point growth in mean incomes

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.668874283278459
WordScorePoS
percentage0NN
growth0.11178243319132NN
income0.166475342664294NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.501348672924538
WordScorePoS
percentage0NN
growth0.208565600657229NN
income0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.355469951633155
WordScorePoS
percentage0.0583416713841148NN
growth0.0252000451111224NN
income0.0643370113878709NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.328486516799302
WordScorePoS
percentage0NN
growth0.0260040237236563NN
income0.110649350233433NN

Chapter

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

See for example Fisman

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Even in hypothetical world with perfectly functioning markets there may still be an indirect influence coming from the effect of wealth or income on savings decisions

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.501417546969588
WordScorePoS
world0.00276879546803864NN
function0NN
market0.0202620733250388NN
influence0NN
effect0NN
income0.166475342664294NN
decision0.02794560829783NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.591030232164064
WordScorePoS
world0.0124838525528648NN
function0.0440683498519077NN
market0.0913569596328122NN
influence0NN
effect0.0440683498519077NN
income0.0643370113878709NN
decision0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.45289470203022
WordScorePoS
world0.00257642711761688NN
function0NN
market0.0377086395700813NN
influence0NN
effect0.0454743001434393NN
income0.110649350233433NN
decision0NN

It has been suggested that the poor are less inclined to save than the rich and as result aggregate savings as proportion of aggregate income may go up if the rich gain at the expense of the poor

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.643746041484199
WordScorePoS
suggest0VB
poor0.150659516460257JJ
save0IN
result0NN
proportion0.0376648791150643NN
income0.0442083771593746NN
gain0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.279671188243409
WordScorePoS
suggest0VB
poor0JJ
save0IN
result0NN
proportion0NN
income0.166475342664294NN
gain0NN

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.472691556099694
WordScorePoS
suggest0VB
poor0.0642010940957526JJ
save0IN
result0.0683326727248364NN
proportion0.0428007293971684NN
income0NN
gain0.041835863322702NN

This could affect investment decisions through the effect of the supply of savings on the price of capital

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.414026333857445
WordScorePoS
affect0VB
investment0.0182713919265625NN
decision0NN
effect0.0440683498519077NN
supply0NN
price0.0583416713841148NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.370832827849708
WordScorePoS
affect0.0184786920895884VB
investment0.0376648791150643NN
decision0.0519476926891779NN
effect0NN
supply0NN
price0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.335389464227563
WordScorePoS
affect0VB
investment0.0766240489430275NN
decision0.0211360962287062NN
effect0NN
supply0NN
price0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.317113493700089
WordScorePoS
affect0.00925008066007716VB
investment0.0377086395700813NN
decision0NN
effect0.0454743001434393NN
supply0NN
price0NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.312924249658574
WordScorePoS
affect0VB
investment0.0383371018038178NN
decision0NN
effect0NN
supply0.0528748274225028NN
price0NN

Inequality in this Kaldorian view of the world after Nicholas Kaldor the Cambridge economist would enhance growth although it might yet be Pyrrhic victory

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.938978101263988
WordScorePoS
inequality0.635305170773079NN
view0NN
world0.00276879546803864NN
enhance0.00994073584907126VB
growth0.11178243319132NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.275160287092347
WordScorePoS
inequality0NN
view0NN
world0.00172202218602071NN
enhance0.0123650647908625VB
growth0.208565600657229NN

Kaldor worried about the inevitability of crises under capitalism and he saw faster growth accompanied by burgeoning inequality as recipe for ongoing crises

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.959227548450273
WordScorePoS
faster0RBR
growth0.11178243319132NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.267789036717876
WordScorePoS
faster0RBR
growth0.208565600657229NN
inequality0NN

Note that such redistributions from wealthier to poorer people do not necessarily have to be to the poorest people in society but rather to those with good growth opportunities

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.666587826293735
WordScorePoS
wealthier0JJR
people0.0106656521351091NNS
poorest0JJS
society0.0591643007226199NN
growth0.208565600657229NN
opportunity0.0361300980868102NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.428589021144748
WordScorePoS
wealthier0JJR
people0.00571634317201755NNS
poorest0.0330412182586772JJS
society0.0237821918091848NN
growth0.11178243319132NN
opportunity0.029046330719385NN

Unless there are two different investment opportunities that have the exact same payoff net of interest

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.559078601427762
WordScorePoS
investment0.0383371018038178NN
opportunity0.0549574626423028NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.459178585302689
WordScorePoS
investment0.0766240489430275NN
opportunity0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.367549077716578
WordScorePoS
investment0.0252035516550537NN
opportunity0.0361300980868102NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.306958477219211
WordScorePoS
investment0.0377086395700813NN
opportunity0.0135141354781442NN

Dasgupta Nayar and Associates

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

See also Gill and Singh and Swaminathan

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

See Djankov and others

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

See Deaton for more details

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

See Townsend

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Fafchamps and Lund find that in the Philippines households are much better insured against some shocks than against others

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.816760207040294
WordScorePoS
household0NN
shock0.120266261535276NN

In particular they seem to be poorly insured against health risk finding corroborated by Gertler and Gruber in Indonesia

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.884822586645861
WordScorePoS
poorly0RB
health0.191387734041787NN
risk0.0703902516159815NN

See Banerjee for discussion of the alternative views

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.775999676336373
WordScorePoS
alternative0.0602029956716497NN
view0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.630733305229591
WordScorePoS
alternative0NN
view0.048933054487825NN

Although there are instances of government scholarships for tertiary education in many countries that require beneficiaries to provide specified number of years of service in government after graduation

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.829048693108066
WordScorePoS
government0NN
scholarship0.0815069365350084NN
tertiary0.0815069365350084JJ
education0.244244978014045NN
country0NN
require0VB
provide0.0100202166857628VB
service0NN

Blair Judd and Chapleau

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

See also Loury for wide ranging study

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.663718328673454
WordScorePoS
wide0.0414107553022249JJ
range0.0335649154577099NN
study0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.493229059307396
WordScorePoS
wide0.0307735781890304JJ
range0.0249430985430622NN
study0NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.457972525781951
WordScorePoS
wide0JJ
range0NN
study0.0517339898971162NN

See the survey in Steele and Aronson

Label: 10, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
survey0.064698038783335NN

From McKenzie and Woodruff figure

Label: 9, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
figure0.0602029956716497NN

Olley and Pakes

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

The ICOR measures the increase in output predicted by one unit increase in capital stock

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.662736219562838
WordScorePoS
measure0.0710409787438328NN
increase0.0145316075945746NN
predict0.0548233071065585VB
stock0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.444435200165673
WordScorePoS
measure0.103895385378356NN
increase0NN
predict0VB
stock0NN

It is calculated by extrapolating from the past experience of the country and assumes that the next unit of capital will be used exactly as efficiently or inefficiently as the previous one

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

The inverse of the ICOR therefore gives an upper bound for the average marginal product for the economy it is an upper bound because the calculation of the ICOR does not control for the effect of the increases in the other factors of production which also contributes to the increase in output

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.520394925010554
WordScorePoS
average0.1656430212089NN
product0NN
economy0.0839946104936743NN
control0NN
effect0NN
increase0.0145316075945746NN
production0NN
contribute0VB

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.284424237919812
WordScorePoS
average0.146608885563018NN
product0NN
economy0NN
control0NN
effect0NN
increase0.00285817158600878NN
production0NN
contribute0VB

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.398581377187949
WordScorePoS
average0NN
product0.0199423462679015NN
economy0NN
control0NN
effect0NN
increase0.00958677785775002NN
production0.118934074671047NN
contribute0.0554128417527413VB

The implicit assumption that the other factors of production are growing is probably reasonable for most developing countries except perhaps in Africa

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.783133361132401
WordScorePoS
production0.118934074671047NN
grow0.0339811641917276VB
develop0VB
country0NN
africa0IN

Banerjee and Munshi Banerjee Duflo and Munshi

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

This is not because capital and talent happen to be substitutes

Label: 9, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
happen0.120405991343299VB

In these data as is generally assumed capital and ability appear to be complements

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.893646434486477
WordScorePoS
datum0.0739231123597559NN
ability0NN
complement0.0978661089756501NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.316218093715004
WordScorePoS
datum0NN
ability0.0607878664258118NN
complement0NN

From Goldstein and Udry figure

Label: 9, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
figure0.0602029956716497NN

From Goldstein and Udry

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Based on Berry and Cline

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.716541315215352
WordScorePoS
base0.058665107245718NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.539965410454895
WordScorePoS
base0.0442083771593746NN

Some of the effects of lack of insurance may be quite subtle

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.588015575663127
WordScorePoS
effect0NN
lack0.0252035516550537NN
insurance0.0804764811724088NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.567746775600381
WordScorePoS
effect0.0454743001434393NN
lack0.0565629593551219NN
insurance0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.419143237990578
WordScorePoS
effect0NN
lack0.0753297582301286NN
insurance0NN

Banerjee and Newman argue for example that the availability of insurance in one location the village and its unavailability in another the city may lead to inefficient migration decisions because some individuals with high potential in the city may prefer to stay in the village to remain insured

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.952989802692049
WordScorePoS
availability0NN
insurance0NN
location0NN
city0.607697021770652NN
lead0NN
inefficient0JJ
migration0NN
decision0NN
individual0JJ
potential0NN
remain0VB

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.205159877621293
WordScorePoS
availability0NN
insurance0NN
location0NN
city0NN
lead0NN
inefficient0JJ
migration0.12939607756667NN
decision0.02794560829783NN
individual0.064698038783335JJ
potential0NN
remain0.0396106020715138VB

The fact that there is underinvestment on average and not only set of people with too many bullocks and set of people with too few is probably due to the fact that bullocks are lumpy investment and owning more than two is inefficient for production there is no small adjustment possible at the margin

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.42669147897884
WordScorePoS
average0.1656430212089NN
set0NN
people0.0121096729954788NNS
due0.0473606524958885JJ
investment0NN
inefficient0JJ
production0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.320713589216503
WordScorePoS
average0.146608885563018NN
set0NN
people0.00571634317201755NNS
due0JJ
investment0.0202620733250388NN
inefficient0JJ
production0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.505438507057462
WordScorePoS
average0NN
set0.0978661089756501NN
people0.00432344066632653NNS
due0JJ
investment0.0766240489430275NN
inefficient0JJ
production0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.396767532837663
WordScorePoS
average0NN
set0NN
people0.0119834723221875NNS
due0.0234335422829798JJ
investment0NN
inefficient0.0542519672965169JJ
production0.118934074671047NN

Another piece of relevant evidence comes from the effects of titling nonagricultural land

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.532252945253558
WordScorePoS
relevant0JJ
evidence0.12939607756667NN
effect0NN
land0NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.509537384542351
WordScorePoS
relevant0JJ
evidence0NN
effect0NN
land0.123873694868802NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.372808298113238
WordScorePoS
relevant0JJ
evidence0NN
effect0.0440683498519077NN
land0.0465651203624806NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.342441557423511
WordScorePoS
relevant0.0832510082312742JJ
evidence0NN
effect0NN
land0NN

Field shows evidence from landtitling program in the slums of urban Peru that suggests that the lack of clear title to the land where you have built your home reduces the ability of the household members to work outside

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.748962951120851
WordScorePoS
field0NN
evidence0NN
slum0.146277152173395NN
urban0.27622591898666JJ
suggest0VB
lack0.0229054731708393NN
land0.0389167984372011NN
build0VB
reduce0.0200483235258943VB
ability0NN
household0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.359863361991975
WordScorePoS
field0NN
evidence0.12939607756667NN
slum0NN
urban0.0488696285210061JJ
suggest0VB
lack0NN
land0NN
build0VB
reduce0.0310356414389692VB
ability0NN
household0.0330412182586772NN

Field hypothesizes that this is because someone needs to be home to defend the untitled property from expropriation by others

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.656921554321554
WordScorePoS
field0NN
property0.0736315832425121NN

But she does not find any evidence that land titling improves access to credit

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.553589696131588
WordScorePoS
evidence0.12939607756667NN
land0NN
improve0.0121171980355011VB
access0.00138439773401932NN
credit0NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.48417878767523
WordScorePoS
evidence0NN
land0.123873694868802NN
improve0VB
access0.00110699520004297NN
credit0NN

This number takes into account the fact that only percent of the Indonesian population is iron deficient

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.643203171228094
WordScorePoS
account0.0172128079963482NN
population0.0860640399817412NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.449460267867641
WordScorePoS
account0.0577345906651901NN
population0.0144336476662975NN

The private returns of iron supplementation for someone who knew they were iron deficient which they can find out using simple finger prick would be

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.738842823382545
WordScorePoS
private0.0898760357768464JJ
return0NN
simple0.048933054487825JJ

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.572144263905254
WordScorePoS
private0JJ
return0.107490825192354NN
simple0JJ

Kremer

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Li and others

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Banerjee and Duflo

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

See Bénabou for survey

Label: 10, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
survey0.064698038783335NN

Forbes also corrects for the bias introduced by introducing lagged variable in fixed effect specification by using the Generalized Method of Moments GMM estimator developed by Arellano and Bond

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Endnotes

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Barro estimates cross sectional relationship between inequality and short term growth and finds negative relation in poor countries but positive relation in rich ones

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.918068672168165
WordScorePoS
estimate0NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
term0.0396106020715138NN
growth0.11178243319132NN
relation0.064698038783335NN
poor0JJ
country0NN
positive0JJ

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.209015106286161
WordScorePoS
estimate0NN
inequality0NN
term0NN
growth0.208565600657229NN
relation0NN
poor0JJ
country0NN
positive0JJ

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.203043873108821
WordScorePoS
estimate0NN
inequality0NN
term0NN
growth0.0519476926891779NN
relation0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
country0NN
positive0JJ

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.165474069495737
WordScorePoS
estimate0NN
inequality0NN
term0.149793392961411NN
growth0NN
relation0NN
poor0.0153248097886055JJ
country0NN
positive0JJ

Banerjee Gertler and Ghatak

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Chapter

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Engerman and Sokoloff

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Acemoglu Johnson and Robinson

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Klarén

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

See Hemming on Pizzaro and Melo on Colombia

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Bakewell Cole Lockhart and Mörner

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Lockhart and Schwartz

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Parry

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Cardoso Mahoney and Lang

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

An analogous story applies to the parts of the region suitable for plantation agriculture especially sugar

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.601864936387307
WordScorePoS
region0.184259548107002NN
agriculture0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.583934444923775
WordScorePoS
region0.0297950283197006NN
agriculture0.148975141598503NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.407770029023494
WordScorePoS
region0.124837844401518NN
agriculture0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.304174026153948
WordScorePoS
region0.0465610847355851NN
agriculture0.0465610847355851NN

Colonists in the Caribbean present day Brazil and the southern United States took advantage of the international market in slaves and developed distinct but also highly coercive regimes

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.783070943640295
WordScorePoS
day0.25973846344589NN
southern0.0614198493690006JJ
unite0VB
international0.00531301439641424JJ
market0NN
develop0VB
highly0RB
regime0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.374424130694528
WordScorePoS
day0NN
southern0.0595900566394012JJ
unite0VB
international0.00515473144367677JJ
market0.0913569596328122NN
develop0VB
highly0RB
regime0NN

See Crosby

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

See Craven and Morgan

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

See Acemoglu Johnson and Robinson Acemoglu Johnson and Robinson and Rodrik Subramanian and Trebbi

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

In addition to arguments noted above see the econometric analysis arguing that governance causes growth but not the other way in Kaufmann and Kraay

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.742448234862607
WordScorePoS
addition0NN
governance0NN
growth0.208565600657229NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.397921181393372
WordScorePoS
addition0NN
governance0NN
growth0.11178243319132NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.38264398911663
WordScorePoS
addition0NN
governance0.107490825192354NN
growth0NN

Haggard and Kang

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Liddle and MacIntyre

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Geertz Elson Rock

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

World Bank

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.918499615257701
WordScorePoS
world0.0124838525528648NN
bank0.0881366997038154NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.375629786620639
WordScorePoS
world0.00418824502414673NN
bank0.036961556179878NN

Bates

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Bates

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Bates

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Bowman

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Fisman MacIntyre Stern

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Lipset

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

This conjecture is substantiated by the standard account of the evolution of institutions in Britain culminating in the Glorious Revolution of North and Thomas North and Weingast and Brien

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.866541551239505
WordScorePoS
standard0NN
account0.0285977592242194NN
institution0.274477239401321NN
north0RB

See Brenner Tawney Moore and Acemoglu Johnson and Robinson

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

See Thompson Tilly and Tarrow

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Acemoglu and Robinson Acemoglu and Robinson

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Lindert Lindert

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Other data on real wages and real rental rates on land supports this claim see Rourke and Williamson

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.519446558977803
WordScorePoS
datum0NN
rate0.0137637438743113NN
land0.123873694868802NN
support0.00794883334420673NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.424708871149119
WordScorePoS
datum0.0739231123597559NN
rate0NN
land0NN
support0.0451108483130998NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.408419907515245
WordScorePoS
datum0NN
rate0.0639932865717261NN
land0.0319966432858631NN
support0.0184786920895884NN

Li Squire and Zou Rodrik

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

This section is based on Andersson and Gunnarsson and Jäntti and others

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.716541315215352
WordScorePoS
base0.058665107245718NN

Wade

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Andersson and Gunnarsson

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Chen and Ravallion

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Montinola Qian and Weingast

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Qian

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

In China revenues were collected at the local level and shared up with higher levels of government Focus on Indonesia

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.711961629138257
WordScorePoS
revenue0.0978661089756501NN
local0.0130185595639838JJ
level0.0138997399903163NN
share0.0766240489430275NN
government0.048933054487825NN
focus0NN

World Bank

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.918499615257701
WordScorePoS
world0.0124838525528648NN
bank0.0881366997038154NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.375629786620639
WordScorePoS
world0.00418824502414673NN
bank0.036961556179878NN

Using data from van der Eng it is possible to construct an index of pro poor growth from to Timmer

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.595695357015958
WordScorePoS
datum0NN
poor0JJ
growth0.208565600657229NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.578677276636012
WordScorePoS
datum0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
growth0.0519476926891779NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.319267780679958
WordScorePoS
datum0NN
poor0JJ
growth0.11178243319132NN

Using this index the rates of pro poor growth for each historical era were as follows

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.665646111350327
WordScorePoS
rate0.0639932865717261NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
growth0.0519476926891779NN
historical0JJ

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.520745022110288
WordScorePoS
rate0NN
poor0JJ
growth0.208565600657229NN
historical0JJ

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.322074347412601
WordScorePoS
rate0.0172128079963482NN
poor0JJ
growth0.11178243319132NN
historical0JJ

percent per year

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

percent per year

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

percent per year

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

percent per year and

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

percent per year

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

All Indonesian distributional data are subject to the usual caveats about the difficulty of obtaining adequate responses from both the very poor and the very rich

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.661491818973027
WordScorePoS
datum0NN
difficulty0NN
obtain0VB
adequate0.0519476926891779JJ
response0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ

In particular SUSENAS does not capture the extremely uneven accumulation of wealth or the conspicuous consumption of the ultra rich

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.798253710408037
WordScorePoS
capture0NN
uneven0JJ
consumption0.332151194779746NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.548642804080194
WordScorePoS
capture0NN
uneven0.0804764811724088JJ
consumption0.147812295323721NN

There is standard economic model behind this story in which the capital of individuals formal and informal skills land location and even accumulated savings is deployed to earn incomes with the possibilities determined by technology transactions costs and market prices

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.539634931472854
WordScorePoS
standard0NN
economic0.103276847978089JJ
individual0.064698038783335JJ
skill0NN
land0NN
location0NN
income0.166475342664294NN
determine0VB
technology0NN
transaction0.064698038783335NN
cost0.0660824365173543NN
market0.0202620733250388NN
price0NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.473319721375213
WordScorePoS
standard0NN
economic0JJ
individual0JJ
skill0.407534682675042NN
land0NN
location0NN
income0NN
determine0VB
technology0.0182963616752599NN
transaction0NN
cost0NN
market0NN
price0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.170804358340013
WordScorePoS
standard0NN
economic0.128463821595706JJ
individual0JJ
skill0NN
land0NN
location0NN
income0NN
determine0VB
technology0NN
transaction0NN
cost0NN
market0.0252035516550537NN
price0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.341182086948239
WordScorePoS
standard0.0454743001434393NN
economic0.0320338181740375JJ
individual0JJ
skill0NN
land0NN
location0NN
income0.110649350233433NN
determine0VB
technology0.0810848128688654NN
transaction0NN
cost0NN
market0.0377086395700813NN
price0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.304219772549292
WordScorePoS
standard0NN
economic0JJ
individual0JJ
skill0NN
land0.0465651203624806NN
location0NN
income0.0643370113878709NN
determine0VB
technology0.0130963126055467NN
transaction0NN
cost0NN
market0.0913569596328122NN
price0.0583416713841148NN

See Alatas and Bourguignon

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Temple

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

These institutions for better and worse lived well beyond the Suharto era

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.876637628965015
WordScorePoS
institution0.274477239401321NN
live0.013214597504793VB

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.350516355190149
WordScorePoS
institution0.0991236547760315NN
live0.0159075630937118VB

Timmer

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Chapter

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

The study finds that it is the quality of parent child interactions especially talking to the child that matters the most Hart and Risley

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.546382289862485
WordScorePoS
study0NN
quality0.076326555629389NN
child0.076326555629389NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.546213102878069
WordScorePoS
study0NN
quality0.0152605842304358NN
child0.10682408961305NN

Pollitt Watkins and Husaini Grantham McGregor and Ani Stoltzfus Kvalsvig and Chwaya Black Dickson and others Smith Brooks Gunn and Klebanov

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Shore

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Rutter Giller and Hagell Karr Morse and Wiley

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Paxson and Schady

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Pritchett

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Carneiro and Heckman

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Three of the best documented studies for the United States are on the Chicago Child Parent Centers half day program on large scale in the Chicago public schools the Abecedarian program full day year round education program in Chapel Hill North Carolina with followup to age and the High Scope Perry Preschool half day program on small scale in the Ypsilanti Michigan public schools with follow up to age

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.652345724479035
WordScorePoS
document0NN
study0NN
unite0VB
child0.0450489732120807NN
day0.25973846344589NN
scale0NN
public0NN
school0NN
full0JJ
round0NN
education0.0225244866060403NN
north0RB
age0.112994637345193NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.479101464124701
WordScorePoS
document0NN
study0NN
unite0VB
child0.076326555629389NN
day0NN
scale0NN
public0NN
school0.208127520578185NN
full0JJ
round0NN
education0.244244978014045NN
north0RB
age0.0255262687343935NN

The last two are small randomized experiments

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Studies on the Chicago program use statistical techniques to control for selection bias and other factors that might confound interpretation of results

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Slide of presentation on Heckman and Masterov at http www

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

ced

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

org docs presentation heckman

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

pdf

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

In the United States Currie notes that while all the children in the North Carolina Abecedarian project were at risk of mental retardation positive effects were twice as large for the most disadvantaged children among them

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.609080025847837
WordScorePoS
unite0VB
child0.10682408961305NN
north0RB
project0NN
risk0.0703902516159815NN
mental0.0407408489778079JJ
positive0JJ
effect0NN
disadvantaged0JJ

Currie and WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT Thomas find that gains in test scores associated with Head Start were greater for Hispanic children than for non Hispanic whites

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.477897100348922
WordScorePoS
world0.00087176582269799NN
development0.00837573444202498NN
report0.0307735781890304NN
gain0NN
child0.10682408961305NN

Grantham McGregor and others

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Deutsch Attanasio and Vera Hernandez

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Paxson and Schady

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Scott McDonald

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Doryan Gautman and Foege

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Kirpal

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Many conditional cash transfers in Latin America already have some of these features

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.963777627399033
WordScorePoS
transfer0.0803666323453555NN
feature0.0531983120572613NN

Currie and Thomas find that gains in vocabulary and reading test scores faded out among black Head Start children while they were still in elementary grades but not among whites even though initial gains in test scores were the same for both groups

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Currie and Thomas attribute this to their finding that black children who attended Head Start go on to attend lowerquality schools than other black children but that the same is not true for whites

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.645336559601744
WordScorePoS
child0.076326555629389NN
attend0VB
school0.208127520578185NN

King Orazem and Paterno

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

UNESCO

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Thirty two more countries have too little data to assess Bruns Mingat and Rakotomalala and FTI Secretariat

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

See Wodon for Niger and Senegal in Senegal when the school is located less than minutes away from home the probability of enrollment for boys goes up by percentage points as compared with having the school more than one hour away

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.812714922407448
WordScorePoS
school0.208127520578185NN
minute0NN
boy0.184698660975968NN
percentage0NN
compare0VB

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.531271045531801
WordScorePoS
school0.0931221694711702NN
minute0NN
boy0.206598579091335NN
percentage0NN
compare0VB

Burney and Irfan found negligible impacts of proximity

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.7540481934975
WordScorePoS
impact0.0866018859977851NN

The study finds that children age two to four in had an additional

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.591898114206821
WordScorePoS
study0NN
child0.10682408961305NN
age0.0893142758861673NN
additional0JJ

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.476937364157144
WordScorePoS
study0NN
child0.0450489732120807NN
age0.112994637345193NN
additional0JJ

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.408135926005247
WordScorePoS
study0NN
child0.0546336178945768NN
age0.0365427838531249NN
additional0.0440683498519077JJ

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.307367171711247
WordScorePoS
study0NN
child0.076326555629389NN
age0.0255262687343935NN
additional0JJ

years of education and

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.961591108592946
WordScorePoS
education0.244244978014045NN

percent higher wages for each new school built per children Duflo

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.792915409379072
WordScorePoS
school0.208127520578185NN
build0.0416255041156371VB
child0.076326555629389NN

Other studies that find positive impacts of expanding school infrastructure include Birdsall in urban Brazil DeTray and Lillard and Willis in Malaysia Lavy in Ghana and Case and Deaton in South Africa

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.67682642631086
WordScorePoS
study0NN
positive0.055245183797332JJ
impact0.0194583992186006NN
expand0.0268848280079943VB
school0NN
infrastructure0.0194583992186006NN
include0VB
urban0.27622591898666JJ
south0RB
africa0IN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.43221412096696
WordScorePoS
study0NN
positive0.0454743001434393JJ
impact0.0160169090870187NN
expand0VB
school0NN
infrastructure0.192202909044225NN
include0VB
urban0JJ
south0RB
africa0IN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.405627029630505
WordScorePoS
study0NN
positive0JJ
impact0NN
expand0.0299609328954485VB
school0.208127520578185NN
infrastructure0NN
include0VB
urban0JJ
south0RB
africa0IN

Pritchett

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Kremer Moulin and Namunyu

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

In Brazil in the Bolsa Escola program was spending almost million year and reaching

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.61238397404666
WordScorePoS
spending0NN
reach0.0658099748168827NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.560209145217008
WordScorePoS
spending0.0602029956716497NN
reach0NN

million school children one third of all primary school children in Brazil

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.78950044224872
WordScorePoS
school0.208127520578185NN
child0.076326555629389NN
primary0.108423939529757JJ

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.369984498273565
WordScorePoS
school0.0931221694711702NN
child0.0170753354211044NN
primary0.0970239057629001JJ

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.302100358613824
WordScorePoS
school0.0548954478802642NN
child0.0603953832457135NN
primary0.0285977592242194JJ

In Bangladesh the Food for Education budget in was million benefiting

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.675613167430239
WordScorePoS
food0.292342270824999NN
education0NN
benefit0.0252000451111224NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.519663411594545
WordScorePoS
food0NN
education0.244244978014045NN
benefit0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.419265129541432
WordScorePoS
food0.186896403054502NN
education0.0101607690729067NN
benefit0NN

million children percent of total school enrollment Morley and Coady

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.749870537482464
WordScorePoS
child0.076326555629389NN
total0NN
school0.208127520578185NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.303926731006482
WordScorePoS
child0.0603953832457135NN
total0NN
school0.0548954478802642NN

In Mexico according to government figures by Opportunidades was spending approximately

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.926417953078175
WordScorePoS
government0NN
figure0.0602029956716497NN
spending0.0602029956716497NN
approximately0RB

billion annually or about

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

percent of total expenditture and reaching million households almost percent of all families in Mexico

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.584976865095547
WordScorePoS
total0.0468670845659596NN
reach0.0332151194779746NN
household0.0554128417527413NN
family0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.402039162744635
WordScorePoS
total0NN
reach0NN
household0.0465610847355851NN
family0.0465610847355851NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.366066874412399
WordScorePoS
total0.0252000451111224NN
reach0NN
household0.0297950283197006NN
family0.0297950283197006NN

Morley and Coady and Schultz

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

There are some countries in which gender disparities require attention to boys even for primary schooling Mongolia and quite few for higher levels of attainment Brazil Philippines

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.685796138011831
WordScorePoS
country0NN
gender0.196902218579822NN
disparity0NN
require0VB
attention0NN
boy0.206598579091335NN
primary0.0970239057629001JJ
schooling0NN
level0.0172651853471334NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.640326580554227
WordScorePoS
country0NN
gender0.10561808200669NN
disparity0.0615662203253227NN
require0VB
attention0NN
boy0.184698660975968NN
primary0.108423939529757JJ
schooling0NN
level0.0231525547935232NN

Herz and Sperling

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

World Bank

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.918499615257701
WordScorePoS
world0.0124838525528648NN
bank0.0881366997038154NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.375629786620639
WordScorePoS
world0.00418824502414673NN
bank0.036961556179878NN

Pritchett

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

A score of more than one standard deviation below the OECD mean is considered poor performance

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.566374852985926
WordScorePoS
standard0NN
oecd0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
performance0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.6896979649507
WordScorePoS
standard0.0409791940864438NN
oecd0.108503934593034NN
poor0.0339811641917276JJ
performance0NN

See Hanushek and Hanushek

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Wößmann

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

See Glewwe Kremer and Moulin Glewwe Ilias and Kremer Glewwe and others Kremer Miguel and Thornton Miguel and Kremer

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

It is also important to take account of household behavior in response to changes in school inputs

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.647257315247216
WordScorePoS
account0NN
household0NN
response0NN
school0.208127520578185NN
input0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.434401985146866
WordScorePoS
account0NN
household0.0465610847355851NN
response0NN
school0.0931221694711702NN
input0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.366756753027723
WordScorePoS
account0NN
household0.0297950283197006NN
response0NN
school0.0297950283197006NN
input0.0583416713841148NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.351878036746392
WordScorePoS
account0.0577345906651901NN
household0.0554128417527413NN
response0NN
school0NN
input0NN

Das Dercon Habrayimana and Krishnan find that household spending and nonsalary cash grants to schools are close substitutes with no impact on learning from anticipated increases in school funds

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.87583662909898
WordScorePoS
household0NN
spending0NN
school0.208127520578185NN
impact0NN
learn0.244520809605025VB
increase0.0144029596227568NN
fund0NN

Unanticipated funds have significant learning impacts

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.771444598098235
WordScorePoS
fund0NN
significant0JJ
learn0.244520809605025VB
impact0NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.37703468908569
WordScorePoS
fund0.0414107553022249NN
significant0.0343390275626203JJ
learn0VB
impact0.0437569550806737NN

Hanushek and Wößman

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Ladd

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

The analysis is not able to separate the effects of private schools from the effects of the incentives for greater effort generated by the voucher policy

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.517713658035167
WordScorePoS
effect0NN
private0JJ
school0.208127520578185NN
incentive0NN
effort0.0255262687343935NN
generate0VB
policy0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.423181736521524
WordScorePoS
effect0NN
private0.0898760357768464JJ
school0NN
incentive0.036961556179878NN
effort0NN
generate0VB
policy0.0641521854453136NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.405681025361843
WordScorePoS
effect0NN
private0.0558185411034276JJ
school0.0931221694711702NN
incentive0NN
effort0NN
generate0VB
policy0.0341506708422088NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.3589483961104
WordScorePoS
effect0.0440683498519077NN
private0JJ
school0.0297950283197006NN
incentive0NN
effort0NN
generate0.0440683498519077VB
policy0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.349945301008199
WordScorePoS
effect0.0454743001434393NN
private0.0368585655748969JJ
school0NN
incentive0NN
effort0.0188543197850406NN
generate0VB
policy0.011275328195446NN

The distinction is important because effort can be encouraged also by awarding scholarships to students attending public schools as we saw with the Balshaki program

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.785237795541826
WordScorePoS
effort0.0255262687343935NN
encouraged0JJ
scholarship0.0815069365350084NN
attend0VB
public0NN
school0.208127520578185NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.41332299615815
WordScorePoS
effort0NN
encouraged0JJ
scholarship0NN
attend0VB
public0.0727679293221751NN
school0.0931221694711702NN

See Angrist and others

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Chubb and Moe

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

See McEwan on Chile

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Hoxby finds improvements from school choice from charter schools in Michigan and Arizona Holmes DeSimone and Rupp find that competition from school choice in North Carolina improved test scores significantly

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.84970296041375
WordScorePoS
improvement0NN
school0.208127520578185NN
choice0NN
north0RB
improve0.0305306222517556VB
significantly0RB

Cullen Jacob and Levitt and Cullen Jacob and Levitt found no impact from school choice in Chicago

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.711622787289373
WordScorePoS
impact0NN
school0.208127520578185NN
choice0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.436221041612907
WordScorePoS
impact0.0866018859977851NN
school0NN
choice0.0409791940864438NN

See also Witte

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Hoxby finds significant productivity gains for representative sample across the United States while Rothstein uses the same data to find far more modest results

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.450907249053769
WordScorePoS
significant0.033663879505068JJ
productivity0NN
gain0NN
representative0.107490825192354NN
unite0VB
datum0NN
result0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.439906977993211
WordScorePoS
significant0JJ
productivity0.0922368138456871NN
gain0NN
representative0NN
unite0VB
datum0.0454743001434393NN
result0NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.374259831266805
WordScorePoS
significant0.0343390275626203JJ
productivity0NN
gain0NN
representative0NN
unite0.0828215106044499VB
datum0NN
result0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.354212075046469
WordScorePoS
significant0JJ
productivity0NN
gain0NN
representative0NN
unite0.036961556179878VB
datum0.0739231123597559NN
result0NN

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.35192444791664
WordScorePoS
significant0JJ
productivity0NN
gain0.041835863322702NN
representative0NN
unite0VB
datum0NN
result0.0683326727248364NN

McEwan and Carnoy and Hsieh and Urquiola

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Lindert

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

In Brazil reform set minimum floor on education spending in all regions which led to an increase in primary school enrollments from to percent in only six years World Bank

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.691465659625848
WordScorePoS
reform0NN
set0NN
floor0NN
education0.244244978014045NN
spending0NN
region0NN
lead0.0255262687343935NN
increase0.0144029596227568NN
primary0.108423939529757JJ
school0.208127520578185NN
world0.0017440716962658NN
bank0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.378315254421464
WordScorePoS
reform0NN
set0NN
floor0.120266261535276NN
education0.0225244866060403NN
spending0NN
region0.184259548107002NN
lead0NN
increase0NN
primary0JJ
school0NN
world0.00257343720272548NN
bank0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.446444997144327
WordScorePoS
reform0.0911713013253052NN
set0NN
floor0NN
education0.0512260062633133NN
spending0NN
region0.0465610847355851NN
lead0NN
increase0.00402768349408688NN
primary0.0970239057629001JJ
school0.0931221694711702NN
world0.00585260443759492NN
bank0NN

See Grindle and Fiszbein for examples in Latin America

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

World Bank

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.918499615257701
WordScorePoS
world0.0124838525528648NN
bank0.0881366997038154NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.375629786620639
WordScorePoS
world0.00418824502414673NN
bank0.036961556179878NN

Wößmann argues for giving decision making authority to those with the most relevant information and the lowest prospects for personal gain

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.584118599351172
WordScorePoS
give0VB
decision0NN
relevant0.0277064208763707JJ
information0.0365348149782971NN
prospects0NNS
personal0.0542519672965169JJ
gain0.0664302389559493NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.403599338692319
WordScorePoS
give0VB
decision0NN
relevant0JJ
information0.0675706773907211NN
prospects0.0602029956716497NNS
personal0JJ
gain0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.396272350785062
WordScorePoS
give0VB
decision0.0464294830712827NN
relevant0.0548954478802642JJ
information0.0241291244414115NN
prospects0NNS
personal0JJ
gain0NN

He finds that student performance improves with central control over the curriculum budget and exams delegation of process and personnel decisions to the school greater say for teachers in the selection of appropriate teaching methods regular scrutiny of students education performance and parental interest in education content

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.860902038553926
WordScorePoS
performance0NN
improve0.0305306222517556VB
central0JJ
control0NN
process0NN
decision0NN
school0.208127520578185NN
teacher0.163013873070017NN
regular0JJ
education0.244244978014045NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.326245957470895
WordScorePoS
performance0NN
improve0VB
central0JJ
control0.0465610847355851NN
process0.0558185411034276NN
decision0.0393804437159645NN
school0.0931221694711702NN
teacher0NN
regular0JJ
education0.0512260062633133NN

Competition from private education institutions and the presence of teacher unions on the other hand have adverse effects

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.724989229897972
WordScorePoS
private0JJ
education0.244244978014045NN
institution0NN
teacher0.163013873070017NN
adverse0JJ
effect0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.524453614646097
WordScorePoS
private0JJ
education0.0201317944152378NN
institution0.274477239401321NN
teacher0NN
adverse0JJ
effect0NN

See World Bank and Pritchett

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.918499615257702
WordScorePoS
world0.0124838525528648NN
bank0.0881366997038154NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.375629786620639
WordScorePoS
world0.00418824502414673NN
bank0.036961556179878NN

World Bank for South Africa Duan

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.918499615257701
WordScorePoS
world0.0124838525528648NN
bank0.0881366997038154NN
south0RB
africa0IN

World Bank

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.918499615257701
WordScorePoS
world0.0124838525528648NN
bank0.0881366997038154NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.375629786620639
WordScorePoS
world0.00418824502414673NN
bank0.036961556179878NN

World Bank

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.918499615257701
WordScorePoS
world0.0124838525528648NN
bank0.0881366997038154NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.375629786620639
WordScorePoS
world0.00418824502414673NN
bank0.036961556179878NN

Thailand Ministry of Public Health and World Bank

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.672779743269933
WordScorePoS
public0.021678073222951NN
health0.191387734041787NN
world0.00087176582269799NN
bank0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.426825396987968
WordScorePoS
public0.0727679293221751NN
health0.0571058915334038NN
world0.00585260443759492NN
bank0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.31642627490806
WordScorePoS
public0NN
health0NN
world0.0124838525528648NN
bank0.0881366997038154NN

Rawlings

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

See Barber Bertozzi and Gertler for Mexico Das and Hammer and Das and Hammer for India Barber Gertler and Harimurti for Indonesia and Leonard and Masatu for Tanzania

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Endnotes

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

World Bank

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.918499615257701
WordScorePoS
world0.0124838525528648NN
bank0.0881366997038154NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.375629786620639
WordScorePoS
world0.00418824502414673NN
bank0.036961556179878NN

Gertler and Barber

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

World Bank

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.918499615257701
WordScorePoS
world0.0124838525528648NN
bank0.0881366997038154NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.375629786620639
WordScorePoS
world0.00418824502414673NN
bank0.036961556179878NN

World Bank

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.918499615257701
WordScorePoS
world0.0124838525528648NN
bank0.0881366997038154NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.375629786620639
WordScorePoS
world0.00418824502414673NN
bank0.036961556179878NN

See World Bank for Vietnam World Bank for Cambodia and Lewis on ECA countries

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.918499615257702
WordScorePoS
world0.0124838525528648NN
bank0.0881366997038154NN
country0NN

Schieber

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Gertler and Gruber find that while Indonesian families were able to self insure reasonably well the costs of minor illness up to percent of the income loss associated with these they were able to insure only percent of the income loss associated with illness that severely limits physical functioning

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.645895946966742
WordScorePoS
family0NN
cost0.0660824365173543NN
illness0NN
income0.166475342664294NN
loss0NN
severely0RB
limit0NN
function0NN

Sekhri and Savedoff

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Savedoff

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Escobar Escobar and Panopoulou Castaneda

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Uganda use rates had dipped with the introduction of fees in the and although Uganda poor were formally exempt they often paid as much as other users

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.698294665178547
WordScorePoS
rate0.0639932865717261NN
introduction0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
pay0NN
user0NN

Deininger and Mpuga estimate that the revenues lost to the health system from the elimination of user fees in were smaller than the value of benefits from the reduction in foregone earnings thanks to healthier population

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.51029565103423
WordScorePoS
estimate0.059903311017139NN
revenue0NN
lose0VB
health0.191387734041787NN
system0NN
elimination0NN
user0NN
benefit0NN
reduction0.0149758277542848NN
population0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.421588258479967
WordScorePoS
estimate0NN
revenue0NN
lose0.0440683498519077VB
health0NN
system0.0756001353333673NN
elimination0.0440683498519077NN
user0NN
benefit0.0252000451111224NN
reduction0NN
population0.0310434135749871NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.33470134973299
WordScorePoS
estimate0.0190167691930804NN
revenue0NN
lose0.0781544824456958VB
health0NN
system0NN
elimination0NN
user0NN
benefit0.0446918591208085NN
reduction0.0190167691930804NN
population0.0137637438743113NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.333760254425068
WordScorePoS
estimate0NN
revenue0NN
lose0VB
health0.0405241466500776NN
system0NN
elimination0NN
user0NN
benefit0NN
reduction0.0475643836183697NN
population0.0860640399817412NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.321844891070401
WordScorePoS
estimate0NN
revenue0.0978661089756501NN
lose0VB
health0NN
system0.0211360962287062NN
elimination0NN
user0.048933054487825NN
benefit0NN
reduction0NN
population0NN

Thailand Ministry of Public Health and World Bank

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.672779743269933
WordScorePoS
public0.021678073222951NN
health0.191387734041787NN
world0.00087176582269799NN
bank0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.426825396987968
WordScorePoS
public0.0727679293221751NN
health0.0571058915334038NN
world0.00585260443759492NN
bank0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.31642627490806
WordScorePoS
public0NN
health0NN
world0.0124838525528648NN
bank0.0881366997038154NN

See Chaudhury Hammer and Murrugarra for Armenia World Bank for China and Meesen and Van Damme for Cambodia

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Socialist Republic of Vietnam and World Bank

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.918499615257701
WordScorePoS
world0.0124838525528648NN
bank0.0881366997038154NN

Preker and Carrin Atim

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Ranson and others

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

World Bank World Bank Banerjee Deaton and Duflo Chaudhury and Hammer on Bangladesh

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.918499615257701
WordScorePoS
world0.0124838525528648NN
bank0.0881366997038154NN

World Bank

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.918499615257701
WordScorePoS
world0.0124838525528648NN
bank0.0881366997038154NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.375629786620639
WordScorePoS
world0.00418824502414673NN
bank0.036961556179878NN

The equity and opportunity enhancing role of social protection is the conceptual underpinning of the Bank social protection sector strategy World Bank Holzmann and Jorgensen

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.645317327015101
WordScorePoS
opportunity0NN
enhance0.0184786920895884VB
social0.112994637345193JJ
protection0.122839698738001NN
bank0NN
sector0NN
strategy0.0442083771593746NN
world0.00257343720272548NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.452552670862522
WordScorePoS
opportunity0.029046330719385NN
enhance0.00994073584907126VB
social0.101310366625194JJ
protection0.0660824365173543NN
bank0NN
sector0NN
strategy0NN
world0.00276879546803864NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.312621819599738
WordScorePoS
opportunity0.0261926252110933NN
enhance0.0268922747178632VB
social0JJ
protection0NN
bank0.0881366997038154NN
sector0.0182713919265625NN
strategy0NN
world0.0124838525528648NN

Other sources are World Bank Devereux and Ravallion

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.737559496131694
WordScorePoS
source0.0130963126055467NN
world0.0124838525528648NN
bank0.0881366997038154NN

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.426402661922482
WordScorePoS
source0.0613562156822703NN
world0.00438651305628668NN
bank0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.33813808928791
WordScorePoS
source0.0109843026967392NN
world0.00418824502414673NN
bank0.036961556179878NN

Improved access to credit is reported for South Africa Ardington and Lund and Brazil Schwarzer and Querino where the electronic banking card issued by the program is often used as proof of creditworthiness

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

A significant share of rural pension beneficiaries in Brazil report using part of the pension to purchase seeds and agricultural tools Delgado and Cardoso Jr

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.929436546079733
WordScorePoS
significant0JJ
share0.0365427838531249NN
rural0.148975141598503JJ
report0NN
seed0.11668334276823NN
agricultural0.250032943963815JJ
tool0NN

others report investing in improvements in their housing

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.862006965335594
WordScorePoS
report0NN
invest0VB
improvement0NN
housing0.219415728260093NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.363259894680777
WordScorePoS
report0NN
invest0VB
improvement0.0924643738905717NN
housing0NN

Children and older people in beneficiary households had better health in South Africa Case and enrollment rates of school age children were higher among pension beneficiary households in both South Africa Duflo and Brazil de Carvalho Filho

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.582609865944467
WordScorePoS
child0.10682408961305NN
people0.00539943740774902NNS
household0NN
health0.191387734041787NN
south0RB
africa0IN
rate0.0433561464459019NN
school0NN
age0.0893142758861673NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.445393233031051
WordScorePoS
child0.076326555629389NN
people0.00720147981137839NNS
household0NN
health0NN
south0RB
africa0IN
rate0.0216847879059514NN
school0.208127520578185NN
age0.0255262687343935NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.326409281879156
WordScorePoS
child0.0450489732120807NN
people0.0371911007748996NNS
household0NN
health0NN
south0RB
africa0IN
rate0.0639932865717261NN
school0NN
age0.112994637345193NN

Kanbur

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Lindert

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Esping Andersen argues for example that the success of the welfare system in continental Europe is based on its universality

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Alesina and Glaeser suggest that the different choices depend on political and institutional factors including the form of democracy the degree of ethnic homogeneity and societal beliefs about the causes of poverty

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.615592102415964
WordScorePoS
suggest0VB
choice0NN
depend0VB
political0JJ
institutional0JJ
include0VB
form0.0884167543187491NN
degree0NN
poverty0.269969049497485NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.424767529479724
WordScorePoS
suggest0VB
choice0NN
depend0VB
political0JJ
institutional0.0828215106044499JJ
include0VB
form0NN
degree0.164469921319675NN
poverty0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.271477843709272
WordScorePoS
suggest0VB
choice0NN
depend0VB
political0JJ
institutional0JJ
include0VB
form0.158049144643351NN
degree0NN
poverty0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.364452828314826
WordScorePoS
suggest0VB
choice0NN
depend0VB
political0.111637082206855JJ
institutional0JJ
include0VB
form0.100540298425703NN
degree0NN
poverty0NN

This scheme covered about percent of the unemployed labor force so it was usefully supplemented by workfare World Bank

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.786554669603262
WordScorePoS
cover0NN
force0.0297950283197006NN
world0.0124838525528648NN
bank0.0881366997038154NN

Coady Grosh and Hoddinott

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

See World Bank World Bank and World Bank

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.918499615257701
WordScorePoS
world0.0124838525528648NN
bank0.0881366997038154NN

Social workers assess separate factors grouped in dimensions identification health education family dynamics housing work and income

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.467875226222164
WordScorePoS
social0.101310366625194JJ
worker0NN
dimension0.0488696285210061NN
health0.0405241466500776NN
education0.0121171980355011NN
family0NN
housing0NN
income0.166475342664294NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.457887881197068
WordScorePoS
social0.112994637345193JJ
worker0NN
dimension0.181686110904276NN
health0NN
education0.0225244866060403NN
family0NN
housing0NN
income0.0442083771593746NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.365044963062786
WordScorePoS
social0.0458109463416786JJ
worker0NN
dimension0NN
health0.0229054731708393NN
education0NN
family0NN
housing0.219415728260093NN
income0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.340890947501562
WordScorePoS
social0JJ
worker0NN
dimension0NN
health0.191387734041787NN
education0.0152605842304358NN
family0.0624189222007589NN
housing0NN
income0NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.309442731977869
WordScorePoS
social0JJ
worker0NN
dimension0NN
health0NN
education0.244244978014045NN
family0NN
housing0NN
income0NN

See Chile Ministry of Planning on Bangladesh see Hashemi

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.714165966459156
WordScorePoS
plan0.0583751976558017NN

On Argentina see Jalan and Ravallion on the Maharashtra scheme Ravallion on Bolivia Newman Jorgensen and Pradhan

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

The analysis showed decline in poverty of percent in the PROGRESA communities and an increase in poverty in the control group

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.88868568752713
WordScorePoS
decline0NN
poverty0.269969049497485NN
community0NN
increase0NN
control0.0614198493690006NN

See Bourguignon Ferreira and Leite on Brazil Bolsa Escola see Rawlings and Morley and Coady on Mexico PROGRESA and see World Bank on Cambodia lower secondary school program

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.7717346598965
WordScorePoS
world0.0017440716962658NN
bank0NN
secondary0.0615662203253227JJ
school0.208127520578185NN

United Nations

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.88772561119388
WordScorePoS
unite0.0828215106044499VB
nation0.0671298309154199NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.396173890224796
WordScorePoS
unite0.036961556179878VB
nation0.0299586785922821NN

See Holzmann and Hinz and World Bank

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.918499615257701
WordScorePoS
world0.0124838525528648NN
bank0.0881366997038154NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.375629786620639
WordScorePoS
world0.00418824502414673NN
bank0.036961556179878NN

Except for the implicit constraint imposed by means tested scheme Barrientos

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.894219307017809
WordScorePoS
constraint0NN
means0.120266261535276NNS

Case and Deaton

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Barrientos Rawlings De Ferranti and others

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

See James for the general argument van der Berg and Brendenkamp on South Africa and Paes de Barros and de Carvalho on Brazil

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Lund and Atkinson

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Hoogeveen and others

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Chapter

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

See Haber

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Hellman Jones and Kaufmann

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

The separation of powers between the executive legislative and judicial arms of government aims to combat the dangers of investing state power in one person or group with each branch holding the others accountable through differing checks and balances

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.754767608192558
WordScorePoS
power0NN
arm0.107490825192354NN
government0NN
aim0NN
combat0.109790895760528NN
invest0VB
person0NN
hold0NN
accountable0.162386273072618JJ

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.362491156062429
WordScorePoS
power0NN
arm0NN
government0NN
aim0NN
combat0NN
invest0VB
person0NN
hold0.18234260265061NN
accountable0JJ

This system also arguably maintains competition within political institutions

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.681188312842771
WordScorePoS
system0NN
maintain0VB
political0JJ
institution0.274477239401321NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.442610228142185
WordScorePoS
system0NN
maintain0VB
political0.0792212041430275JJ
institution0.0991236547760315NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.406356529424701
WordScorePoS
system0.0756001353333673NN
maintain0.0881366997038154VB
political0JJ
institution0NN

See Haber

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Asian Development Bank Garapon Russel and Brien

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.691484675128202
WordScorePoS
development0.0159922815774215NN
bank0.0881366997038154NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.557203556115315
WordScorePoS
development0.0469463607292177NN
bank0.036961556179878NN

The Constitution of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia

Label: 8, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
democratic0.0804764811724088JJ

Tien Dung

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

See Buscaglia and Dakolias

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Ringera and others

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

See Langseth and Stolpe Dakolias and Thatchuk

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

For East Asia see Asian Development Bank

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.691484675128202
WordScorePoS
asia0IN
development0.0159922815774215NN
bank0.0881366997038154NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.557203556115315
WordScorePoS
asia0IN
development0.0469463607292177NN
bank0.036961556179878NN

tsj

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

gov

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

ve for an explanation of the judicial portal

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

The important distinction here is between campaigns that impede judicial independence targeting unpopular decisions and those that serve as check on judicial misbehavior exposing judicial corruption

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.92214318265364
WordScorePoS
target0NN
decision0.0464294830712827NN
serve0VB
corruption0.322472475577062NN

See Asian Development Bank

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.691484675128202
WordScorePoS
development0.0159922815774215NN
bank0.0881366997038154NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.557203556115315
WordScorePoS
development0.0469463607292177NN
bank0.036961556179878NN

WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.557885995940362
WordScorePoS
world0.00464349782489754NN
development0.022306853314744NN
report0.0409791940864438NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.419953944381463
WordScorePoS
world0.00418824502414673NN
development0.0469463607292177NN
report0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.3286817118747
WordScorePoS
world0.00087176582269799NN
development0.00837573444202498NN
report0.0307735781890304NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.302482130891403
WordScorePoS
world0NN
development0.0368309542451156NN
report0NN

See World Bank World Bank and Hammergreen

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.918499615257701
WordScorePoS
world0.0124838525528648NN
bank0.0881366997038154NN

It is important to note that vast array of practices systems and traditions have been defined as informal traditional or customary law all existing within vastly differing contexts

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.450659517440272
WordScorePoS
vast0JJ
array0NN
practice0NN
system0NN
traditional0JJ
law0.164686343640793NN
exist0VB
context0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.556078964434522
WordScorePoS
vast0.0583416713841148JJ
array0NN
practice0.0252000451111224NN
system0.0756001353333673NN
traditional0.0440683498519077JJ
law0NN
exist0VB
context0NN

The use of informal is used in contrast to formal state systems and is not meant to imply that such institutions are procedurally informal

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.87269863995055
WordScorePoS
system0NN
institution0.274477239401321NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.315163030999044
WordScorePoS
system0NN
institution0.0991236547760315NN

World Bank

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.918499615257701
WordScorePoS
world0.0124838525528648NN
bank0.0881366997038154NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.375629786620639
WordScorePoS
world0.00418824502414673NN
bank0.036961556179878NN

Augustinus

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

See Centre for Housing Rights and Evictions

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.870416864910007
WordScorePoS
centre0NN
housing0.219415728260093NN
rights0NNS

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.312442527523667
WordScorePoS
centre0NN
housing0NN
rights0.078760887431929NNS

Mamdani

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Fortman

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

See Buscaglia and Mattei

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

See also Kranton and Swamy and Pistor and Wellons

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

The sungusungu have avoided cooption by the state and their lack of knowledge of the law and people rights can lead to abuse

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.546835519795524
WordScorePoS
avoid0VB
lack0NN
knowledge0NN
law0.164686343640793NN
people0NNS
rights0NNS
lead0NN
abuse0.0811931365363091NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.36577776189757
WordScorePoS
avoid0VB
lack0.0753297582301286NN
knowledge0NN
law0NN
people0.0371911007748996NNS
rights0.0519476926891779NNS
lead0NN
abuse0NN

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.315260003945879
WordScorePoS
avoid0.0531983120572613VB
lack0NN
knowledge0.0271683202880942NN
law0.0543366405761884NN
people0.00705044110169491NNS
rights0NNS
lead0NN
abuse0NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.300430016381088
WordScorePoS
avoid0VB
lack0.0255262687343935NN
knowledge0.0416255041156371NN
law0NN
people0.00720147981137839NNS
rights0.0352060273355634NNS
lead0.0255262687343935NN
abuse0NN

See Mwaikusa and Bukurura

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Buscaglia

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

See Bush discussion on different African nations attempts at dynamic integrations

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Interestingly hundred years later the Black Administration Act which recognized dual system of official law formed the basis for separating whites and Africans under apartheid

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.674223457698778
WordScorePoS
recognize0VB
system0NN
official0NN
law0.164686343640793NN
form0.158049144643351NN
basis0NN
african0IN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.423917969793507
WordScorePoS
recognize0.0558185411034276VB
system0NN
official0NN
law0.0465610847355851NN
form0.100540298425703NN
basis0NN
african0IN

See Van Niekerk

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

See Bennett for discussion of this issue

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.652480175420358
WordScorePoS
issue0.0335649154577099NN

More than two thirds of the European Court of Human Rights case load between and was about violations of the right to fair trial in particular the excessive length of court proceedings

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.671046491096314
WordScorePoS
third0.0558185411034276JJ
human0.0170753354211044JJ
rights0.078760887431929NNS
fair0JJ
excessive0JJ

Between and mediation cases were handled

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

See Malik

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Feierstein and Moreira

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Das

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

See Human Rights Watch

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.685199537228698
WordScorePoS
human0.0170753354211044JJ
rights0.078760887431929NNS

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.371410036112423
WordScorePoS
human0JJ
rights0.0519476926891779NNS

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.360854557155556
WordScorePoS
human0.0152653111258778JJ
rights0.0352060273355634NNS

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.356292436073018
WordScorePoS
human0.0150723186962745JJ
rights0.0347609334428716NNS

See Greenwood and others Gottfredson Tremblay and Craig Waller Welsh and Sansfaçon Waller and Sansfaçon World Bank

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

World Bank Council for Scientific and Industrial Research

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.91960153130443
WordScorePoS
world0.00257642711761688NN
bank0NN
scientific0.030745604615229JJ
industrial0.318320101004075JJ
research0.104016094894625NN

Graham and Bowling Shaw

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Sloth Nielsen and Gallinetti Bottoms Shaw

Label: 10, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
bottom0.064698038783335NN

See Harber Shaw

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

For further details see the project Web site at http www

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.778049848378303
WordScorePoS
project0.0664302389559493NN

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.489993527444456
WordScorePoS
project0.041835863322702NN

bac

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

za Web Content Projects Tiisa Thuto Intro Template for Tiisa Thuto

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Penal Reform International assisted in establishing community service orders as alternative sentencing in Zimbabwe Kenya Malawi Uganda Zambia Burkina Faso Congo the Central African Republic and Mozambique

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Morrison Ellsberg and Bott

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Council for Scientific and Industrial Research

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.956977837091485
WordScorePoS
scientific0.030745604615229JJ
industrial0.318320101004075JJ
research0.104016094894625NN

Mtani

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

See Binswanger Deininger and Feder

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

In India employment in agricultural wage labor as opposed to selfemployed cultivation is strongly correlated with poverty Kijima and Lanjouw

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.579369309492474
WordScorePoS
employment0.0252000451111224NN
agricultural0.250032943963815JJ
wage0NN
poverty0.0261926252110933NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.51890673645032
WordScorePoS
employment0NN
agricultural0JJ
wage0NN
poverty0.269969049497485NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.472960568826018
WordScorePoS
employment0.173804667214358NN
agricultural0JJ
wage0NN
poverty0.0722601961736204NN

Similarly in Thailand controlling for other factors tenancy increases the risk of poverty by nearly percent compared with being landowner World Bank

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.797182213474143
WordScorePoS
control0.0614198493690006NN
increase0NN
risk0.0519476926891779NN
poverty0.269969049497485NN
compare0VB
world0.00257343720272548NN
bank0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.34063739735155
WordScorePoS
control0NN
increase0.0128868286091919NN
risk0.0252000451111224NN
poverty0.0261926252110933NN
compare0VB
world0.0124838525528648NN
bank0.0881366997038154NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.302392029798341
WordScorePoS
control0.020806307400253NN
increase0.0143984997539974NN
risk0.0703902516159815NN
poverty0.00914534810831654NN
compare0.0307735781890304VB
world0.00087176582269799NN
bank0NN

Cardenas Conning and Robinson

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Deininger forthcoming

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Deininger and Olinto go further and suggest that asset inequality is causal determinant of growth performance

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.960722883125193
WordScorePoS
suggest0VB
asset0.0488696285210061NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
growth0.11178243319132NN
performance0.064698038783335NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.232815334865455
WordScorePoS
suggest0VB
asset0NN
inequality0NN
growth0.208565600657229NN
performance0NN

Intermediaries were essentially tax collectors who received land rights in different forms depending on the state to intermediate the flow of resources between cultivators and the colonial administration

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.536141775558763
WordScorePoS
tax0.0811931365363091NN
receive0VB
land0NN
rights0NNS
form0.158049144643351NN
depend0VB
flow0.0811931365363091NN
resource0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.412060492801258
WordScorePoS
tax0NN
receive0VB
land0.0319966432858631NN
rights0.0519476926891779NNS
form0.0884167543187491NN
depend0VB
flow0NN
resource0.0739147683583536NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.387461453948516
WordScorePoS
tax0NN
receive0VB
land0.024255976440725NN
rights0.078760887431929NNS
form0.100540298425703NN
depend0VB
flow0NN
resource0.0280166088658745NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.366450320177736
WordScorePoS
tax0NN
receive0VB
land0.123873694868802NN
rights0NNS
form0NN
depend0.0633470357346975VB
flow0NN
resource0.0317953333768269NN

Appu

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Banerjee Gertler and Ghatak

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

In West Bengal efforts in the late and to register sharecroppers and codify their rights were backed by the ruling left parties Appu

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Building on spontaneous transactions in which either the tenant or landlord buys out the other party interest the government is considering ways to facilitate such buyouts in more systematic and equitable fashion thereby allowing one party to obtain full ownership rights to the land Nielsen and Hanstad

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.475690087248085
WordScorePoS
building0.149940347231585NN
transaction0NN
party0NN
government0.048933054487825NN
facilitate0.0211360962287062VB
equitable0.017987180284335JJ
obtain0VB
full0JJ
ownership0NN
rights0NNS
land0NN

De Janvry and Sadoulet

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Scott Gunning and others Deininger Hoogeveen and Kinsey and Kinsey and Binswansger

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

De Ferranti and others

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

See De Janvry and Sadoulet Jonakin Alston Libecap and Mueller

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

See for instance Feder and Jacoby Li and Rozelle

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Some studies report doubling of investment and large gains in land values percent with more secure tenure World Bank

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.511849390211632
WordScorePoS
study0.0517339898971162NN
report0NN
double0RB
investment0NN
gain0NN
land0.123873694868802NN
value0.0390772412228479NN
secure0JJ
world0.00110699520004297NN
bank0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.496985498819633
WordScorePoS
study0NN
report0NN
double0RB
investment0.0182713919265625NN
gain0NN
land0.0465651203624806NN
value0NN
secure0.0440683498519077JJ
world0.0124838525528648NN
bank0.0881366997038154NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.36702589668911
WordScorePoS
study0NN
report0NN
double0RB
investment0.0766240489430275NN
gain0NN
land0NN
value0.036961556179878NN
secure0JJ
world0.00418824502414673NN
bank0.036961556179878NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.35223887371475
WordScorePoS
study0NN
report0NN
double0RB
investment0.0252035516550537NN
gain0NN
land0NN
value0NN
secure0.121575732851624JJ
world0.00172202218602071NN
bank0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.300020861465552
WordScorePoS
study0NN
report0.0409791940864438NN
double0RB
investment0NN
gain0.0664302389559493NN
land0.0144336476662975NN
value0NN
secure0JJ
world0.00464349782489754NN
bank0NN

To the extent that highly visible investments such as trees or fences may be means to establish landownership rights causality might run the other way Brasselle Gaspart and Platteau

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.739817885972109
WordScorePoS
extent0NN
highly0RB
investment0.0376648791150643NN
tree0NN
means0.120266261535276NNS
establish0VB
rights0.0519476926891779NNS

A recent study from Ethiopia demonstrates that tenure insecurity indeed encourages investment in trees that have little impact on productivity while higher levels of tenure security are unambiguously associated with productivity enhancing investments Deininger and others

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.49553073536077
WordScorePoS
study0NN
encourage0.0260040237236563VB
investment0.0377086395700813NN
tree0NN
impact0.0160169090870187NN
productivity0.0922368138456871NN
level0NN
security0NN
enhance0.0185001613201543VB

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.429203184995497
WordScorePoS
study0NN
encourage0VB
investment0.0182713919265625NN
tree0NN
impact0NN
productivity0.0595900566394012NN
level0.00552410547653725NN
security0.0893850849591018NN
enhance0.0268922747178632VB

De Ferranti and others

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

See Palmade on India

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

See Field on Peru

Label: 2, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
field0.0583416713841148NN

Payne Durand Lasserve

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

The three levels are as follows the right to somewhere to live either on the occupied plot or an alternative should relocation be necessary year lease transferable in the event of death and year lease effectively conferring ownership rights upon survey and payment for the land

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.434029500393248
WordScorePoS
level0NN
live0.0300513417930436VB
occupy0VB
alternative0NN
event0NN
death0.193573191943949NN
effectively0RB
ownership0NN
rights0.0175975629039954NNS
survey0NN
land0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.600482549545653
WordScorePoS
level0.0113874611101829NN
live0.0739258553811849VB
occupy0VB
alternative0NN
event0.0908430554521382NN
death0NN
effectively0RB
ownership0.0736315832425121NN
rights0.0519476926891779NNS
survey0NN
land0.0319966432858631NN

World Bank

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.918499615257701
WordScorePoS
world0.0124838525528648NN
bank0.0881366997038154NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.375629786620639
WordScorePoS
world0.00418824502414673NN
bank0.036961556179878NN

Land regulation can also work against the urban poor

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.737537747953462
WordScorePoS
land0.0389167984372011NN
regulation0NN
urban0.27622591898666JJ
poor0.0229054731708393JJ

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.398510675273803
WordScorePoS
land0.0319966432858631NN
regulation0NN
urban0JJ
poor0.150659516460257JJ

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.319864416661695
WordScorePoS
land0NN
regulation0.0977392570420122NN
urban0.0488696285210061JJ
poor0JJ

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.305610615632115
WordScorePoS
land0.123873694868802NN
regulation0NN
urban0JJ
poor0.016202004209163JJ

When formal land development parameters such as minimum plot sizes setbacks and infrastructure servicing standards are not benchmarked against affordability levels for the majority of the urban population the poor are excluded from access to formal landownership

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.515883087382121
WordScorePoS
land0.0389167984372011NN
development0.0100241617629471NN
size0NN
infrastructure0.0194583992186006NN
standard0NN
level0.00692515656684925NN
majority0NN
urban0.27622591898666JJ
population0.0194583992186006NN
poor0.0229054731708393JJ
access0.00626002771693937NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.413071860693074
WordScorePoS
land0NN
development0.0330049940546426NN
size0.0368585655748969NN
infrastructure0.192202909044225NN
standard0.0454743001434393NN
level0NN
majority0NN
urban0JJ
population0NN
poor0JJ
access0.0128821355880844NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.372956890384458
WordScorePoS
land0.0319966432858631NN
development0.0164833460638534NN
size0NN
infrastructure0NN
standard0NN
level0.0113874611101829NN
majority0.0736315832425121NN
urban0JJ
population0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
access0.00514687440545096NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.351787955303238
WordScorePoS
land0NN
development0.0177346522508396NN
size0.0396106020715138NN
infrastructure0NN
standard0NN
level0NN
majority0.0792212041430275NN
urban0.0488696285210061JJ
population0.0860640399817412NN
poor0JJ
access0.00138439773401932NN

Bertaud and Malpezzi Payne and Majale

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Gravois

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Brasselle Gaspart and Platteau

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

World Bank Endnotes

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.918499615257702
WordScorePoS
world0.0124838525528648NN
bank0.0881366997038154NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.375629786620639
WordScorePoS
world0.00418824502414673NN
bank0.036961556179878NN

Historically distress sales have played major role in the accumulation of land by large manorial estates in China Shih and in early Japan Takeoshi and by large landlord estates in Punjab Hamid

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

The abolition of communal tenure and the associated loss of mechanisms for diversifying risk are among the factors underlying the emergence of large estates in Central America Brockett

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.547668713269769
WordScorePoS
loss0NN
mechanism0.147846224719512NN
risk0NN
underlie0VB
central0JJ

World Bank

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.918499615257701
WordScorePoS
world0.0124838525528648NN
bank0.0881366997038154NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.375629786620639
WordScorePoS
world0.00418824502414673NN
bank0.036961556179878NN

World Bank

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.918499615257701
WordScorePoS
world0.0124838525528648NN
bank0.0881366997038154NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.375629786620639
WordScorePoS
world0.00418824502414673NN
bank0.036961556179878NN

For Sudan see Kevane for Colombia Deininger Castagnini and González

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

World Bank

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.918499615257701
WordScorePoS
world0.0124838525528648NN
bank0.0881366997038154NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.375629786620639
WordScorePoS
world0.00418824502414673NN
bank0.036961556179878NN

Long term fixed rental contracts are the most efficient from an economic perspective because they are compatible with incentives for effort and investment but various imperfections in markets make these rare chapter

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.537851268052103
WordScorePoS
term0.149793392961411NN
contract0NN
efficient0JJ
economic0JJ
perspective0NN
incentive0.036961556179878NN
effort0NN
investment0.0766240489430275NN
market0.030649619577211NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.474410730270381
WordScorePoS
term0NN
contract0.0804764811724088NN
efficient0JJ
economic0.128463821595706JJ
perspective0NN
incentive0NN
effort0NN
investment0.0252035516550537NN
market0.0252035516550537NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.335505300963404
WordScorePoS
term0.0396106020715138NN
contract0NN
efficient0JJ
economic0.103276847978089JJ
perspective0NN
incentive0NN
effort0NN
investment0.0202620733250388NN
market0.0202620733250388NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.308768761206181
WordScorePoS
term0NN
contract0NN
efficient0.108503934593034JJ
economic0.0433009429988926JJ
perspective0NN
incentive0NN
effort0NN
investment0NN
market0.0169905820958638NN

In most states lack of political support for the legislation allowed landlords to subvert the intent of the laws

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.574471542853253
WordScorePoS
lack0NN
political0JJ
support0NN
legislation0.0658099748168827NN
law0.164686343640793NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.533399011707252
WordScorePoS
lack0NN
political0.111637082206855JJ
support0NN
legislation0.0558185411034276NN
law0.0465610847355851NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.378516807863638
WordScorePoS
lack0NN
political0.0792212041430275JJ
support0NN
legislation0.0396106020715138NN
law0.0330412182586772NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.301999321954326
WordScorePoS
lack0.0565629593551219NN
political0.0368585655748969JJ
support0.0277502419802315NN
legislation0NN
law0NN

West Bengal is an exception tenant registration campaign had strong political support and succeeded in protecting tenants Appu

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.492229232817132
WordScorePoS
registration0.107490825192354NN
strong0JJ
political0JJ
support0NN
protect0.0241291244414115VB

De Janvry and Sadoulet

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

De Ferranti and others

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

World Bank

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.918499615257701
WordScorePoS
world0.0124838525528648NN
bank0.0881366997038154NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.375629786620639
WordScorePoS
world0.00418824502414673NN
bank0.036961556179878NN

See Van de Walle and Cratty on Vietnam

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

See Jalan and Ravallion on China

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

See Jalan and Ravallion

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

The findings also indicate that the health gains largely bypass children in poor families with poorly educated mothers

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.824602095545195
WordScorePoS
health0.191387734041787NN
gain0NN
child0.10682408961305NN
poor0JJ
family0.0624189222007589NN
poorly0RB
educate0.0407408489778079VB
mother0.162963395911232NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.285967791022231
WordScorePoS
health0NN
gain0NN
child0.0450489732120807NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
family0NN
poorly0RB
educate0VB
mother0NN

See Malmberg Calvo on African countries Ilahi and Grimard and Ilahi and Jafarey on Pakistan World Bank on electricity and gas and Khandker Lavy and Filmer on Morocco

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Some percent of the rural population in Africa lives in areas of good agricultural potential but with poor market access while only percent live in areas of good agricultural potential and good market access

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.862389150999406
WordScorePoS
rural0.148975141598503JJ
population0.0310434135749871NN
africa0IN
life0NN
agricultural0.250032943963815JJ
potential0NN
poor0.0548141757796873JJ
market0.0913569596328122NN
access0.00749031153171887NN
live0.0143446978608332VB

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.230736396202391
WordScorePoS
rural0JJ
population0NN
africa0IN
life0.0184786920895884NN
agricultural0JJ
potential0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
market0NN
access0.00514687440545096NN
live0.0739258553811849VB

The remainder have both poor market access and poor agricultural potential Byerlee and Kelley

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.756968333651818
WordScorePoS
poor0.0548141757796873JJ
market0.0913569596328122NN
access0.00749031153171887NN
agricultural0.250032943963815JJ
potential0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.505955622302752
WordScorePoS
poor0.150659516460257JJ
market0NN
access0.00514687440545096NN
agricultural0JJ
potential0NN

Between and roads in km increased by

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.597002198009913
WordScorePoS
road0.0368585655748969NN
increase0.0159575617614215NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.542668335496989
WordScorePoS
road0.04477822029736NN
increase0.00323105002784081NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.444694108430344
WordScorePoS
road0.0249430985430622NN
increase0.0143984997539974NN

percent per year World Bank

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.918499615257702
WordScorePoS
world0.0124838525528648NN
bank0.0881366997038154NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.375629786620639
WordScorePoS
world0.00418824502414673NN
bank0.036961556179878NN

World Bank

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.918499615257701
WordScorePoS
world0.0124838525528648NN
bank0.0881366997038154NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.375629786620639
WordScorePoS
world0.00418824502414673NN
bank0.036961556179878NN

De Ferranti and others

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Economies from large production and delivery have diminished in some activities especially telecommunications and power generation

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.57197409547487
WordScorePoS
economy0NN
production0.118934074671047NN
diminish0VB
activity0.0199423462679015NN
power0NN
generation0.0819583881728876NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.420075059712463
WordScorePoS
economy0.0821985033584295NN
production0.0504071033101074NN
diminish0VB
activity0.0295821503613099NN
power0NN
generation0NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.41174162349275
WordScorePoS
economy0.0839946104936743NN
production0NN
diminish0.0548233071065585VB
activity0.0201523636533764NN
power0NN
generation0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.402176395730957
WordScorePoS
economy0NN
production0.0188543197850406NN
diminish0VB
activity0NN
power0.0454743001434393NN
generation0.0909486002868787NN

And regulatory innovation made unbundling possible

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.766034679443448
WordScorePoS
innovation0.122982418460916NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.511999235003796
WordScorePoS
innovation0.0821985033584295NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.311316872944428
WordScorePoS
innovation0.0499801157438617NN

Unbundling promoted competition by separating activities in which economies of scale are important for example electricity transmission and distribution from activities in which it is less so electricity generation

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.442762467652788
WordScorePoS
promote0.00825124851366066VB
activity0NN
economy0NN
scale0.0368585655748969NN
electricity0.030745604615229NN
generation0.0909486002868787NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.439147871100407
WordScorePoS
promote0.00838876601975825VB
activity0NN
economy0.0625160381065121NN
scale0NN
electricity0.0625160381065121NN
generation0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.378634886650829
WordScorePoS
promote0.0275746845422835VB
activity0.0295821503613099NN
economy0.0821985033584295NN
scale0NN
electricity0NN
generation0NN

See World Bank and World Bank

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.918499615257701
WordScorePoS
world0.0124838525528648NN
bank0.0881366997038154NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.375629786620639
WordScorePoS
world0.00418824502414673NN
bank0.036961556179878NN

World Bank and chapter

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.918499615257702
WordScorePoS
world0.0124838525528648NN
bank0.0881366997038154NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.375629786620639
WordScorePoS
world0.00418824502414673NN
bank0.036961556179878NN

According to the Latinobarómetro the proportion of respondents who said they thought privatization had benefited their country dropped steadily from percent in to percent in Lagos

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Estache Foster and Wodon

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.775999676336373
WordScorePoS
foster0.0454743001434393JJ

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.630733305229591
WordScorePoS
foster0.036961556179878JJ

Estache Foster and Wodon

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.775999676336373
WordScorePoS
foster0.0454743001434393JJ

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.630733305229591
WordScorePoS
foster0.036961556179878JJ

Lifeline tariffs mean that rates increase after surpassing certain consumption threshold the level deemed necessary to meet basic household needs

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.699180975078157
WordScorePoS
rate0NN
increase0.00958677785775002NN
surpass0VBP
consumption0.332151194779746NN
threshold0NN
level0.00513687014008325NN
meet0VB
basic0.0144336476662975JJ
household0.0554128417527413NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.308639488885843
WordScorePoS
rate0NN
increase0.00711043475673939NN
surpass0VBP
consumption0.147812295323721NN
threshold0NN
level0.00761994916892276NN
meet0VB
basic0.0214106369326177JJ
household0NN

Wodon Ajwad and Siaens and Estache Foster and Wodon

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Estache Foster and Wodon

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.775999676336373
WordScorePoS
foster0.0454743001434393JJ

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.630733305229591
WordScorePoS
foster0.036961556179878JJ

Kariuki and Schwartz

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Gulyani Talukdar and Kariuki

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Estache

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Irwin and Yamamoto

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

See Chisari Estache and Romero and Guasch

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Focus on taxation

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.615991852176899
WordScorePoS
focus0NN
taxation0.0542519672965169NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.46665227873846
WordScorePoS
focus0.0410992516792148NN
taxation0NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.424102578757447
WordScorePoS
focus0.0373517915079663NN
taxation0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.349094104361621
WordScorePoS
focus0.030745604615229NN
taxation0NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.317899351668287
WordScorePoS
focus0.0279982034978914NN
taxation0NN

Bird Martínez Vazquez and Torgler

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Bird Martínez Vazquez and Torgler

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Moore Davis Ossowski and Fedelino

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Moore

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Gupta and others

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

De Ferranti and others

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Bird and Slack

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Rudnik and Gordon

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Boskin

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Rajan and Zingales

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Prud Homme

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Bird

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Chapter

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Smith

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

See Tilly on opportunity hoarding by middle groups

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.663386212243862
WordScorePoS
opportunity0.0135141354781442NN
middle0.0602029956716497JJ

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.494566492322223
WordScorePoS
opportunity0.0549574626423028NN
middle0JJ

World Bank Perotti and Volpin

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.918499615257701
WordScorePoS
world0.0124838525528648NN
bank0.0881366997038154NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.375629786620639
WordScorePoS
world0.00418824502414673NN
bank0.036961556179878NN

See De Soto Glaeser Sheinkman and Shleifer and Haber Noel and Razo

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

See Morck Wolfenzon and Yeung and Claessens Djankov and Lang

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Morck Stangeland and Yeung Morck and Yeung

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

On developed countries see Rajan and Zingales

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Halac and Schmukler and Perotti and Feijen

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

See Velasco Valdés Prieto Haber and Kantor Claessens and Pohl and Perotti

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Also see box

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

on Russia

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Haggard Lim and Kim

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

See also Siegel for discussion of the importance of political connectedness in the Republic of Korea

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.787478371167659
WordScorePoS
political0.111637082206855JJ

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.558819556792941
WordScorePoS
political0.0792212041430275JJ

Feijen and Perotti Claessens and Perotti

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Bertrand Schoar and Thesmar

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Braverman and Guasch

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

See discussion in Armendáriz de Aghion and Morduch Pulley and Meyer and Nagarajan for the poor repayment performance and Burgess and Pande for positive impacts on the poor of social banking

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.730333939548606
WordScorePoS
poor0.150659516460257JJ
performance0NN
positive0JJ
impact0NN
social0.112994637345193JJ
banking0NN

Honohan

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

The discussion of the Czech and Polish stock markets builds on Glaeser Johnson and Shleifer

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.489390885523786
WordScorePoS
stock0NN
market0.0913569596328122NN
build0VB

Rajan and Zingales

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Guiso Sapienza and Zingales

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.557885995940362
WordScorePoS
world0.00464349782489754NN
development0.022306853314744NN
report0.0409791940864438NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.419953944381463
WordScorePoS
world0.00418824502414673NN
development0.0469463607292177NN
report0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.3286817118747
WordScorePoS
world0.00087176582269799NN
development0.00837573444202498NN
report0.0307735781890304NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.302482130891403
WordScorePoS
world0NN
development0.0368309542451156NN
report0NN

Roland and Verdier and Claessens and Perotti

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

See for example Diamond Blanchard Bertola Agell among others

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

For discussions of India labor market regulation and its adverse effects see Stern Hasan Mitra and Ramaswamy and Besley and Burgess

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.563802499665919
WordScorePoS
market0.0913569596328122NN
regulation0NN
adverse0JJ
effect0.0440683498519077NN

For example industrial sector legislation requires employers with more than workers to seek prior approval of the government before dismissing workers

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.767237138555125
WordScorePoS
industrial0.318320101004075JJ
sector0.0565629593551219NN
legislation0NN
require0.0260040237236563VB
employer0.0454743001434393NN
worker0.0454743001434393NN
seek0VB
government0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.532098008970698
WordScorePoS
industrial0JJ
sector0.0252035516550537NN
legislation0NN
require0.104282800328615VB
employer0NN
worker0.121575732851624NN
seek0VB
government0NN

This has earned the country out of on the World Bank Doing Business in difficulty in firing index World Bank

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.735570692372694
WordScorePoS
country0NN
world0.0124838525528648NN
bank0.0881366997038154NN
business0NN
difficulty0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.571319527031944
WordScorePoS
country0NN
world0.00257642711761688NN
bank0NN
business0.0909486002868787NN
difficulty0.0602029956716497NN

See Kingdon Sandefur and Teal

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Strict enforcement of labor market regulations in South Africa even for small firms can also contribute to unemployment by inhibiting the development of informal sector firms

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.566059753388394
WordScorePoS
market0.0377086395700813NN
regulation0NN
south0RB
africa0IN
firm0.0602029956716497NN
contribute0VB
unemployment0NN
development0.0330049940546426NN
sector0.0565629593551219NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.423996508613385
WordScorePoS
market0.030649619577211NN
regulation0.036961556179878NN
south0RB
africa0IN
firm0NN
contribute0.0249900578719309VB
unemployment0NN
development0.0469463607292177NN
sector0.0459744293658165NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.355190701991306
WordScorePoS
market0.0913569596328122NN
regulation0NN
south0RB
africa0IN
firm0NN
contribute0.0297950283197006VB
unemployment0NN
development0.0159922815774215NN
sector0.0182713919265625NN

In percent of nonagricultural employment in India was informal ILO

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.824351029662739
WordScorePoS
employment0.173804667214358NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.493345640840179
WordScorePoS
employment0.104016094894625NN

Kugler

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Maloney Maloney and Nuñez Mendez

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Chen Vanek and Carr

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

ILO

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Besley and Burgess

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

The unemployment figure relies on the broad definition of the labor force employed searching and nonsearching unemployed

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.526904949485475
WordScorePoS
unemployment0.0804764811724088NN
figure0NN
rely0VB
definition0NN
force0.0410992516792148NN
employ0VB

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.521229746863954
WordScorePoS
unemployment0NN
figure0NN
rely0VB
definition0.120266261535276NN
force0NN
employ0VB

Using the strict labor force measure employed searching unemployed the unemployment rate was percent in

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.582028054494149
WordScorePoS
force0NN
measure0.103895385378356NN
employ0VB
unemployment0NN
rate0.0639932865717261NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.541980138818065
WordScorePoS
force0.0410992516792148NN
measure0.0347609334428716NN
employ0VB
unemployment0.0804764811724088NN
rate0NN

Data is from the Labor Force Survey cited by Kingdon Sandefur and Teal

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

The ratio of non agricultural informal sector employment to unemployment is

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.575562303732645
WordScorePoS
ratio0NN
agricultural0.250032943963815JJ
sector0.0182713919265625NN
employment0.0252000451111224NN
unemployment0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.548069699216093
WordScorePoS
ratio0NN
agricultural0JJ
sector0.0252035516550537NN
employment0.173804667214358NN
unemployment0.0804764811724088NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.433716627257364
WordScorePoS
ratio0.0688661930304451NN
agricultural0.0558185411034276JJ
sector0.0571058915334038NN
employment0.0393804437159645NN
unemployment0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.387175315482537
WordScorePoS
ratio0NN
agricultural0.0368585655748969JJ
sector0.0565629593551219NN
employment0.104016094894625NN
unemployment0NN

in South Africa but

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

in SubSaharan Africa

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

in Latin America and ll

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

in Asia

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Kingdon Sandefur and Teal

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Estimates suggest high levels of unemployment to percent for urban males but there are measurement problems that bias the estimates upward

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.760340002417071
WordScorePoS
estimate0NN
suggest0VB
level0.00692515656684925NN
unemployment0NN
urban0.27622591898666JJ
measurement0NN

Rodrik

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Galli and Kucera

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

The unions then played critical role pushing the social and economic agenda toward more welfare oriented policies Fishman Boix and Boix

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.522266532584889
WordScorePoS
critical0JJ
social0.0504071033101074JJ
economic0.128463821595706JJ
agenda0NN
welfare0NN
orient0.0804764811724088NN
policy0.0452169560888236NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.496275739962234
WordScorePoS
critical0JJ
social0.101310366625194JJ
economic0.103276847978089JJ
agenda0NN
welfare0NN
orient0NN
policy0.0848203862485078NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.43561635172524
WordScorePoS
critical0JJ
social0.112994637345193JJ
economic0.0959899298575892JJ
agenda0NN
welfare0NN
orient0NN
policy0.0450489732120807NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.300152946834753
WordScorePoS
critical0.036961556179878JJ
social0JJ
economic0JJ
agenda0.0739231123597559NN
welfare0NN
orient0NN
policy0.0641521854453136NN

Some might argue that the Scandinavian systems are not easily replicable on the grounds that they rely on extraordinary levels of trust and social capital

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.626406579752227
WordScorePoS
system0.0519476926891779NN
rely0VB
level0.0113874611101829NN
social0.112994637345193JJ

In other words the political conditions necessary to obtain Scandinavian type social democracy and solidaristic bargaining might be difficult to achieve in developing countries despite their potential economic benefits

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.474634799240159
WordScorePoS
political0JJ
condition0.121575732851624NN
obtain0VB
type0NN
social0.0504071033101074JJ
achieve0.0152398983378455VB
develop0VB
country0NN
potential0NN
economic0.128463821595706JJ
benefit0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.521868484732384
WordScorePoS
political0.111637082206855JJ
condition0NN
obtain0VB
type0.0688661930304451NN
social0.0285529457667019JJ
achieve0.0258977780207001VB
develop0VB
country0NN
potential0NN
economic0.0727679293221751JJ
benefit0.0393804437159645NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.45433716314735
WordScorePoS
political0.0792212041430275JJ
condition0NN
obtain0VB
type0NN
social0.101310366625194JJ
achieve0.018377882320743VB
develop0VB
country0NN
potential0NN
economic0.103276847978089JJ
benefit0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.331329387954363
WordScorePoS
political0JJ
condition0NN
obtain0VB
type0NN
social0.112994637345193JJ
achieve0.0113874611101829VB
develop0VB
country0NN
potential0NN
economic0.0959899298575892JJ
benefit0NN

See Moene and Wallerstein

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

But this was not always the case high levels of trust emerged from widespread conflict in the mid s

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.703824867737017
WordScorePoS
level0.0113874611101829NN
emerge0VB
conflict0.147263166485024NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.562866267947734
WordScorePoS
level0.0610668815653026NN
emerge0VB
conflict0.0658099748168827NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.324091786940771
WordScorePoS
level0.0231525547935232NN
emerge0VB
conflict0.0499016491051341NN

Nickell

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Boeri Blunch and Verner Bover Bentolila and Arellano Chaykowsky and Slotsve Panagides and Patrinos

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Bertola Blau and Kahn

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Kingdon Sandefur and Teal

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Damiani

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

See Neumark Cunningham and Siga forthcoming for discussion of how Brazil minimum wage does not seem to have lifted family incomes at the lower points of the income distribution

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.767757543192705
WordScorePoS
wage0.064698038783335NN
lift0NN
family0NN
income0.166475342664294NN

In Colombia Arango and Pachón find that the minimum wage ends up being regressive improving the living conditions of families in the middle and the upper part of the income distribution with net losses for those at the bottom

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.655610565751934
WordScorePoS
wage0.064698038783335NN
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live0.0159075630937118VB
condition0NN
family0NN
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loss0NN
bottom0.064698038783335NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.36080972267533
WordScorePoS
wage0NN
improve0VB
live0.00740117451847634VB
condition0NN
family0NN
middle0.0602029956716497JJ
income0.110649350233433NN
loss0NN
bottom0NN

See the ILO Web site www

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

ilo

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

org for description of labor standards

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.742868974909555
WordScorePoS
standard0.0454743001434393NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.66943684251528
WordScorePoS
standard0.0409791940864438NN

As an example of the range of policy choices for the specific case of child labor see ILO and Burra

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.432483788544642
WordScorePoS
range0.0249430985430622NN
policy0NN
choice0NN
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child0.10682408961305NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.379264898705714
WordScorePoS
range0NN
policy0.0203215381458133NN
choice0.0409791940864438NN
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child0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.357937556962773
WordScorePoS
range0NN
policy0.0848203862485078NN
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child0.0242343960710022NN

See World Bank

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.918499615257701
WordScorePoS
world0.0124838525528648NN
bank0.0881366997038154NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.375629786620639
WordScorePoS
world0.00418824502414673NN
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Almost percent of Cambodia overseas buyers rated labor standards as one of their top priorities in sourcing decisions

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.569319033140781
WordScorePoS
rate0.0639932865717261NN
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priority0NN
source0.0269969049497485NN
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They also stated that standards have had positive effects on accident rates workplace productivity product quality turnover and absenteeism

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.702691228720842
WordScorePoS
standard0.0454743001434393NN
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product0.0442597400933733NN
quality0.022550656390892NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.316730138612303
WordScorePoS
standard0NN
positive0.055245183797332JJ
effect0NN
accident0NN
rate0NN
productivity0.0373517915079663NN
product0.0268848280079943NN
quality0.0136980135278128NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.310138615666021
WordScorePoS
standard0NN
positive0JJ
effect0NN
accident0NN
rate0NN
productivity0.0410992516792148NN
product0.0591643007226199NN
quality0.030144637392549NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.309421933816884
WordScorePoS
standard0NN
positive0JJ
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accident0NN
rate0.0155217067874935NN
productivity0.0595900566394012NN
product0NN
quality0.0109267235789154NN

López

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

There are two ways to measure outcomes ex ante simulation using CGE Computable General Equilibrium analysis and ex post econometric analysis relying on household survey data

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

In the absence of such analysis it is hard to predict the impact of trade reform on poverty or equity

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.715341008841216
WordScorePoS
predict0VB
impact0NN
trade0NN
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poverty0.269969049497485NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.348237445630158
WordScorePoS
predict0VB
impact0NN
trade0.0591643007226199NN
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poverty0.0722601961736204NN

A number of studies related to the themes of this section can be found in Hertel and Winters

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Schiff and Valdés

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

The CGE analysis generates price and wage changes that include the direct price effect of trade policy changes and second round indirect effects on factor returns and nontraded goods prices

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.791158271765117
WordScorePoS
generate0.0440683498519077VB
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wage0NN
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policy0NN
round0.11668334276823NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.378226201545125
WordScorePoS
generate0VB
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Certain dynamic gains from greater trade openness are not captured

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.469306368565792
WordScorePoS
gain0.0664302389559493NN
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.417975060111997
WordScorePoS
gain0NN
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.38121938409301
WordScorePoS
gain0NN
trade0.0539615408530051NN
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Label: 15, with a score of: 0.365482516872094
WordScorePoS
gain0NN
trade0NN
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For instance trade could bring new technologies and innovations that boost long term productivity Ravallion

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.63352811471095
WordScorePoS
trade0.0539615408530051NN
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productivity0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.516304351777904
WordScorePoS
trade0NN
bring0VB
technology0.0810848128688654NN
innovation0.122982418460916NN
term0NN
productivity0.0922368138456871NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.322116276993301
WordScorePoS
trade0NN
bring0VB
technology0.109914925284606NN
innovation0NN
term0.0749457204978913NN
productivity0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.317936777972704
WordScorePoS
trade0.0591643007226199NN
bring0VB
technology0NN
innovation0.0821985033584295NN
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productivity0.0410992516792148NN

Winters McCulloch and McKay Mundlak and Larson Lloyd and others McKay Morrissey and Vaillant

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Minot and Goletti

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

See Bates and chapter for Ghana and CUTS Consumer Unity and Trust Society for Malawi

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.865508827556228
WordScorePoS
cut0NN
consumer0.325511803779102NN
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.319777992095813
WordScorePoS
cut0.120266261535276NN
consumer0NN
society0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.315179653137929
WordScorePoS
cut0NN
consumer0NN
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McMillan Rodrik and Horn Welsh

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

See Hanson

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Other research attributes some of the benefits of trade reform in border states to higher levels of human and industrial capital and better communications and transportation infrastructure Chiquiar

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.867196704057992
WordScorePoS
research0.104016094894625NN
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level0NN
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communication0.0922368138456871NN
transportation0NN
infrastructure0.192202909044225NN

See Nicita on Mexico and Goetz International Fund for Agricultural Development Minot and Thomas and others on Indonesia

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.858882204058149
WordScorePoS
international0.00515473144367677JJ
fund0NN
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Arulpragasam and others World Bank

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.918499615257702
WordScorePoS
world0.0124838525528648NN
bank0.0881366997038154NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.375629786620639
WordScorePoS
world0.00418824502414673NN
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Annamalai and Rao India Today

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Palmade

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Carruthers Bajpai and Hummels

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Wood

Label: 7, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
wood0.122412709674631NN

See Wood Sánchez Páramo and Schady and De Ferranti and others

Label: 7, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
wood0.122412709674631NN

Topalova

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

World Bank Cord and Wodon

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.918499615257701
WordScorePoS
world0.0124838525528648NN
bank0.0881366997038154NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.375629786620639
WordScorePoS
world0.00418824502414673NN
bank0.036961556179878NN

McMillan Rodrik and Horn Welsh

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

For brief survey of the different generations of models of crises see Krugman

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.656798521615615
WordScorePoS
survey0NN
generation0.0909486002868787NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.591874399563656
WordScorePoS
survey0NN
generation0.0819583881728876NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.467226280451672
WordScorePoS
survey0.064698038783335NN
generation0NN

For selected references see Aghion Bacchetta and Banerjee Chang and Velasco Krugman Obstfeld and Velasco

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Acemoglu and others

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

On Bolivia see Morales and Sachs on Israel see Bruno

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Endnotes

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Blejer and Guerrero

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Ferreira and Litchfield

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

See also Diwan

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Rodrik

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Honohan and Klingebiel

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Halac and Schmukler

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

See De Ferranti and others Lanjouw and Ravallion

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Bruno

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Perry

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Robinson see focus on taxation for discussion of social fiscal contracts

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.586608257857526
WordScorePoS
focus0.0410992516792148NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.566230349840412
WordScorePoS
focus0NN
taxation0NN
social0.101310366625194JJ
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.385408153741424
WordScorePoS
focus0NN
taxation0NN
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Focus on regional inequality

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.980149042378488
WordScorePoS
focus0NN
regional0JJ
inequality0.635305170773079NN

Massey

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Shepherd and others Massey

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Psacharopoulos and Patrinos Hall and Patrinos Vakis

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

de Haan

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Galiani and Schargrodsky

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Manor

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Fox

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Ferreira

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Funck and Pizzati

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Shepherd and others Willanakuy

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Ross

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Chapter

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Pogge

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Chauvet and Collier estimated that the cost to country and its neighbors of country descending into the status of low income country under stress LICUS as defined by the World Bank is in present value terms approximately billion and that this cost was mostly borne by neighbors

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.677518124738157
WordScorePoS
estimate0NN
cost0.0660824365173543NN
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term0.0396106020715138NN
approximately0RB
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.427291194228903
WordScorePoS
estimate0NN
cost0NN
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These conclusions are consistent with the findings of the World Commission on the Social Dimensions of Globalization

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.802514368337872
WordScorePoS
conclusion0NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.412924722661533
WordScorePoS
conclusion0NN
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Goldin and others forthcoming

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

That is percent not percentage points

Label: 2, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
percentage0.0583416713841148NN

Stark and Bloom Cox Eser and Jimenez

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

The assumption that income after migration is higher than income forgone does not always hold

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.805142307289726
WordScorePoS
income0.166475342664294NN
migration0.12939607756667NN
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.317536004569336
WordScorePoS
income0NN
migration0NN
hold0.18234260265061NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.385375135273686
WordScorePoS
income0.110649350233433NN
migration0NN
hold0NN

Adams finds that income levels would have been higher without migration in three Egyptian villages and would have been the same in four rural districts in Pakistan Adams

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.76697848006231
WordScorePoS
income0.166475342664294NN
level0NN
migration0.12939607756667NN
rural0.0330412182586772JJ

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.510295687235176
WordScorePoS
income0.0643370113878709NN
level0.00552410547653725NN
migration0NN
rural0.148975141598503JJ

Barham and Boucher find essentially similar results for three neighborhoods in Nicaragua

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

On the potential impact on income inequality Mendola finds that remittances from members of households with large land holdings in rural Bangladesh are correlated with adoption of new agricultural technologies thus leading to higher productivity for already better off households and possible increase in inequality

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.862935119851182
WordScorePoS
potential0NN
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household0.0330412182586772NN
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rural0.0330412182586772JJ
adoption0NN
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lead0NN
productivity0NN
increase0.00285817158600878NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.338806257998645
WordScorePoS
potential0NN
impact0NN
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remittance0NN
household0.0297950283197006NN
land0.0465651203624806NN
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agricultural0.250032943963815JJ
technology0.0130963126055467NN
lead0NN
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McKenzie and Rapoport

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

A number of studies by the World Bank Research Program on International Migration and by others document the positive impact of remittances

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.656129991534013
WordScorePoS
study0NN
world0.00276879546803864NN
bank0NN
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international0.00571634317201755JJ
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positive0JJ
impact0NN
remittance0.12939607756667NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.419152015195738
WordScorePoS
study0NN
world0.00257642711761688NN
bank0NN
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remittance0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.321526906273975
WordScorePoS
study0NN
world0.0124838525528648NN
bank0.0881366997038154NN
research0.0252000451111224NN
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migration0NN
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impact0NN
remittance0NN

See Taylor Taylor and Wyatt and Yang for examples of easing of credit constraints

Label: 9, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
credit0.0602029956716497NN
constraint0.0602029956716497NN

Adams finds that Guatemalan households receiving remit tances spend significantly more on housing which has positive indirect effects on wages business and employment opportunities

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.560302434871221
WordScorePoS
household0NN
receive0VB
significantly0RB
housing0.219415728260093NN
positive0.055245183797332JJ
effect0NN
business0NN
employment0NN
opportunity0.0164178645080222NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.404106962212393
WordScorePoS
household0NN
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significantly0RB
housing0NN
positive0JJ
effect0NN
business0NN
employment0.173804667214358NN
opportunity0.0361300980868102NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.576372900168664
WordScorePoS
household0NN
receive0VB
significantly0RB
housing0NN
positive0.0454743001434393JJ
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business0.0909486002868787NN
employment0.104016094894625NN
opportunity0.0135141354781442NN

Yang finds that Filipino households receiving higher remittances because of positive exchange rate shocks had greater child schooling reduced child labor more hours worked in self employment and greater entry into relatively capital intensive enterprises

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.492068740306976
WordScorePoS
household0NN
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employment0.173804667214358NN
intensive0.0804764811724088JJ
enterprise0.0607878664258118NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.310258648018285
WordScorePoS
household0.0330412182586772NN
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remittance0.12939607756667NN
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rate0.0172128079963482NN
shock0NN
child0.0242343960710022NN
schooling0NN
reduce0.0310356414389692VB
employment0NN
intensive0JJ
enterprise0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.474063491638415
WordScorePoS
household0NN
receive0.0814816979556159VB
remittance0NN
positive0JJ
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shock0NN
child0.10682408961305NN
schooling0.0407408489778079NN
reduce0.01675146888405VB
employment0NN
intensive0JJ
enterprise0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.348193347860642
WordScorePoS
household0NN
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remittance0NN
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child0.0450489732120807NN
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reduce0.0164833460638534VB
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enterprise0NN

Ehrenreich and Hochschild

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

On the phenomenon of brain waste see Mattoo Neagu and Ozden on brain drain see Faini and Schiff

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.869530767164361
WordScorePoS
waste0.138532104381853NN

Mode IV is one of four interrelated modes of supply of services across borders considered in the GATS

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.56847520344699
WordScorePoS
supply0.0528748274225028NN
service0.0451471467893167NN
border0NN

As of May only countries mostly migrant sending had ratified the convention

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.769292339248589
WordScorePoS
country0NN
migrant0.121575732851624NN
convention0NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.524068020307625
WordScorePoS
country0NN
migrant0NN
convention0.0828215106044499NN

An interesting example of innovative partnerships to facilitate remittance flows is the New Alliance Task Force launched by the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation FDIC and Mexican Consulate of Chicago which aims to improve access to the U

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.800391521893861
WordScorePoS
partnership0.3914644359026NN
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remittance0NN
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force0NN
insurance0NN
aim0.0249900578719309NN
improve0.0183291958415182VB
access0.00314118376811005NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.383078419162957
WordScorePoS
partnership0NN
facilitate0.02794560829783VB
remittance0.12939607756667NN
flow0.0488696285210061NN
force0NN
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banking system provide financial education and develop products with remittance features

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.565005627523065
WordScorePoS
banking0NN
system0NN
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Smuggling and trafficking are multibillion dollar industry increasingly run by criminal networks

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The United Nations International Organization for Migration estimated that up to million women and children are trafficked globally every year

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One option to address these losses is to lock development assistance to poor countries hurt by specific measures into the WTO agreements on these measures see Ricupero

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The current tariff structure could change through both bilateral and multilateral negotiations

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For instance if the Central American Free Trade Agreement is approved by the U

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Congress most textiles from countries such as Honduras and El Salvador would benefit from tariff free entry into the United States now the case for some items under existing unilateral preferences

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See for example Birdsall

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Price fixing by international cartels brings significant losses to developed and developing country consumers alike

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Analysis of six high profile cartels uncovered in the vitamins citric acid bromine seamless steel tubes graphite electrodes lysine indicated that the estimated price increases ranged from percent for stainless steel tubes to percent for graphite electrodes and that cumulative overcharges to developing countries over the life of the six cartels ranged from billion to billion depending on the calculation method

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See Connor OECD and World Bank

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Ronchi and Ronchi

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Lewin Giovannucci and Varangis

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For more information see www

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Fung Rourke and Sabel

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Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights Annex of the Agreement Establishing the World Trade Organization

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Lanjouw and Jack

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Sell

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Fink and Reichenmuller

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These are the agreements between the United States and Morocco Bahrain and the Dominican RepublicCAFTA signed but not yet approved by the U

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Congress

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Claessens and Underhill

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WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT

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World Bank and UNCTAD

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See Claessens Underhill and Zhang and Bhattacharya and Griffith Jones

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We discuss representation on the World Bank and IMF Boards below

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O Sullivan and Christensen

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Moore

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McGillivray

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Updating the results for led to similar results Levin

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The findings of Burnside and Dollar and Collier and Dollar Collier and Dollar are not robust to changes in functional form the specification of the interaction terms and sample selection see Hansen and Tarp Easterly Levine and Roodman and Dalgaard Hansen and Tarp

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These studies also point to the importance of climate among other factors

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Levin and Dollar

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These figures include official development assistance ODA provided by countries that are members of the Development Assistance Committee DAC of the Organisation for Economic Co operation and Development OECD

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Non DAC countries also provide ODA the largest non DAC donors are Saudi Arabia providing

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billion in out of total of

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billion the Republic of Korea million the United Arab Emirates million and Kuwait million

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Eighteen countries qualify immediately and as many as another could qualify over time

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See the Finance Ministers Conclusions on Development London June Finance Ministers at http www

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hm treasury

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uk otherhmtsites news conclusions on development

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cfm

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The Finance Ministers agreement was confirmed at the July Gleneagles Summit

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See the Communique available at http web

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worldbank

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org WBSITE EXTERNAL DEVCOMMEXT menuPK ~pagePK ~piPK ~ theSitePK

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Focus on drug access

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See Lanjouw and MacLeod and World Health Organization

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See Kremer and Glennester and Barder

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See Masters

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See an interesting article by Maurer Sali and Rai on how an open source approach could work

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World Health Organization

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Based on data from IMS HEALTH Global Services at http www

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ims global

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This proposal is detailed in Lanjouw

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For legal details see Lanjouw

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Epilogue

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This is evident from the very title of Bauer

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World Bank

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World Bank

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World Bank

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World Bank

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See Stern Dethier and Rogers for detailed treatment of this synthesis

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World Bank

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References The word Processed describes informally reproduced works that may not be commonly available through libraries

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Acemoglu Daron Simon Johnson and James Robinson

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The Colonial Origins of Comparative Development An Empirical Investigation

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American Economic Review

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Reversal of Fortune Geography and Institutions in the Making of the Modern World Income Distribution

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Quarterly Journal of Economics

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The Rise of Europe Atlantic Trade Institutional Change and Economic Growth

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Cambridge MA National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper Series

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Institutions as Fundamental Cause of Long run Growth

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In Philippe Aghion and Steven Durlauf ed

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Handbook of Economic Growth

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Amsterdam North Holland

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Acemoglu Daron Simon Johnson James Robinson and Yunyong Thaicharoen

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Institutional Causes Macroeconomics Symptoms Volatility Crises and Growth

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Journal of Monetary Economics

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Acemoglu Daron and James Robinson

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Why Did the West Extend the Franchise

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Growth Inequality and Democracy in Historical Perspective

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Barrientos Armando

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Cash Transfers for Older People Reduce Poverty and Inequality

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Inequality and Growth in Panel of Countries

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International Data on Educational Attainment Updates and Implications

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Local Conflict and Community Development in Indonesia Assessing the Impact of the Kecamatan Development Program

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Basta S

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Scrimshaw

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Markets and States in Tropical Africa The Political Basis of Agricultural Policies

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Dissent on Development Studies and Debates in Development Economics

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Available on line at http www

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Unequal Societies Income Distribution and the Social Contract

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American Economic Review

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Human Rights and African Customary Law under the South African Constitution

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Cape Town Juta and Co

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November

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Santiago de Chile

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Blau and Lawrence M

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Kahn

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Behavioural and Material Determinants of Production Relations in Agriculture

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More Taxing than Taxes

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Jorge Martínez Vazquez and Benno Torgler

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Societal Institutions and Tax Effort in Developing Countries

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Pachuca México

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Asymmetric Globalization

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Seven Deadly Sins Reflections on Donor Failings

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Russian Privatization and Corporate Governance What Went Wrong

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Charles M

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Chapleau

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Bloch Francis and Vijayendra Rao

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Spain Development Democracy and Equity

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Declining Economic Inequality and Economic Divergence Reviewing the Evidence through Different Lenses

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Income Distribution Development and Foreign Trade Cross sectional Analysis '

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Inequality and Development The Role of Dualism

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Oligarchy Democracy Inequality and Growth

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Available on line at http www

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Land Tenure Security and Investment Incentives Puzzling Evidence from Burkina Faso

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Rural Credit Markets and Institutions in Developing Countries Lessons for Policy Analysis from Practice and Modern Theory

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Agrarian Class Structure and Economic Development in Preindustrial Europe

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Malnutrition Public Policy and Agrarian Change in Guatemala

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Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs

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Washington DC World Bank Water Supply and Sanitation Sector Board Discussion Paper

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Monkeys Reject Unequal Pay

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Crisis Stabilization and Economic Reform Therapy by Consensus

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New York Clarendon Press

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Bruno Michael Martin Ravallion and Lyn Squire

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Equity and Growth in Developing Countries Old and New Perspectives on the Policy Issues

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In Vito Tanzi and Ke young Chu ed

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Cambridge MA MIT Press

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Achieving Universal Primary Education by Chance for Every Child

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Kyklos

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Journal of Legal Pluralism

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Do Rural Banks Matter

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Determinants of Child School Enrollment Evidence from LDCs Using Choicetheoretic Approach

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International Journal of Social Economics

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Aid Policies and Growth

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Greenwich CT JAI Press Inc

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Washington DC World Bank Legal and Judicial Reform Unit

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World Bank Agriculture and Rural Development

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Dictionnaire de la Justice

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Campos Javier Antonio Estache Noelia Martin and Lourdes Trujillo

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Real Wealth and Experimental Cooperation Experiments in the Field Lab

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Human Capital Policy

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East Asia Integrates Trade Policy Agenda for Shared Growth

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América Indígena

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Castaneda Tarsicio

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Castello Amparo and Rafael Domenech

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Human Capital Inequality and Economic Growth Some New Evidence

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The Hague

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Dissolution of the Virginia Company

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Crosby Alfred

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Ecological Imperialism The Biological Expansion of Europe

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Cull Robert Jana Matesova and Mary Shirley

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Ownership and the Temptation to Loot Evidence from Privatized Firms in the Czech Republic

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Journal of Comparative Economics

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Cullen Julie Berry Brian A

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Jacob and Steven Levitt

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The Impact of School Choice on Student Outcomes An Analysis of the Chicago Public Schools

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Cambridge MA National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper Series

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The Effect of School Choice on Student Outcomes Evidence from Randomized Lotteries

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Currie Janet

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Early Childhood Intervention Programs What do we Know

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Currie Janet and Duncan Thomas

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Does Head Start Make Difference

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American Economic Review

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Does Head Start Help Hispanic Children

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International Journal of Social Economics

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School Quality and the Longer Term Effects of Head Start

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Journal of Human Resources

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Spine Chilling Experiences of Anti Competitive Practices in Malawi

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Dakolias Maria and Kim Thatchuk

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The Problem of Eradicating Corruption from the Judiciary

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In Marco Fabri and Philip M

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The Challenge of Change for Judicial Systems

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Amsterdam IOS Press

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Dalgaard Carl Johan

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Henrik Hansen and Finn Tarp

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On the Empirics of Foreign Aid and Growth

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Economic Journal

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Damiani Octavio

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Effects on Employment Wages and Labor Standards of Nontraditional Export Crops in Northeast Brazil

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Latin American Research Review

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WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT Das Gupta Monica Sunhwa Lee Patricia Uberoi Danning Wang Lihong Wang and Xiaodan Zhang

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State Policies and Women Agency in China The Republic of Korea and India Lessons from Contrasting Experiences

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Culture and Public Action

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Stanford Stanford University Press

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Das Gupta Monica Jian Zhenghua Li Bohua Xie Zhenming Woojin Chung and Bae Hwa Ok

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Why is Son Preference so Persistent in East and South Asia

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A Cross country Study of India China and the Republic of Korea

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Journal of Development Studies

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Restoring Property Rights in the Aftermath of War

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International and Comparative Law Quarterly

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Das Jishnu and Jeffery Hammer

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World Bank

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Das Jishnu and Jeffrey Hammer

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Strained Mercy Quality of Medical Care in Delhi

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Economic and Political Weekly

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Nayar and Associates

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Urban Informal Credit Markets in India

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New Delhi National Institute of Public Finance and Policy

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Datt Gaurav and Martin Ravallion

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Growth and Redistribution Components of Changes in Poverty Measures Decomposition with Applications to Brazil and India in the s

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Journal of Development Economics

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Davies James B

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Shorrocks

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Wealth Holdings in Developing and Transition Countries

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January

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Fiscal Policy Formulation and Implementation in Oil Producing Countries

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Day Candy and Calle Hedberg

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Health Indicators

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South African Health Review

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de Carvalho Filho Irineue Evangelista

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Household Income as Determinant of Child Labour and School Enrollment in Brazil Evidence from Social Security Reform

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De Ferranti David Guillermo Perry William Foster Daniel Lederman and Alberto Valdés

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Beyond the City The Rural Contribution to Development

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Available on line at http webapp

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Philadelphia

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Political Institutions and Banking Systems Lessons from the Economic Histories of Mexico and the United States

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Pathways from the Periphery The Politics of Growth in the Newly Industrializing Countries

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Economic Crisis and Corporate Restructuring in Korea Reforming the Chaebol

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Distribution Effects of Crises The Role of Financial Transfers

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Hall Gillette and Harry Anthony Patrinos eds

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Indigenous Peoples Poverty and Human Development in Latin America

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Jones

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Why Do Some Countries Produce so Much More Output per Worker than Others

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Quarterly Journal of Economics

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Hamid N

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Growth of Small scale Industry in Pakistan

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Efficiency and Distributional Implications of Global Restrictions on Labor Mobility

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Use and Users Study of the Justice System in Peru

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World Bank

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What Has Happened to Wages in Mexico since NAFTA

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Implications for Hemispheric Free Trade

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The Economics of Schooling Production and Efficiency in Public Schools

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Journal of Economic Literature

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In Gary Burtless ed

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Does Money Matter

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The Effects of School Resources on Student Achievement and Adult Success

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Washington DC Brookings Institution

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Differences inDifferences Evidence Across Countries

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Cambridge MA National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper Series

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Harber Clive

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Protecting Your School from Violence and Crime An Evaluation of One Year Programme

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KwaZulu Natal South Africa Independent Project Trust

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Glynn

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Educational Attainment and HIV Infection in Developing Countries Systematic Review

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Tropical Medicine and International Health

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Harsanyi John C

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Cardinal Welfare Individualistic Ethics and Interpersonal Comparisons of Utility

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Journal of Political Economy

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Brookes Publishing Co

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Hasan Rana Devashish Mitra and K

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Ramaswamy

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Trade Reforms Labor Regulations and Labor demand Elasticities Empirical Evidence from India

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Hashemi Syed

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Linking Microfinance and Safety Net Programs to Include the Poorest The Case of IGVGD in Bangladesh

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Washington DC World Bank Focus Notes

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Haslam Alexander S

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Psychology in Organizations The Socialidentity Approach

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Masterov

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Ellsberg and M

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Gottemoeller

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Ending Violence Against Women

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Geraint Jones and Daniel Kaufmann

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Seize the State Seize the Day State Capture and Influence in Transition Economies

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Economic Journal

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.597058956635145
WordScorePoS
economic0.128463821595706JJ

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economic0.103276847978089JJ

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economic0.0959899298575892JJ

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Li Hongyi and Heng fu Zou

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Income Inequality is not Harmful for Growth Theory and Evidence

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.961396806873592
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income0.166475342664294NN
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Review of Development Economics

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economics0NNS

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Li R

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Chen H

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Yan P

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Deurenberg L

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Garby and J

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Hautvast

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Functional Consequences of Iron Supplementation in Iron deficient female Cotton Workers in Beijing China

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beij0.0911713013253052NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.543174435876398
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American Journal of Clinical Nutrition

Label: 2, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
nutrition0.175025014152344NN

Liddle R

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

William

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

The Relative Autonomy of the Third World Politician Soeharto and Indonesian Economic Development in Comparative Perspective

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International Studies Quarterly

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.903300755222369
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international0.00228545753063677JJ
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Lillard Lee A

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

and Robert J

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Willis

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Intergenerational Educational Mobility Effects of Family and State in Malaysia

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family0.0348974218717993NN

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Journal of Human Resources

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Lindert Peter H

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Voice and Growth Was Churchill Right

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growth0.208565600657229NN

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Journal of Economic History

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economic0.128463821595706JJ
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.458391668922048
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Growing Public Social Spending and Economics Growth since the Eighteenth Century

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Cambridge UK Cambridge University Press

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university0.0815069365350084NN

Lindert Peter H

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

and Jeffrey G

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Williamson

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Revising England Social Tables

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social0.112994637345193JJ

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Explorations in Economic History

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Reinterpreting Britain Social Tables

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social0.112994637345193JJ

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Explorations in Economic History

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Lipset Seymour M

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Some Social Requisites of Democracy Economic Development and Political Legitimacy

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American Political Science Review

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review0.0688661930304451NN

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References Llorente María and Angela Rivas

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Reduction of Crime in Bogota Decade of Citizen Security Policies

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World Bank Department of Finance Private Secton and Infrastructure

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private0.0368585655748969JJ
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Washington DC

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Processed

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Lloyd Cynthia B

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eds

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Growing up Global The Changing Transitions to Adulthood in Developing Countries

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Washington DC The National Academies Press

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Lloyd Tim Wyn Morgan Tony Rayner and Charlotte Vaillant

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The Transmission of World Agricultural Prices in Côte Ivoire

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Journal of International Trade and Economic Development

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Lockhart James B

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Encomienda and Hacienda The Evolution of the Great Estate in the Spanish Indies

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Hispanic American Historical Review

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Lockhart James B

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and Stuart B

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Schwartz

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Early Latin America History of Colonial Spanish and America and Brazil

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Cambridge UK Cambridge University Press

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university0.0815069365350084NN

Lokshin Michael and Martin Ravallion

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Welfare Impacts of the Financial Crisis in Russia and the Response of the Public Safety Net

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Economics of Transition

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economics0.0683326727248364NNS

López Alan D

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Reducing Chile Mortality

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Bulletin of the World Health Organization

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López J

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Humberto

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Pro growth Pro poor Is there Tradeoff

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Washington DC World Bank Policy Research Working Paper Series

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Loury Glenn C

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The Anatomy of Racial Inequality

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Cambridge MA Harvard University Press

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Lucas Robert

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The Industrial Revolution Past and Future

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Minneapolis Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis

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Lund Frances

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Understanding South African Social Security through Recent Household Surveys New Opportunities and Continuing Gaps

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Development Southern Africa

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Lundberg Mattias and Lyn Squire

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The Simultaneous Evolution of Growth and Inequality

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inequality0.635305170773079NN

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Economic Journal

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economic0.128463821595706JJ

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economic0.103276847978089JJ

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Lundberg Shelley J

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Robert A

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Pollak and Terence J

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Wales

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Do Husbands and Wives Pool their Resources

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Journal of Human Resources

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Luttmer Erzo F

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Neighbors as Negatives Relative Earnings and Well Being

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Cambridge MA Faculty Research Working Paper Series

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MacIntyre Andrew

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Institutions and Investors The Politics of the Economic Crisis in Southeast Asia

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International Organization

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Rethinking the Politics of Agricultural Policy Making The Importance of Institutions

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Distributive Impact of Privatization in Latin America An Overview of Evidence from Four Countries

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Network Effects and the Dynamics of Migration and Inequality Theory and Evidence from Mexico

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Washington DC BREAD Working Paper Series

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Worlds Apart International and Global Inequality

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Wellons

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Husaini

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Three Month Nutritional Supplementation in Indonesian Infants and Toddlers Benefits Memory Function Years Later

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Mills

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Making Health Insurance Work for the Poor Learning from SEWA Communitybased Health Insurance Scheme

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Symbolic Public Goods and the Coordination of Collective Action Comparison of Local Development in India and Indonesia

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Rao Vijayendra and Michael Walton

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Ravallion Martin

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Reaching the Rural Poor through Public Employment Arguments Evidence and Lessons from South Asia

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World Bank Research Observer

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Targeted Transfers in Poor Countries Revisiting the Trade Offs and Policy Options

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Competing Concepts of Inequality in the Globalization Debate

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In Susan Margaret Collins and Carol Graham ed

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New Approach to Social Assistance Latin America Experience with Conditional Cash Transfer Programs

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Washington DC World Bank Social Protection Discussion Paper Series

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A Theory of Justice

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Moneda Crédito

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Ricupero Rubens

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Ringera A

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Muigai

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Orenstein and Erika Wilkens

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Politician Proof Policy

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Available on line at http www

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The Politics of Development Policy and Development Policy Reform in New Order Indonesia

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Rodrik Dani

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External Shocks Social Conflict and Growth Collapses

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Journal of Economic Growth

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economic0.128463821595706JJ
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.487497011532242
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Democracies Pay Higher Wages

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Quarterly Journal of Economics

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WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT Rodrik Dani Arvind Subramanian and Francesco Trebbi

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Institutions Rule The Primacy of Institutions over Geography and Integration in Economic Development

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Cambridge MA National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper Series

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Roemer John E

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Equality of Opportunity

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Cambridge MA Harvard University Press

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Roland Gérard and Thierry Verdier

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Law Enforcement and Transition

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London UK Centre for Economic Policy Research Discussion Paper Series

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Ronchi Loraine

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The Impact of Fair Trade on Producers and Their Organizations Case Study with Coocafe in Costa Rica

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Brighton University of Sussex Poverty Research Unit Working Paper

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Available on line at http www

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sussex

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ac

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uk Units PRU wps wp

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pdf

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London Twinsight

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TWIN

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Available on line at http www

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divinechocolate

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com ImpactAssessmentLeaflet

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Binswansger

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Wealth Weather Risk and the Composition and Profitability of Agricultural Investments

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Wolpin

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Credit Market Constraints Consumption Smoothing and the Accumulation of Durable Production Assets in Low income Countries Investments in Bullocks in India

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Journal of Political Economy

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Ross Michael

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Mineral Wealth and Equitable Development

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Background paper for the WDR

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Rothstein Jesse

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Does Competition Among Public Schools Benefit Students and Taxpayers

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A Comment on Hoxby

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Cambridge MA National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper Series

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Rudnik Rebecca S

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Gordon

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Taxation of Wealth

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Tax Law Design and Drafting

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Washington DC International Monetary Fund

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Russel Peter H

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O Brien eds

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Judicial Independence in the Age of Democracy Critical Perspectives from Around the World

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Rutter Michael Henri Giller and Ann Hagell

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Antisocial Behavior by Young People

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Cambridge UK Cambridge University Press

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Sala Martin Xavier

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Unhealthy People are Poor People

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And vice versa

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July

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Paris

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Samuels David and Richard Snyder

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Devaluing the Vote in Latin America

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Journal of Democracy

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Sánchez Páramo Carolina and Norbert Schady

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Off and Running

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Technology Trade and the Rising Demand for Skilled Workers in Latin America

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Washington DC World Bank Policy Research Working Paper Series

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Savedoff William D

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Schady Norbert

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Brain Gain Claims About its Size and Impact on Welfare and Growth are Greatly Exaggerated

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Bonn Germany IZA Discussion Paper

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Schultz Paul T

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Inequality in the Distribution of Personal Income in the World How is it Changing and Why

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Smith [ ] Adam

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Smith J

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Brooks Gunn and P

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Klebanov

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Consequences of Living in Poverty for Young Children Cognitive and Verbal Ability and Early School Achievement

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The Breakdown of Democracy in Argentina

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In Juan J

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Linz and Alfred Stepan ed

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The Breakdown of Democratic Regimes Latin America

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Baltimore MD Johns Hopkins University Press

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Socialist Republic of Vietnam and World Bank

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Vietnam Managing Public Expenditure for Poverty Reduction and Growth Public Expenditure Review and Integrated Fiduciary Assessment Vols

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Sokoloff Kenneth L

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Zorina Khan

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The Democratization of Invention During Early Industrialization Evidence from the United States

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Journal of Economic History

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Solar Peter

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Poor Relief and English Economic Development before the Industrial Revolution

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Economic History Review

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Poor Relief and English Economic Development Renewed Plea for Comparative History

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Economic History Review

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Intergenerational Mobility in the Labor Market

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Handbook of Labor Economics

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Amsterdam North Holland

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Cross country Differences in Intergenerational Earnings Mobility

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Journal of Economic Perspectives

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South Africa Competition Commission

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Available on line at http www

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compcom

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asp

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Affirmative Action Around the World An Empirical Study

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Bloom

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American Economic Review

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Steele Claude M

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Thin Ice Stereotype Threat and Black College Students

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Atlantic Monthly

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Steele Claude M

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Aronson

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Stereotype Threat and the Intellectual Test Performance of African Americans

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The Rise and Fall of the Indonesian Economy

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Cambridge MA Harvard University KSG Working Paper Series RWP

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A Strategy for Development

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Washington DC World Bank

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Stern Nicholas Jean Jacques Dethier and F

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Halsey Rogers

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Growth and Empowerment Making Development Happen

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Cambridge MA MIT Press

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Stewart Frances

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Horizontal Inequalities Neglected Dimension of Development

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Stoltzfus R

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Kvalsvig and H

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Chwaya

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Effects of Iron Supplementation and Anthelmintic Treatment on Motor and Language Development of Preschool Children in Zanzibar Double Blind Placebo Controlled Study

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Stone Jeff Christian I

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Lynch Mike Sjomeling and John M

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Darley

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Stereotype Threat Effects on Black and White Athletic Performance

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Perry and John M

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Darley

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White Men Can Jump Evidence for the Perceptual Confirmation of Racial Stereotypes Following Basketball Game

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Basic and Applied Social Psychology

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Subbarao Kalanidhi

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Systemic Shocks and Social Protection Role and Efectivenss of Public Works Programs

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Subbarao Kalanidhi and Diane Coury

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Reaching Out to Africa Orphans Framework for Public Action

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and Satish Mishra

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Growth and Inequality in Indonedia Today Implications for Future Development Policy

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Jakarta UNSFIR Discussion Paper Series

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Swaminathan Madhura

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Segmentation Collateral Undervaluation and the Rate of Interest in Agrarian Credit Markets WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT Some Evidence from Two Villages in South India

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Szreter Simon

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Public Health and Security in an Age of Globalizing Economic Growth The Awkward Lessons of History

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Intra household Resource Allocation An Influential Approach

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WordScorePoS
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WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT

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WordScorePoS
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Sharing Rising Incomes Disparities in China

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WordScorePoS
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WordScorePoS
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Washington DC World Bank

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WordScorePoS
world0.0124838525528648NN
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.375629786620639
WordScorePoS
world0.00418824502414673NN
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World Development Report The State in Changing World

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WordScorePoS
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New York Oxford University Press

Label: 4, with a score of: 1
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Can Africa Claim the st Century

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WordScorePoS
africa0IN
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Washington DC World Bank

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world0.0124838525528648NN
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.375629786620639
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East Asia Recovery and Beyond

Label: 16, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
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Washington DC World Bank

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.918499615257701
WordScorePoS
world0.0124838525528648NN
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.375629786620639
WordScorePoS
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Making Transition Work for Everyone Poverty and Inequality in Europe and Central Asia

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WordScorePoS
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Washington DC World Bank

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world0.0124838525528648NN
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.375629786620639
WordScorePoS
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Colombia Water Sector Reform Assistance Project

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.864450363320454
WordScorePoS
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WordScorePoS
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Washington DC Project Appraisal Document Report No

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.59256076629788
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Coverage The Scope of Protection in Retirement Incomes

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.612524174938664
WordScorePoS
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Washington DC World Bank Pension Reform Prime Note Social Protection Unit

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.650959678274948
WordScorePoS
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.470013431465231
WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.464617147165984
WordScorePoS
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Growing Health Review of Vietnam Health Sector

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.734508355560681
WordScorePoS
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.460889143520241
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Washington DC World Bank

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.918499615257701
WordScorePoS
world0.0124838525528648NN
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.375629786620639
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Mexico Land Policy Decade After the Ejido Reform

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.493405351982537
WordScorePoS
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WordScorePoS
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Washington DC World Bank

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WordScorePoS
world0.0124838525528648NN
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.375629786620639
WordScorePoS
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Social Protection Sector Strategy Paper From Safety Nets to Spring Board

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WordScorePoS
social0.112994637345193JJ
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.414721967893344
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.327579831581232
WordScorePoS
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Washington DC World Bank

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.918499615257701
WordScorePoS
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.375629786620639
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Thailand Social Monitor Poverty and Public Policy

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.687180353797531
WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.483334916450449
WordScorePoS
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Washington DC World Bank

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.918499615257701
WordScorePoS
world0.0124838525528648NN
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.375629786620639
WordScorePoS
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World Bank Policy Research Report Engendering Development Through Gender Equality In Rights Resources And Voice

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.670683847825953
WordScorePoS
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New York Oxford University Press

Label: 4, with a score of: 1
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university0.0815069365350084NN

World Development Report Attacking Poverty

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.841555416399357
WordScorePoS
world0.00257343720272548NN
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New York Oxford University Press

Label: 4, with a score of: 1
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Bulgaria Poverty Assessment Report BUL

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.912586227415395
WordScorePoS
poverty0.269969049497485NN
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Washington DC

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

World Bank

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.918499615257701
WordScorePoS
world0.0124838525528648NN
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.375629786620639
WordScorePoS
world0.00418824502414673NN
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World Development Report Building Institutions for Markets

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.756277575469075
WordScorePoS
world0NN
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.461049484969328
WordScorePoS
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New York Oxford University Press

Label: 4, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
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A Resource for Municipalities Community Based Crime and Violence Prevention in Urban Latin America

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.650324992137007
WordScorePoS
resource0NN
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Label: 11, with a score of: 0.550135944857633
WordScorePoS
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Washington DC World Bank Department of Finance Private Sector and Infrastructure Latin American Region

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.564862081097342
WordScorePoS
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WordScorePoS
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WordScorePoS
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WordScorePoS
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WordScorePoS
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Global Economic Prospects

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.442136927010992
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Washington DC World Bank

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.918499615257701
WordScorePoS
world0.0124838525528648NN
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.375629786620639
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From Goats to Coats Institutional Reform in Mongolia Cashmere Sector

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WordScorePoS
institutional0JJ
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Washington DC World Bank

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WordScorePoS
world0.0124838525528648NN
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.375629786620639
WordScorePoS
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Kyrgyz Republic Enhancing Pro poor Growth Report KG

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Washington DC World Bank

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world0.0124838525528648NN
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.375629786620639
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Romania Poverty Assessment Report RO

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WordScorePoS
poverty0.269969049497485NN
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Washington DC World Bank

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.918499615257701
WordScorePoS
world0.0124838525528648NN
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.375629786620639
WordScorePoS
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The Contribution of Social Protection to the Millennium Development Goals

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WordScorePoS
contribution0NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.471435624884412
WordScorePoS
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.455274100027904
WordScorePoS
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Washington DC World Bank Social Protection Unit

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.71540010790815
WordScorePoS
world0.00257343720272548NN
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.510610976857049
WordScorePoS
world0.00276879546803864NN
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.301936270575696
WordScorePoS
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The Impact of Legal Aid Ecuador

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.560092703061739
WordScorePoS
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.499560688071072
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.394048135390656
WordScorePoS
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Label: 14, with a score of: 0.376036084073701
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Washington DC World Bank Legal Vice Presidency

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.701501084250623
WordScorePoS
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Label: 16, with a score of: 0.566058047153566
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world0NN
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World Bank Policy Research Report

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.489075624054563
WordScorePoS
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.458162602962228
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.340466780516261
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Breaking the Conflict Trap Civil War and Development Policy

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.582805254270026
WordScorePoS
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WordScorePoS
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New York Oxford University Press

Label: 4, with a score of: 1
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World Bank Policy Research Report

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world0.0124838525528648NN
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WordScorePoS
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Land Policies for Growth and Poverty Reduction

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.464767131433945
WordScorePoS
land0NN
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New York Oxford University Press

Label: 4, with a score of: 1
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university0.0815069365350084NN

World Development Report Making Services Work for Poor People

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.679252514800439
WordScorePoS
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Sierra Leone Legal and Judicial Sector Assessment

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Washington DC World Bank Legal Vice Presidency

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Past Present and Future

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Pro Poor Growth Country Experiences in the s

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World Development Indicators

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Available on line at www

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Wrigley E

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Continuity Chance and Change The Character of the Industrial Revolution in England

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Cambridge UK Cambridge University Press

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Yang Dean

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International Migration Human Capital and Entrepreneurship Evidence from Philippine Migrants Exchange Rate Shocks

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University of Michigan Ford School of Public Policy Working Paper Series

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Available on line at http papers

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ssrn

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cfm

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Young Mary Eming

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Early Child Development Stepping Stone to Success in School and Lifelong Learning

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World Bank

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Uganda

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Nelson and L

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Hossack ed

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Indigenous People and Protected Areas in Africa From Principles to Practice

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Moreton in Marsh UK Forest People Programme

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Zeldes Stephen

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Consumption and Liquidity Constraints An Empirical Investigation

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Journal of Political Economy

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Selected Indicators Measuring equity Introduction Table

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Poverty Table

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Income consumption inequality measures Table

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Health Table

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Education Technical notes Selected world development indicators Introduction Classification of economies by region and income Table

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Key indicators of development Table

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Millennium Development Goals eradicating poverty and improving lives Table

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Economic activity Table

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Trade aid and finance Table

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Key indicators for other economies Technical notes Measuring equity This report has concerned itself with equity concept which we have defined to mean equality of opportunities and the avoidance of absolute deprivation

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As we made clear in the report the focus is mostly on inequality of opportunity and much less on overall inequality in one dimensional space such as income or education

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We might be quite sanguine about certain types of inequality across people if for example their outcomes varied for reasons that had to do mainly with their own efforts

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But we are concerned with systematic differences in opportunities between individuals and groups of people due to different circumstances not under their control i

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opportunity0.0153390539205676NN
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when these groups are distinguishable from one another only in characteristics that in some sense can be argued to be morally irrelevant to their opportunities and outcomes in life

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To give the audience sense of inequality of opportunities we chose to present data on income consumption infant mortality and years of education in slightly different format than what we are normally used to seeing for as many countries in the world as possible

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Table presents poverty rates using national poverty lines as well as those using the international and per day poverty lines information for the national poverty line is also presented for urban and rural breakdowns of the population

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Table presents alternative inequality measures to the commonly used Gini Index followed by evidence on inequality of land

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In Table we present infant mortality rates for more than countries by the sex of the infant the education level of the mother the location urban or rural of the family and the ranking of the household by an asset index

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Finally in Table we present educational attainment by location and gender but also present measures of inequality in years of schooling along with the share of this inequality that is attributable to gender and location

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WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT Table

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Poverty National poverty line Survey year Albania Algeria Angola Argentina Armenia Australia Austria Azerbaijan Bangladesh Belarus Belgium Benin Bolivia Bosnia Herzegovina Brazil Bulgaria Burkina Faso Burundi Cambodia Cameroon Canada Central African Rep

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Chad Chile China Hong Kong China Colombia Congo Dem

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Rep

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Congo Rep

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Costa Rica Côte Ivoire Croatia Czech Rep

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Denmark Dominican Rep

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Ecuador Egypt Arab Rep

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

El Salvador Eritrea Ethiopia Finland France Georgia Germany Ghana Greece Guatemala Guinea Haiti Honduras Hungary India Indonesia Iran Islamic Rep

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Ireland Israel Italy Jamaica Japan Jordan Kazakhstan Kenya Korea Rep

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Kuwait Kyrgyz Rep

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Lao PDR

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Population below the poverty line Rural Urban National

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<

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Survey year

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International poverty line Population below the poverty line Rural Urban National

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international0.00515473144367677JJ
poverty0.0261926252110933NN
line0NN
population0.0310434135749871NN
rural0.148975141598503JJ
urban0JJ
national0.00399807039435538JJ

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.339176207456903
WordScorePoS
international0.00571634317201755JJ
poverty0.05809266143877NN
line0NN
population0.0860640399817412NN
rural0.0330412182586772JJ
urban0.0488696285210061JJ
national0.00886732612541978JJ

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.316317754662757
WordScorePoS
international0.00355521737836969JJ
poverty0.0722601961736204NN
line0.0410992516792148NN
population0.0428212738652355NN
rural0JJ
urban0JJ
national0.0055149369084567JJ

<

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Survey year

Label: 10, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
survey0.064698038783335NN

Population below day Poverty gap at day Population below day Poverty gap at day < <

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.937728698688387
WordScorePoS
population0NN
day0.25973846344589NN
poverty0.269969049497485NN
gap0NN

<

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

<

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

<

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

<

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

< <

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

<

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

<

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

<

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

<

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

< <

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

<

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

<

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

<

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

<

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

<

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

<

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

<

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

<

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

<

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

<

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

<

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

<

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

<

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

<

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

<

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

<

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

<

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

<

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

<

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

<

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

< <

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

<

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

<

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

<

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

<

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

<

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

<

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

<

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

<

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

<

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Measuring equity Table

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.733023904422054
WordScorePoS
measure0.103895385378356NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.501222796596095
WordScorePoS
measure0.0710409787438328NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.355592991771415
WordScorePoS
measure0.0504000902222448NN

Poverty continued National poverty line Survey year Latvia Lebanon Lithuania Macedonia FYR Madagascar Malawi Malaysia Mali Mauritania Mexico Moldova Mongolia Morocco Mozambique Namibia Nepal Netherlands New Zealand Nicaragua Niger Nigeria Norway Oman Pakistan Panama Papua New Guinea Paraguay Peru Philippines Poland Portugal Romania Russian Federation Rwanda Saudi Arabia Senegal Serbia Montenegro Sierra Leone Singapore Slovak Rep

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.837940854853601
WordScorePoS
poverty0.269969049497485NN
continue0VB
national0.0164833460638534JJ
line0NN
survey0NN

Slovenia South Africa Spain Sri Lanka Sudan Sweden Switzerland Syrian Arab Rep

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Tajikistan Tanzania Thailand Togo Tunisia Turkey Turkmenistan Uganda Ukraine United Kingdom United States Uruguay Uzbekistan Venezuela RB de Vietnam West Bank Gaza Yemen Rep

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Zambia Zimbabwe

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Population below the poverty line Rural Urban National

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.638397491857685
WordScorePoS
population0.0194583992186006NN
poverty0.0164178645080222NN
line0.0373517915079663NN
rural0.0373517915079663JJ
urban0.27622591898666JJ
national0.00501208088147356JJ

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.466723229798882
WordScorePoS
population0NN
poverty0.269969049497485NN
line0NN
rural0JJ
urban0JJ
national0.0164833460638534JJ

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.342498586073585
WordScorePoS
population0.0310434135749871NN
poverty0.0261926252110933NN
line0NN
rural0.148975141598503JJ
urban0JJ
national0.00399807039435538JJ

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.382784591913688
WordScorePoS
population0.0860640399817412NN
poverty0.05809266143877NN
line0NN
rural0.0330412182586772JJ
urban0.0488696285210061JJ
national0.00886732612541978JJ

Survey year

Label: 10, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
survey0.064698038783335NN

expenditure base income base preliminary data

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.627724089840727
WordScorePoS
expenditure0.064698038783335NN
base0NN
income0.166475342664294NN
datum0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.423935384436275
WordScorePoS
expenditure0NN
base0NN
income0.110649350233433NN
datum0.0454743001434393NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.360127924010024
WordScorePoS
expenditure0NN
base0.0442083771593746NN
income0.0442083771593746NN
datum0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.347255713611489
WordScorePoS
expenditure0NN
base0.017987180284335NN
income0.017987180284335NN
datum0.0739231123597559NN

denotes no data

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.851744941703599
WordScorePoS
datum0.0739231123597559NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.523956633971108
WordScorePoS
datum0.0454743001434393NN

International poverty line Population below the poverty line Rural Urban National

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.637760225361608
WordScorePoS
international0.00531301439641424JJ
poverty0.269969049497485NN
line0NN
population0NN
rural0JJ
urban0JJ
national0.0164833460638534JJ

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.505893810340741
WordScorePoS
international0JJ
poverty0.0164178645080222NN
line0.0373517915079663NN
population0.0194583992186006NN
rural0.0373517915079663JJ
urban0.27622591898666JJ
national0.00501208088147356JJ

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.274249147086167
WordScorePoS
international0.00515473144367677JJ
poverty0.0261926252110933NN
line0NN
population0.0310434135749871NN
rural0.148975141598503JJ
urban0JJ
national0.00399807039435538JJ

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.339176207456903
WordScorePoS
international0.00571634317201755JJ
poverty0.05809266143877NN
line0NN
population0.0860640399817412NN
rural0.0330412182586772JJ
urban0.0488696285210061JJ
national0.00886732612541978JJ

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.316317754662757
WordScorePoS
international0.00355521737836969JJ
poverty0.0722601961736204NN
line0.0410992516792148NN
population0.0428212738652355NN
rural0JJ
urban0JJ
national0.0055149369084567JJ

Survey year Population below day Poverty gap at day Population below day Poverty gap at day

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.930940876478699
WordScorePoS
survey0NN
population0NN
day0.25973846344589NN
poverty0.269969049497485NN
gap0NN

<

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

< <

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

<

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

<

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

< < < <

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

< <

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

<

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

<

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

<

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

<

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

<

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

<

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

<

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

<

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

<

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

<

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

<

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

<

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

<

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

<

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

<

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

<

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

<

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

<

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

< <

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

<

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

<

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

<

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

<

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

<

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT Table

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.557885995940362
WordScorePoS
world0.00464349782489754NN
development0.022306853314744NN
report0.0409791940864438NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.419953944381463
WordScorePoS
world0.00418824502414673NN
development0.0469463607292177NN
report0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.3286817118747
WordScorePoS
world0.00087176582269799NN
development0.00837573444202498NN
report0.0307735781890304NN

Income consumption inequality measures Income consumption inequality Albania Algeria Argentina urban Armenia Australia Austria Azerbaijan Bangladesh Belarus Belgium Benin Bolivia Bosnia Herzegovina Botswana Brazil Bulgaria Burkina Faso Burundi Cambodia Cameroon Canada Central African Rep

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.862799013523086
WordScorePoS
income0.166475342664294NN
consumption0NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
measure0NN
urban0.0488696285210061JJ
central0JJ
african0IN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.346858395855461
WordScorePoS
income0NN
consumption0.332151194779746NN
inequality0NN
measure0NN
urban0JJ
central0JJ
african0IN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.237750290051739
WordScorePoS
income0NN
consumption0.08955644059472NN
inequality0NN
measure0NN
urban0.27622591898666JJ
central0JJ
african0IN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.172507271840197
WordScorePoS
income0NN
consumption0.147812295323721NN
inequality0NN
measure0.0347609334428716NN
urban0JJ
central0JJ
african0IN

Chile China Colombia Costa Rica Côte Ivoire Croatia Czech Rep

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Denmark Dominican Rep

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

East Timor Ecuador Egypt Arab Rep

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

El Salvador Estonia Ethiopia Finland France Gambia The Georgia Germany Ghana Greece Guatemala Guinea Guinea Bissau Guyana Haiti Honduras Hungary India Indonesia Iran Ireland Israel Italy Jamaica Japan Jordan Kazakhstan Kenya Korea Rep

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Kyrgyzstan Lao PDR Land inequality Survey year c Gini index GE th th percentile ratio Survey year Gini index

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.968454741458838
WordScorePoS
land0NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
survey0.064698038783335NN
ratio0NN

Measuring equity Table

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.733023904422054
WordScorePoS
measure0.103895385378356NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.501222796596095
WordScorePoS
measure0.0710409787438328NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.355592991771415
WordScorePoS
measure0.0504000902222448NN

Income consumption inequality measures continued Income consumption inequality Latvia Lesotho Lithuania Luxembourg Macedonia FDR Madagascar Malawi Malaysia Mali Mauritania Mexico Moldova Mongolia Morocco Mozambique Namibia Nepal Netherlands New Zealand Nicaragua Niger Nigeria Norway Pakistan Panama Paraguay Peru Philippines Poland Portugal Romania Russian Federation Senegal Serbia Montenegro Singapore Slovak Rep

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.876707389336407
WordScorePoS
income0.166475342664294NN
consumption0NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
measure0NN
continue0.0237821918091848VB

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.368626857031151
WordScorePoS
income0NN
consumption0.332151194779746NN
inequality0NN
measure0NN
continue0.0199423462679015VB

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.193927326756062
WordScorePoS
income0NN
consumption0.147812295323721NN
inequality0NN
measure0.0347609334428716NN
continue0.0295821503613099VB

Slovenia South Africa Spain Sri Lanka St

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Lucia Sweden Switzerland Taiwan China Tajikistan Tanzania Thailand Trinidad Tobago Tunisia Turkey Turkmenistan Uganda Ukraine United Kingdom United States Uruguay urban Uzbekistan Venezuela RB de Vietnam Yemen Rep

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.826893129176055
WordScorePoS
unite0VB
urban0.27622591898666JJ

Zambia Zimbabwe Land inequality Survey year Gini index GE th th percentile ratio Survey year Gini index

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.968454741458839
WordScorePoS
land0NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
survey0.064698038783335NN
ratio0NN

Note in this column indicates that the inequality measures refer to distribution of consumption expenditures indicates that the inequality measures refer to distribution of incomes

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.940034874203647
WordScorePoS
inequality0.635305170773079NN
measure0NN
consumption0NN
expenditure0.064698038783335NN
income0.166475342664294NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.207908570202729
WordScorePoS
inequality0NN
measure0NN
consumption0.332151194779746NN
expenditure0NN
income0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.136039356869214
WordScorePoS
inequality0NN
measure0.0347609334428716NN
consumption0.147812295323721NN
expenditure0NN
income0NN

denotes no data

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.851744941703599
WordScorePoS
datum0.0739231123597559NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.523956633971108
WordScorePoS
datum0.0454743001434393NN

WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT Table

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.557885995940362
WordScorePoS
world0.00464349782489754NN
development0.022306853314744NN
report0.0409791940864438NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.419953944381463
WordScorePoS
world0.00418824502414673NN
development0.0469463607292177NN
report0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.3286817118747
WordScorePoS
world0.00087176582269799NN
development0.00837573444202498NN
report0.0307735781890304NN

Health Infant mortality rate deaths under age months per live births By gender Armenia Bangladesh Bangladesh Bangladesh Benin Benin Bolivia Bolivia Bolivia Brazil Brazil Botswana Burkina Faso Burundi Cambodia Cameroon Cameroon Central African Rep

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.850242813044799
WordScorePoS
health0.191387734041787NN
infant0NN
mortality0.276962203701274NN
rate0.0433561464459019NN
death0.193573191943949NN
age0.0893142758861673NN
live0.0300513417930436VB
birth0.0748292956291867NN
gender0.0175975629039954NN
central0JJ
african0IN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.235498007136898
WordScorePoS
health0.0571058915334038NN
infant0NN
mortality0NN
rate0NN
death0NN
age0NN
live0VB
birth0NN
gender0.196902218579822NN
central0JJ
african0IN

Chad Colombia Colombia Colombia Colombia Comoros Côte Ivoire Côte Ivoire Dominican Rep

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Dominican Rep

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Dominican Rep

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Dominican Rep

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Ecuador Egypt Arab Rep

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Egypt Arab Rep

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Egypt Arab Rep

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Egypt Arab Rep

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

El Salvador Eritrea Ethiopia Gabon Ghana Ghana Ghana Guatemala Guatemala Guatemala Guinea Haiti Haiti India India Indonesia Indonesia Indonesia Indonesia Jordan Jordan Kazakhstan Kazakhstan Kenya Kenya Kenya Kyrgyz Rep

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Liberia Madagascar Madagascar By asset quintiles By location By mother education level Survey year Overall Male Female Lowest Second Middle Fourth Highest Urban Rural No education Primary Secondary or higher

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.704236891869714
WordScorePoS
asset0NN
quintile0NN
location0NN
mother0NN
education0.244244978014045NN
level0.0231525547935232NN
survey0NN
female0NN
middle0JJ
urban0JJ
rural0JJ
primary0.108423939529757JJ
secondary0.0615662203253227JJ

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.331131344849758
WordScorePoS
asset0NN
quintile0NN
location0NN
mother0NN
education0NN
level0.00692515656684925NN
survey0NN
female0NN
middle0JJ
urban0.27622591898666JJ
rural0.0373517915079663JJ
primary0JJ
secondary0JJ

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.211099355829664
WordScorePoS
asset0NN
quintile0NN
location0NN
mother0.162963395911232NN
education0.0152605842304358NN
level0NN
survey0NN
female0NN
middle0JJ
urban0JJ
rural0JJ
primary0.0108390366114755JJ
secondary0JJ

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.175659168422792
WordScorePoS
asset0NN
quintile0NN
location0NN
mother0NN
education0NN
level0.00552410547653725NN
survey0NN
female0NN
middle0JJ
urban0JJ
rural0.148975141598503JJ
primary0.0155217067874935JJ
secondary0JJ

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.389273284846786
WordScorePoS
asset0NN
quintile0NN
location0NN
mother0NN
education0.0512260062633133NN
level0.0172651853471334NN
survey0NN
female0.0911713013253052NN
middle0JJ
urban0JJ
rural0JJ
primary0.0970239057629001JJ
secondary0.0688661930304451JJ

Measuring equity Table

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.733023904422054
WordScorePoS
measure0.103895385378356NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.501222796596095
WordScorePoS
measure0.0710409787438328NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.355592991771415
WordScorePoS
measure0.0504000902222448NN

Health continued Infant mortality rate deaths under age months per live births By gender Malawi Malawi Mali Mali Mali Mauritania Mexico Morocco Morocco Mozambique Namibia Nepal Nepal Nicaragua Niger Niger Nigeria Nigeria Pakistan Paraguay Peru Peru Peru Peru Philippines Philippines Rwanda Rwanda Senegal Senegal Senegal South Africa Sri Lanka Sudan Tanzania Tanzania Tanzania Thailand Togo Togo Trinidad Tobago Tunisia Turkey Turkey Turkmenistan Uganda Uganda Uganda Uzbekistan Vietnam Yemen Rep

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.844584526845704
WordScorePoS
health0.191387734041787NN
continue0VB
infant0NN
mortality0.276962203701274NN
rate0.0433561464459019NN
death0.193573191943949NN
age0.0893142758861673NN
live0.0300513417930436VB
birth0.0748292956291867NN
gender0.0175975629039954NN
south0RB
africa0IN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.264795252569414
WordScorePoS
health0.0571058915334038NN
continue0.0335134328085675VB
infant0NN
mortality0NN
rate0NN
death0NN
age0NN
live0VB
birth0NN
gender0.196902218579822NN
south0RB
africa0IN

Yemen Rep

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Zambia Zambia Zambia Zimbabwe Zimbabwe Zimbabwe By asset quintiles By location By mother education level Survey year Overall Male Female Lowest Second Middle Fourth Highest Urban Rural No education Primary Secondary or higher

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.704236891869714
WordScorePoS
asset0NN
quintile0NN
location0NN
mother0NN
education0.244244978014045NN
level0.0231525547935232NN
survey0NN
female0NN
middle0JJ
urban0JJ
rural0JJ
primary0.108423939529757JJ
secondary0.0615662203253227JJ

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.331131344849758
WordScorePoS
asset0NN
quintile0NN
location0NN
mother0NN
education0NN
level0.00692515656684925NN
survey0NN
female0NN
middle0JJ
urban0.27622591898666JJ
rural0.0373517915079663JJ
primary0JJ
secondary0JJ

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.211099355829664
WordScorePoS
asset0NN
quintile0NN
location0NN
mother0.162963395911232NN
education0.0152605842304358NN
level0NN
survey0NN
female0NN
middle0JJ
urban0JJ
rural0JJ
primary0.0108390366114755JJ
secondary0JJ

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.175659168422792
WordScorePoS
asset0NN
quintile0NN
location0NN
mother0NN
education0NN
level0.00552410547653725NN
survey0NN
female0NN
middle0JJ
urban0JJ
rural0.148975141598503JJ
primary0.0155217067874935JJ
secondary0JJ

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.389273284846786
WordScorePoS
asset0NN
quintile0NN
location0NN
mother0NN
education0.0512260062633133NN
level0.0172651853471334NN
survey0NN
female0.0911713013253052NN
middle0JJ
urban0JJ
rural0JJ
primary0.0970239057629001JJ
secondary0.0688661930304451JJ

Note Only countries for which some data are available are included in this table

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.851744941703599
WordScorePoS
country0NN
datum0.0739231123597559NN
include0VB

denotes no data

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.851744941703599
WordScorePoS
datum0.0739231123597559NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.523956633971108
WordScorePoS
datum0.0454743001434393NN

WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT Table

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.557885995940362
WordScorePoS
world0.00464349782489754NN
development0.022306853314744NN
report0.0409791940864438NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.419953944381463
WordScorePoS
world0.00418824502414673NN
development0.0469463607292177NN
report0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.3286817118747
WordScorePoS
world0.00087176582269799NN
development0.00837573444202498NN
report0.0307735781890304NN

Education Share of total population by years of schooling By location Afghanistan Albania Angola Argentina Armenia Australia Austria Azerbaijan Bangladesh Belarus Belgium Benin Bolivia Bosnia Herzegovina Brazil Bulgaria Burkina Faso Burundi Cambodia Cameroon Canada Central African Rep

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.579612132971222
WordScorePoS
education0.244244978014045NN
share0NN
total0NN
population0NN
schooling0NN
location0NN
central0JJ
african0IN

Chad Chile China Colombia Comoros Congo Dem

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Rep

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Costa Rica Côte Ivoire Czech Rep

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Denmark Dominican Rep

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

East Timor Ecuador Egypt Arab Rep

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

El Salvador Estonia Ethiopia Finland France Gabon Gambia The Germany Ghana Guatemala Guinea Guinea Bissau Guyana Haiti Honduras Hungary India Indonesia Iraq Ireland Israel Italy Jamaica Japan Jordan Kazakhstan Kenya Kosovo Kyrgyz Rep

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Education inequality measures Mean years of schooling By gender Survey year years years or above Total Urban Rural Male Female Gini index GE

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.763672037311079
WordScorePoS
education0.0121171980355011NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
measure0NN
schooling0NN
gender0NN
survey0.064698038783335NN
total0NN
urban0.0488696285210061JJ
rural0.0330412182586772JJ
female0NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.336486296168999
WordScorePoS
education0.244244978014045NN
inequality0NN
measure0NN
schooling0NN
gender0.10561808200669NN
survey0NN
total0NN
urban0JJ
rural0JJ
female0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.32632665147772
WordScorePoS
education0.0512260062633133NN
inequality0NN
measure0NN
schooling0NN
gender0.196902218579822NN
survey0NN
total0NN
urban0JJ
rural0JJ
female0.0911713013253052NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.301588291028032
WordScorePoS
education0NN
inequality0NN
measure0NN
schooling0NN
gender0NN
survey0NN
total0NN
urban0.27622591898666JJ
rural0.0373517915079663JJ
female0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.215988801851369
WordScorePoS
education0NN
inequality0NN
measure0.0504000902222448NN
schooling0NN
gender0NN
survey0NN
total0.0252000451111224NN
urban0JJ
rural0.148975141598503JJ
female0NN

Share of inequality attributable To location To gender

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.90091112695979
WordScorePoS
share0NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
location0NN
gender0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.319712597243886
WordScorePoS
share0.0285529457667019NN
inequality0NN
location0NN
gender0.196902218579822NN

Measuring equity Table

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.733023904422054
WordScorePoS
measure0.103895385378356NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.501222796596095
WordScorePoS
measure0.0710409787438328NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.355592991771415
WordScorePoS
measure0.0504000902222448NN

Education continued Share of total population by years of schooling By location Lao PDR Lesotho Luxembourg Madagascar Malawi Mali Mexico Moldova Mongolia Morocco Mozambique Myanmar Namibia Nepal Netherlands Nicaragua Niger Nigeria Norway Pakistan Panama Papua New Guinea Paraguay Peru Philippines Poland Romania Russian Federation Rwanda São Tomé Principe Senegal Sierra Leone Slovak Rep

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.589196618592455
WordScorePoS
education0.244244978014045NN
continue0VB
share0NN
total0NN
population0NN
schooling0NN
location0NN

Slovenia South Africa Spain Sri Lanka Sudan Suriname Swaziland Sweden Switzerland Taiwan China Tajikistan Tanzania Thailand Togo Trinidad Tobago Turkey Turkmenistan United Kingdom United States Uganda Uruguay Uzbekistan Venezuela RB de Vietnam Yemen Rep

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Zambia Zimbabwe Education inequality measures Mean years of schooling By gender Survey year years years or above Total Urban Rural Male Female Gini index GE

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.763672037311079
WordScorePoS
education0.0121171980355011NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
measure0NN
schooling0NN
gender0NN
survey0.064698038783335NN
total0NN
urban0.0488696285210061JJ
rural0.0330412182586772JJ
female0NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.336486296168999
WordScorePoS
education0.244244978014045NN
inequality0NN
measure0NN
schooling0NN
gender0.10561808200669NN
survey0NN
total0NN
urban0JJ
rural0JJ
female0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.32632665147772
WordScorePoS
education0.0512260062633133NN
inequality0NN
measure0NN
schooling0NN
gender0.196902218579822NN
survey0NN
total0NN
urban0JJ
rural0JJ
female0.0911713013253052NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.301588291028032
WordScorePoS
education0NN
inequality0NN
measure0NN
schooling0NN
gender0NN
survey0NN
total0NN
urban0.27622591898666JJ
rural0.0373517915079663JJ
female0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.215988801851369
WordScorePoS
education0NN
inequality0NN
measure0.0504000902222448NN
schooling0NN
gender0NN
survey0NN
total0.0252000451111224NN
urban0JJ
rural0.148975141598503JJ
female0NN

Share of inequality attributable To location To gender

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.90091112695979
WordScorePoS
share0NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
location0NN
gender0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.319712597243886
WordScorePoS
share0.0285529457667019NN
inequality0NN
location0NN
gender0.196902218579822NN

WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT Technical notes Table Poverty National poverty rate is the percentage of the population living below the national poverty line

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.814799013850417
WordScorePoS
world0.00257343720272548NN
development0.0164833460638534NN
report0NN
technical0JJ
poverty0.269969049497485NN
national0.0164833460638534JJ
rate0.0639932865717261NN
percentage0NN
population0NN
live0.0739258553811849VB
line0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.301488935384148
WordScorePoS
world0.00172202218602071NN
development0.0055149369084567NN
report0NN
technical0.0410992516792148JJ
poverty0.0722601961736204NN
national0.0055149369084567JJ
rate0NN
percentage0NN
population0.0428212738652355NN
live0.00989353561471291VB
line0.0410992516792148NN

Rural urban poverty rate is the percentage of the rural urban population living below the national rural urban poverty line

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.690580977186459
WordScorePoS
rural0.0373517915079663JJ
urban0.27622591898666JJ
poverty0.0164178645080222NN
rate0NN
percentage0NN
population0.0194583992186006NN
live0.0269743071558856VB
national0.00501208088147356JJ
line0.0373517915079663NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.451349774152145
WordScorePoS
rural0JJ
urban0JJ
poverty0.269969049497485NN
rate0.0639932865717261NN
percentage0NN
population0NN
live0.0739258553811849VB
national0.0164833460638534JJ
line0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.404689610284398
WordScorePoS
rural0.148975141598503JJ
urban0JJ
poverty0.0261926252110933NN
rate0.0155217067874935NN
percentage0.0583416713841148NN
population0.0310434135749871NN
live0.0143446978608332VB
national0.00399807039435538JJ
line0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.318500275837185
WordScorePoS
rural0.0330412182586772JJ
urban0.0488696285210061JJ
poverty0.05809266143877NN
rate0.0172128079963482NN
percentage0NN
population0.0860640399817412NN
live0.0159075630937118VB
national0.00886732612541978JJ
line0NN

Population below day and population below day are the percentages of the population living on less than

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.787315898748129
WordScorePoS
population0NN
day0.25973846344589NN
percentage0NN
live0.0739258553811849VB

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.36367041871925
WordScorePoS
population0.0860640399817412NN
day0NN
percentage0NN
live0.0159075630937118VB

day and

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.967928073819493
WordScorePoS
day0.25973846344589NN

day at international prices

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.927713693447483
WordScorePoS
day0.25973846344589NN
international0.00531301439641424JJ
price0NN

All above poverty indicators are also called headcount ratios

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.885341548086101
WordScorePoS
poverty0.269969049497485NN
ratio0NN

Poverty gap is the mean shortfall from the poverty line counting the nonpoor as having zero shortfall expressed as percentage of the poverty line

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.882203056763291
WordScorePoS
poverty0.269969049497485NN
gap0NN
line0NN
percentage0NN

To measure poverty one needs to define the relevant welfare measure to select poverty line and to select poverty indicator

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.898824334678291
WordScorePoS
measure0.103895385378356NN
poverty0.269969049497485NN
relevant0JJ
welfare0NN
line0NN

The two most commonly used poverty indicators are the headcount ratio and the poverty gap part of the FGT class of indexes from Foster Greer and Thorbecke

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.89034580829327
WordScorePoS
poverty0.269969049497485NN
ratio0NN
gap0NN
class0NN
foster0JJ

The indexes are defined by  − Yi  Pα     ∑ α where is subgroup of individuals with income below the poverty line is the total number of individuals in the sample Yi is the income of individual and α is distinguishing parameter between FGT indexes

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.739658575622451
WordScorePoS
individual0.064698038783335JJ
income0.166475342664294NN
poverty0.05809266143877NN
line0NN
total0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.453027108812642
WordScorePoS
individual0JJ
income0.0442083771593746NN
poverty0.269969049497485NN
line0NN
total0NN

When α equals the expression simplifies to n or the headcount ratio

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.855942674677151
WordScorePoS
equal0.114211783066808JJ
ratio0.0688661930304451NN

The poverty gap is given by α equal to

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.824035454613142
WordScorePoS
poverty0.269969049497485NN
gap0NN
equal0.0376648791150643JJ

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.328579504712397
WordScorePoS
poverty0.0722601961736204NN
gap0NN
equal0.0504071033101074JJ

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.305930360172228
WordScorePoS
poverty0NN
gap0NN
equal0.114211783066808JJ

The welfare measure can be income or consumption

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.738708706537259
WordScorePoS
welfare0.0542519672965169NN
measure0NN
income0NN
consumption0.332151194779746NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.34903553310954
WordScorePoS
welfare0NN
measure0.0347609334428716NN
income0NN
consumption0.147812295323721NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.318260296807861
WordScorePoS
welfare0NN
measure0NN
income0.166475342664294NN
consumption0NN

Income is generally more difficult to measure accurately and consumption comes closer to the notion of standard of living

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.65332031753328
WordScorePoS
income0NN
measure0NN
consumption0.332151194779746NN
standard0.0409791940864438NN
live0VB

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.336993317543188
WordScorePoS
income0NN
measure0.0347609334428716NN
consumption0.147812295323721NN
standard0NN
live0.00989353561471291VB

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.319337318690472
WordScorePoS
income0.166475342664294NN
measure0NN
consumption0NN
standard0NN
live0.0159075630937118VB

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.388755418504918
WordScorePoS
income0.0442083771593746NN
measure0.103895385378356NN
consumption0NN
standard0NN
live0.0739258553811849VB

And income can vary over time even if the standard of living does not

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.684035055672493
WordScorePoS
income0.166475342664294NN
time0.0607862199751165NN
standard0NN
live0.0159075630937118VB

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.513032762727736
WordScorePoS
income0.110649350233433NN
time0.0188543197850406NN
standard0.0454743001434393NN
live0.00740117451847634VB

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.332311744301764
WordScorePoS
income0.0442083771593746NN
time0NN
standard0NN
live0.0739258553811849VB

So whenever possible consumption data are used to estimate poverty

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.677707865166141
WordScorePoS
consumption0.332151194779746NN
datum0NN
estimate0.0199423462679015NN
poverty0.0121782716594324NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.502262711012985
WordScorePoS
consumption0NN
datum0NN
estimate0NN
poverty0.269969049497485NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.409432882786316
WordScorePoS
consumption0.147812295323721NN
datum0NN
estimate0NN
poverty0.0722601961736204NN

But when consumption data are not available income data are used

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.672188883911405
WordScorePoS
consumption0.332151194779746NN
datum0NN
income0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.336903423931636
WordScorePoS
consumption0NN
datum0NN
income0.166475342664294NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.299134199676507
WordScorePoS
consumption0.147812295323721NN
datum0NN
income0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.407982579887857
WordScorePoS
consumption0NN
datum0.0454743001434393NN
income0.110649350233433NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.33560430664319
WordScorePoS
consumption0NN
datum0.0739231123597559NN
income0.017987180284335NN

Poverty line is threshold below which given household or individual will be regarded as poor

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.761776250204999
WordScorePoS
poverty0.269969049497485NN
line0NN
threshold0NN
household0NN
individual0JJ
regard0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.487894125304815
WordScorePoS
poverty0.05809266143877NN
line0NN
threshold0.0488696285210061NN
household0.0330412182586772NN
individual0.064698038783335JJ
regard0.064698038783335NN
poor0JJ

National poverty lines are established according to countries own judgment of minimum acceptable living standards

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.830700994910742
WordScorePoS
national0.0164833460638534JJ
poverty0.269969049497485NN
line0NN
establish0VB
country0NN
live0.0739258553811849VB
standard0NN

Because countries have different definitions of poverty consistent comparisons between countries can be difficult

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.914649780229973
WordScorePoS
country0NN
poverty0.269969049497485NN
consistent0JJ

Local poverty lines tend to have higher purchasing power in rich countries where more generous standards are used than in poor countries

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.818997764008952
WordScorePoS
local0JJ
poverty0.269969049497485NN
line0NN
power0NN
country0NN
standard0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ

Is it reasonable to treat two people with the same standard of living in terms of their command over commodities differently because one happens to live in better off country

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.446235662459814
WordScorePoS
people0.00432344066632653NNS
standard0NN
live0VB
term0.149793392961411NN
commodity0NN
country0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.535779899223798
WordScorePoS
people0.0371911007748996NNS
standard0NN
live0.0739258553811849VB
term0NN
commodity0NN
country0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.360100076602615
WordScorePoS
people0.0186171553883251NNS
standard0.0454743001434393NN
live0.00740117451847634VB
term0NN
commodity0.0454743001434393NN
country0NN

Poverty measures based on an international poverty line attempt to hold the real value of the poverty line constant across countries as is done when making comparisons over time

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.865699345481375
WordScorePoS
poverty0.269969049497485NN
measure0.103895385378356NN
base0.0442083771593746NN
international0.00531301439641424JJ
line0NN
hold0NN
country0NN
time0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.167483263390549
WordScorePoS
poverty0NN
measure0NN
base0NN
international0.00402768349408688JJ
line0NN
hold0.18234260265061NN
country0NN
time0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.303113275952868
WordScorePoS
poverty0.0722601961736204NN
measure0.0347609334428716NN
base0NN
international0.00355521737836969JJ
line0.0410992516792148NN
hold0NN
country0NN
time0NN

The commonly used day standard an international poverty line measured in international prices and adjusted to local currency using purchasing power parities PPP was chosen because it is typical of the national poverty lines in low income countries

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.823726952270899
WordScorePoS
day0.25973846344589NN
standard0NN
international0.00531301439641424JJ
poverty0.269969049497485NN
line0NN
measure0.103895385378356NN
price0NN
local0JJ
power0NN
parity0NN
national0.0164833460638534JJ
income0.0442083771593746NN
country0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.255984729347671
WordScorePoS
day0NN
standard0NN
international0.00571634317201755JJ
poverty0.05809266143877NN
line0NN
measure0NN
price0NN
local0JJ
power0NN
parity0NN
national0.00886732612541978JJ
income0.166475342664294NN
country0NN

Recalculated in consumption PPP terms in prices the original day in PPP is now about

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.657105703336015
WordScorePoS
consumption0.332151194779746NN
term0NN
price0NN
day0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.513849199968117
WordScorePoS
consumption0NN
term0NN
price0NN
day0.25973846344589NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.361190661916939
WordScorePoS
consumption0.147812295323721NN
term0NN
price0NN
day0.0347609334428716NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.296341227681767
WordScorePoS
consumption0NN
term0.149793392961411NN
price0NN
day0NN

day

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.967928073819493
WordScorePoS
day0.25973846344589NN

PPP exchange rates are used because they take into account the local prices of goods and services not traded internationally

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.425504737346093
WordScorePoS
rate0.0155217067874935NN
account0NN
local0.0155217067874935JJ
price0.0583416713841148NN
service0.0143446978608332NN
trade0.0214456704626236NN
internationally0RB

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.368306456192982
WordScorePoS
rate0.0639932865717261NN
account0NN
local0JJ
price0NN
service0.0443555132287109NN
trade0NN
internationally0RB

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.341157224600561
WordScorePoS
rate0NN
account0NN
local0.0214106369326177JJ
price0NN
service0.0197870712294258NN
trade0.0591643007226199NN
internationally0RB

But PPP rates were designed for comparing aggregates from national accounts not for making international poverty comparisons

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.810287062240904
WordScorePoS
rate0.0639932865717261NN
compare0VB
national0.0164833460638534JJ
account0NN
international0.00531301439641424JJ
poverty0.269969049497485NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.305777829482311
WordScorePoS
rate0.0571955184484387NN
compare0VB
national0.0294647633960925JJ
account0.0285977592242194NN
international0.0189945307832458JJ
poverty0NN

As result there is no certainty that an international poverty line measures the same degree of need or deprivation across countries

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.755139296878839
WordScorePoS
result0NN
international0.00531301439641424JJ
poverty0.269969049497485NN
line0NN
measure0.103895385378356NN
degree0NN
country0NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.483494548011397
WordScorePoS
result0NN
international0.00726580379728728JJ
poverty0NN
line0NN
measure0.0710409787438328NN
degree0.164469921319675NN
country0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.302064917510905
WordScorePoS
result0NN
international0.00355521737836969JJ
poverty0.0722601961736204NN
line0.0410992516792148NN
measure0.0347609334428716NN
degree0NN
country0NN

Furthermore any revisions in the PPP of country to incorporate better price indexes can produce dramatically different poverty lines in local currency

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.737100899261697
WordScorePoS
country0NN
price0NN
produce0VB
poverty0.269969049497485NN
line0NN
local0JJ

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.370708684481865
WordScorePoS
country0NN
price0.0583416713841148NN
produce0.0357189919948307VB
poverty0.0261926252110933NN
line0NN
local0.0155217067874935JJ

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.367964960701386
WordScorePoS
country0NN
price0NN
produce0VB
poverty0.0722601961736204NN
line0.0410992516792148NN
local0.0214106369326177JJ

Since the World Bank produced its first global poverty estimates for World Development Report using household survey data the database has expanded considerably and now includes surveys representing almost developing countries

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.459379649468081
WordScorePoS
world0.00257343720272548NN
bank0NN
produce0VB
global0JJ
poverty0.269969049497485NN
estimate0NN
development0.0164833460638534NN
report0NN
household0NN
survey0NN
datum0NN
expand0VB
include0VB
represent0VB
develop0VB
country0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.366744586694245
WordScorePoS
world0.0124838525528648NN
bank0.0881366997038154NN
produce0.0357189919948307VB
global0.0119942111830662JJ
poverty0.0261926252110933NN
estimate0NN
development0.0159922815774215NN
report0NN
household0.0297950283197006NN
survey0NN
datum0NN
expand0VB
include0VB
represent0VB
develop0VB
country0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.339696781520513
WordScorePoS
world0.00464349782489754NN
bank0NN
produce0.0332151194779746VB
global0.022306853314744JJ
poverty0.0121782716594324NN
estimate0.0199423462679015NN
development0.022306853314744NN
report0.0409791940864438NN
household0.0554128417527413NN
survey0NN
datum0NN
expand0VB
include0VB
represent0VB
develop0VB
country0NN

million randomly sampled households were interviewed in these surveys representing percent of the population of developing countries

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.755845001004532
WordScorePoS
household0.0330412182586772NN
survey0.064698038783335NN
represent0VB
population0.0860640399817412NN
develop0VB
country0NN

Along with improvements in data coverage and quality the underlying methodology has also improved resulting in better and more comprehensive estimates

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.41285677527244
WordScorePoS
improvement0NN
datum0NN
coverage0NN
quality0.0255958462813622NN
underlie0VB
improve0.0511916925627245VB
result0.0683326727248364NN
estimate0NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.389237883568438
WordScorePoS
improvement0NN
datum0NN
coverage0NN
quality0.076326555629389NN
underlie0VB
improve0.0305306222517556VB
result0NN
estimate0.0299609328954485NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.385855307727981
WordScorePoS
improvement0.0454743001434393NN
datum0.0454743001434393NN
coverage0NN
quality0.022550656390892NN
underlie0VB
improve0VB
result0NN
estimate0.0221298700466866NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.32827888081998
WordScorePoS
improvement0.0924643738905717NN
datum0NN
coverage0NN
quality0NN
underlie0VB
improve0.0229264916384433VB
result0NN
estimate0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.301576249879805
WordScorePoS
improvement0NN
datum0NN
coverage0NN
quality0.030144637392549NN
underlie0.0607878664258118VB
improve0.0150723186962745VB
result0NN
estimate0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.301384646498908
WordScorePoS
improvement0NN
datum0NN
coverage0.0307735781890304NN
quality0.0152605842304358NN
underlie0VB
improve0VB
result0NN
estimate0.059903311017139NN

Data availability

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.937818314603601
WordScorePoS
datum0.0739231123597559NN
availability0.048933054487825NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.347126502580919
WordScorePoS
datum0.0454743001434393NN
availability0NN

Since there has been considerable expansion in the number of countries that field such surveys in the frequency of the surveys and in the quality of their data

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

The number of data sets rose dramatically from mere between and to between and

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.760089646630019
WordScorePoS
datum0.0739231123597559NN
set0.0978661089756501NN
rise0NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.534990595416275
WordScorePoS
datum0NN
set0NN
rise0.120914181920259NN

Sub Saharan Africa continues to lag behind all other regions with only countries out of having at least one data set available

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.6264245512588
WordScorePoS
saharan0.0442083771593746JJ
africa0IN
continue0VB
region0.184259548107002NN
country0NN
datum0NN
set0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.47102010385336
WordScorePoS
saharan0JJ
africa0IN
continue0VB
region0NN
country0NN
datum0.0739231123597559NN
set0.0978661089756501NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.424409434749748
WordScorePoS
saharan0.0299516555085695JJ
africa0IN
continue0VB
region0.124837844401518NN
country0NN
datum0NN
set0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.311441007507505
WordScorePoS
saharan0.0335134328085675JJ
africa0IN
continue0.0335134328085675VB
region0.0465610847355851NN
country0NN
datum0NN
set0NN

Data quality

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.587221516375442
WordScorePoS
datum0.0739231123597559NN
quality0.00916459792075908NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.539437127164584
WordScorePoS
datum0NN
quality0.076326555629389NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.480765663087857
WordScorePoS
datum0.0454743001434393NN
quality0.022550656390892NN

A number of issues arise in measuring household living standards from survey data

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.517200239938196
WordScorePoS
issue0NN
arise0VB
measure0.103895385378356NN
household0NN
live0.0739258553811849VB
standard0NN
survey0NN
datum0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.403147433558051
WordScorePoS
issue0NN
arise0.0440683498519077VB
measure0.0504000902222448NN
household0.0297950283197006NN
live0.0143446978608332VB
standard0NN
survey0NN
datum0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.33054635313164
WordScorePoS
issue0NN
arise0VB
measure0NN
household0.0330412182586772NN
live0.0159075630937118VB
standard0NN
survey0.064698038783335NN
datum0NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.304250455957325
WordScorePoS
issue0.0335649154577099NN
arise0VB
measure0.0710409787438328NN
household0NN
live0VB
standard0NN
survey0NN
datum0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.302144372495168
WordScorePoS
issue0.0299586785922821NN
arise0VB
measure0NN
household0NN
live0VB
standard0NN
survey0NN
datum0.0739231123597559NN

As indicated above one relates to the choice of income or consumption as welfare indicator

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.832441789445458
WordScorePoS
choice0.0409791940864438NN
income0NN
consumption0.332151194779746NN
welfare0.0542519672965169NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.324255388992361
WordScorePoS
choice0NN
income0.166475342664294NN
consumption0NN
welfare0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.287904097693903
WordScorePoS
choice0NN
income0NN
consumption0.147812295323721NN
welfare0NN

Another issue is that household surveys can differ widely for example in the number of consumer goods they identify

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.942962023829007
WordScorePoS
issue0NN
household0.0554128417527413NN
survey0NN
widely0RB
consumer0.325511803779102NN
identify0VB

And even similar surveys may not be strictly comparable because of differences in timing or the quality and training of survey enumerators

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.754120789531818
WordScorePoS
survey0NN
quality0.076326555629389NN
training0.124876512346911NN

Comparisons of countries at different levels of development pose potential problem because of differences in the relative importance of consumption of nonmarket goods

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.757565668572566
WordScorePoS
country0NN
level0.00513687014008325NN
development0.022306853314744NN
pose0VB
potential0NN
relative0JJ
consumption0.332151194779746NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.339070584427607
WordScorePoS
country0NN
level0.00761994916892276NN
development0.0055149369084567NN
pose0VB
potential0NN
relative0JJ
consumption0.147812295323721NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.378460244728118
WordScorePoS
country0NN
level0.00692515656684925NN
development0.0100241617629471NN
pose0VB
potential0NN
relative0.0731385760866977JJ
consumption0.08955644059472NN

The local market value of all consumption in kind including own production particularly important in underdeveloped rural economies should be included in total consumption expenditure

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.78271495111125
WordScorePoS
local0.0144336476662975JJ
market0.0169905820958638NN
consumption0.332151194779746NN
kind0NN
include0VB
production0.118934074671047NN
rural0JJ
economy0NN
total0.0468670845659596NN
expenditure0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.431405474725178
WordScorePoS
local0.0214106369326177JJ
market0.0252035516550537NN
consumption0.147812295323721NN
kind0NN
include0VB
production0.0504071033101074NN
rural0JJ
economy0.0821985033584295NN
total0NN
expenditure0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.305142717821169
WordScorePoS
local0.0155217067874935JJ
market0.0913569596328122NN
consumption0NN
kind0NN
include0VB
production0.0548141757796873NN
rural0.148975141598503JJ
economy0NN
total0.0252000451111224NN
expenditure0NN

Similarly imputed profit from the production of nonmarket goods should be included in income

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.569962390055323
WordScorePoS
production0NN
include0VB
income0.166475342664294NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.443382305771921
WordScorePoS
production0.0188543197850406NN
include0VB
income0.110649350233433NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.407938463012496
WordScorePoS
production0.0548141757796873NN
include0VB
income0.0643370113878709NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.407195133967833
WordScorePoS
production0.118934074671047NN
include0VB
income0NN

This is not always done though such omissions were far bigger problem in surveys before the s

Label: 10, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
survey0.064698038783335NN

Most survey data now include valuations for consumption or income from own production

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.744491204511735
WordScorePoS
survey0NN
datum0NN
include0VB
consumption0.332151194779746NN
income0NN
production0.118934074671047NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.381538837245871
WordScorePoS
survey0.064698038783335NN
datum0NN
include0VB
consumption0NN
income0.166475342664294NN
production0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.327150117373958
WordScorePoS
survey0NN
datum0NN
include0VB
consumption0.147812295323721NN
income0NN
production0.0504071033101074NN

Nonetheless valuation methods vary

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

For example some surveys use the price in the Measuring equity nearest market while others use the average farm gate selling price

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.83803711415984
WordScorePoS
survey0NN
price0.0583416713841148NN
measure0.0504000902222448NN
market0.0913569596328122NN
average0NN
farm0.291708356920574NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.36053881146263
WordScorePoS
survey0NN
price0NN
measure0.0710409787438328NN
market0NN
average0.1656430212089NN
farm0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.352747170103217
WordScorePoS
survey0.064698038783335NN
price0NN
measure0NN
market0.0202620733250388NN
average0.146608885563018NN
farm0NN

In all cases the measures of poverty have been calculated from primary data sources tabulations or household data rather than existing estimates

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.666051223512202
WordScorePoS
measure0.103895385378356NN
poverty0.269969049497485NN
primary0JJ
datum0NN
source0.0269969049497485NN
household0NN
exist0VB
estimate0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.381711552668674
WordScorePoS
measure0NN
poverty0.0109843026967392NN
primary0JJ
datum0.0739231123597559NN
source0.0109843026967392NN
household0NN
exist0.0599173571845643VB
estimate0NN

Estimation from tabulations uses an interpolation method based on Lorenz curves with flexible functional forms which have proved reliable in past work

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.51191806978701
WordScorePoS
base0NN
form0.158049144643351NN
reliable0JJ

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.485495428180304
WordScorePoS
base0NN
form0NN
reliable0.149891440995783JJ

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.429570191377721
WordScorePoS
base0.0442083771593746NN
form0.0884167543187491NN
reliable0JJ

Empirical Lorenz curves were weighted by household size so they are based on percentiles of population not households

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.611284150915929
WordScorePoS
household0.0330412182586772NN
size0.0396106020715138NN
base0NN
population0.0860640399817412NN

The Poverty Monitoring team in the World Bank Development Research Group calculates the number of people living below various international poverty lines as well as other poverty and inequality measures that are published in World Development Indicators

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.681322318936898
WordScorePoS
poverty0.269969049497485NN
monitor0NN
world0.00257343720272548NN
bank0NN
development0.0164833460638534NN
research0NN
people0.0371911007748996NNS
live0.0739258553811849VB
international0.00531301439641424JJ
line0NN
inequality0NN
measure0.103895385378356NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.585148494565271
WordScorePoS
poverty0.05809266143877NN
monitor0.0396106020715138NN
world0.00276879546803864NN
bank0NN
development0.0177346522508396NN
research0NN
people0.00571634317201755NNS
live0.0159075630937118VB
international0.00571634317201755JJ
line0NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
measure0NN

That database is updated annually as new survey data become available and major reassessment of progress against poverty is made about every three years

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.716159256844466
WordScorePoS
annually0RB
survey0NN
datum0NN
major0JJ
progress0NN
poverty0.269969049497485NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.405432756333867
WordScorePoS
annually0RB
survey0NN
datum0NN
major0.0214106369326177JJ
progress0.0591643007226199NN
poverty0.0722601961736204NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.325732511864452
WordScorePoS
annually0RB
survey0.064698038783335NN
datum0NN
major0JJ
progress0NN
poverty0.05809266143877NN

Table Income Distribution The Gini index measures the extent to which the distribution of income consumption or land among individuals or households within an economy deviates from perfectly equal distribution

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.494429262709273
WordScorePoS
income0.166475342664294NN
measure0NN
extent0NN
consumption0NN
land0NN
individual0.064698038783335JJ
household0.0330412182586772NN
economy0NN
equal0.0202620733250388JJ

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.440755139552118
WordScorePoS
income0NN
measure0NN
extent0NN
consumption0.332151194779746NN
land0.0144336476662975NN
individual0JJ
household0.0554128417527413NN
economy0NN
equal0JJ

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.345565900144318
WordScorePoS
income0NN
measure0.0347609334428716NN
extent0NN
consumption0.147812295323721NN
land0NN
individual0JJ
household0NN
economy0.0821985033584295NN
equal0.0504071033101074JJ

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.30009420027401
WordScorePoS
income0.0643370113878709NN
measure0.0504000902222448NN
extent0NN
consumption0NN
land0.0465651203624806NN
individual0JJ
household0.0297950283197006NN
economy0NN
equal0.0182713919265625JJ

A Lorenz curve plots the cumulative percentage of total income received against the cumulative proportion of recipients starting with the poorest individual or household

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.640011596288604
WordScorePoS
percentage0NN
total0NN
income0.166475342664294NN
receive0VB
proportion0NN
poorest0.0330412182586772JJS
individual0.064698038783335JJ
household0.0330412182586772NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.486033651636251
WordScorePoS
percentage0.0583416713841148NN
total0.0252000451111224NN
income0.0643370113878709NN
receive0VB
proportion0.0182713919265625NN
poorest0.0297950283197006JJS
individual0JJ
household0.0297950283197006NN

The Gini index measures the area between the Lorenz curve and hypothetical line of absolute equality expressed as the share of the maximum area under the line

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.557868243779264
WordScorePoS
measure0NN
line0NN
equality0.18624433894234NN
share0.0285529457667019NN
maximum0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.429354215549737
WordScorePoS
measure0.103895385378356NN
line0NN
equality0.0614198493690006NN
share0NN
maximum0NN

Thus Gini index of zero represents perfect equality while an index of implies perfect inequality

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.947744237421027
WordScorePoS
represent0VB
equality0.0330412182586772NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.26410256998711
WordScorePoS
represent0VB
equality0.18624433894234NN
inequality0NN

The Gini coefficient takes on values between and with zero interpreted as no inequality

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.995276396156576
WordScorePoS
value0NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN

Gini ∑∑ − Generalized Entropy or GE indexes provide us with an alternative class of income consumption or other inequality measures given by GE   −     yi   −  y 

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.831757862241092
WordScorePoS
provide0VB
alternative0NN
class0NN
income0.166475342664294NN
consumption0NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
measure0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.365326635267029
WordScorePoS
provide0.0200087191734851VB
alternative0NN
class0NN
income0NN
consumption0.332151194779746NN
inequality0NN
measure0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.189399362938267
WordScorePoS
provide0VB
alternative0NN
class0NN
income0NN
consumption0.147812295323721NN
inequality0NN
measure0.0347609334428716NN

   ∑ The value of the measure GE ranges from to infinity with zero representing an equal distribution all incomes identical and higher values represent higher levels of inequality

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.890655704747439
WordScorePoS
measure0NN
range0NN
represent0VB
equal0.0202620733250388JJ
income0.166475342664294NN
value0NN
level0NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN

The parameter in the GE class represents the weight given to distances between incomes at different parts of the income distribution and can take any real value

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.715909271900739
WordScorePoS
class0NN
represent0VB
income0.166475342664294NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.475835607208498
WordScorePoS
class0NN
represent0VB
income0.110649350233433NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.402120420049181
WordScorePoS
class0.0583416713841148NN
represent0VB
income0.0643370113878709NN

For lower values of GE is more sensitive to changes in the lower tail of the distribution and for higher values GE is more sensitive to changes that affect the upper tail

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

The most common values of used are and hence value of gives more weight to distances between incomes in the lower tail applies equal weights across the distribution and value of give proportionately more weight to gaps in the upper tail

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.56220500315251
WordScorePoS
common0JJ
value0NN
income0.166475342664294NN
equal0.0202620733250388JJ
gap0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.514380276492997
WordScorePoS
common0JJ
value0NN
income0.110649350233433NN
equal0JJ
gap0.0602029956716497NN

The GE measures with parameters and become with Hopital rule two of Theil measures of inequality Theil the mean log deviation and the Theil index respectively as follows GE ∑ log GE yi yi ∑ log th th percentile ratio is constructed by dividing the income consumption in the th percentile by the income consumption in the th percentile

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.718588737931836
WordScorePoS
measure0NN
rule0NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
ratio0NN
income0.166475342664294NN
consumption0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.493010409088128
WordScorePoS
measure0NN
rule0NN
inequality0NN
ratio0NN
income0NN
consumption0.332151194779746NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.270992558862976
WordScorePoS
measure0.0347609334428716NN
rule0NN
inequality0NN
ratio0NN
income0NN
consumption0.147812295323721NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.120514579167652
WordScorePoS
measure0NN
rule0.162386273072618NN
inequality0NN
ratio0NN
income0NN
consumption0NN

A th th ratio of means that the household in the th percentile earns spends five times as much as the household in the th percentile

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.553612246936082
WordScorePoS
ratio0.0688661930304451NN
means0NNS
household0.0465610847355851NN
time0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.411022583665432
WordScorePoS
ratio0NN
means0.120266261535276NNS
household0NN
time0NN

Survey year gives the year in which the country survey used to generate the reported data was completed

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.42314987113013
WordScorePoS
survey0NN
country0NN
generate0VB
report0NN
datum0NN
complete0.0815069365350084JJ

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.383777832885835
WordScorePoS
survey0NN
country0NN
generate0VB
report0NN
datum0.0739231123597559NN
complete0JJ

Table Health To measure equity in health we have only used data from Demographic Health Surveys DHS collected in countries between and

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.844695686024816
WordScorePoS
health0.191387734041787NN
measure0NN
datum0NN
survey0NN
country0NN

In addition to breaking down infant mortality rates by asset indices created by Filmer and Pritchett as documented in Gwatkin and others we compiled population breakdowns for different groupings using the interactive STATcompiler feature in the DHS website

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.650534944273954
WordScorePoS
addition0NN
infant0NN
mortality0.276962203701274NN
rate0.0433561464459019NN
asset0NN
create0VB
document0NN
population0NN
feature0NN

Infant mortality rate is the number of deaths to children under months of age per live births

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.848137842941063
WordScorePoS
infant0NN
mortality0.276962203701274NN
rate0.0433561464459019NN
death0.193573191943949NN
child0.10682408961305NN
age0.0893142758861673NN
live0.0300513417930436VB
birth0.0748292956291867NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.3080303869439
WordScorePoS
infant0NN
mortality0NN
rate0.0639932865717261NN
death0NN
child0.0450489732120807NN
age0.112994637345193NN
live0.0739258553811849VB
birth0NN

Figures used in the table are based on births in the years preceding the survey

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.570927110488107
WordScorePoS
figure0NN
base0NN
birth0.0396106020715138NN
survey0.064698038783335NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.491542974581572
WordScorePoS
figure0NN
base0.0149758277542848NN
birth0.0748292956291867NN
survey0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.360206963254198
WordScorePoS
figure0NN
base0NN
birth0.0658099748168827NN
survey0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.329517498069722
WordScorePoS
figure0.0602029956716497NN
base0NN
birth0NN
survey0NN

Asset quintiles are constructed using the Filmer Pritchett method to create an index of wealth based on household attributes type of flooring and or roof source of water availability of electricity possession of such items as watches radios etc

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.816907500319091
WordScorePoS
asset0NN
quintile0NN
create0VB
base0NN
household0NN
type0NN
source0.0613562156822703NN
water0.556409482163189NN
availability0NN
electricity0.0348974218717993NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.357578544151558
WordScorePoS
asset0NN
quintile0NN
create0.0234335422829798VB
base0.0199423462679015NN
household0.0554128417527413NN
type0NN
source0NN
water0.186896403054502NN
availability0NN
electricity0NN

Once the index is created it is applied to the country household surveys to construct distribution of assets that is then divided into fifths each household belonging to one of these quintiles

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.665671790650663
WordScorePoS
create0VB
country0NN
household0.0330412182586772NN
survey0.064698038783335NN
asset0.0488696285210061NN
belong0VB
quintile0.064698038783335NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.469158349482225
WordScorePoS
create0.0519476926891779VB
country0NN
household0NN
survey0NN
asset0NN
belong0.120266261535276VB
quintile0NN

Indicators for the quintiles are then formed as the average result for all families for that indicator e

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.545151111670901
WordScorePoS
quintile0.064698038783335NN
form0NN
average0.146608885563018NN
result0NN
family0NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.427342726377233
WordScorePoS
quintile0NN
form0NN
average0.1656430212089NN
result0NN
family0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.40775127065752
WordScorePoS
quintile0NN
form0.158049144643351NN
average0NN
result0NN
family0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.379507121249182
WordScorePoS
quintile0NN
form0.100540298425703NN
average0NN
result0NN
family0.0465610847355851NN

infant mortality rate within each asset quintile

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.787851715942503
WordScorePoS
infant0NN
mortality0.276962203701274NN
rate0.0433561464459019NN
asset0NN
quintile0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.44186554563652
WordScorePoS
infant0NN
mortality0.0488696285210061NN
rate0.0172128079963482NN
asset0.0488696285210061NN
quintile0.064698038783335NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.340379310915572
WordScorePoS
infant0NN
mortality0NN
rate0.0571955184484387NN
asset0.0811931365363091NN
quintile0NN

Education is the number of years or level of formal education the child mother has completed at the time of the survey

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.825334168053957
WordScorePoS
education0.244244978014045NN
level0.0231525547935232NN
child0.076326555629389NN
mother0NN
complete0.0815069365350084JJ
time0NN
survey0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.385951969939462
WordScorePoS
education0.0152605842304358NN
level0NN
child0.10682408961305NN
mother0.162963395911232NN
complete0JJ
time0.0127591822694525NN
survey0NN

Gender is the sex of the child male or female as reported by the child mother or household head if mother is not present

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.730715276700089
WordScorePoS
gender0.0175975629039954NN
sex0NN
child0.10682408961305NN
female0NN
report0.0307735781890304NN
mother0.162963395911232NN
household0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.458336281255187
WordScorePoS
gender0.196902218579822NN
sex0NN
child0.0170753354211044NN
female0.0911713013253052NN
report0NN
mother0NN
household0.0465610847355851NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.320986400884968
WordScorePoS
gender0.10561808200669NN
sex0NN
child0.076326555629389NN
female0NN
report0NN
mother0NN
household0NN

WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT Location is listed as urban if the surveyed household lives in recognized city or surroundings and listed as rural if otherwise

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.915883283222141
WordScorePoS
world0.00626002771693937NN
development0.0100241617629471NN
report0NN
location0NN
urban0.27622591898666JJ
survey0NN
household0NN
life0.0112376090361851NN
recognize0VB
city0.607697021770652NN
rural0.0373517915079663JJ

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.242596682079538
WordScorePoS
world0.0124838525528648NN
development0.0159922815774215NN
report0NN
location0NN
urban0JJ
survey0NN
household0.0297950283197006NN
life0NN
recognize0VB
city0.0440683498519077NN
rural0.148975141598503JJ

The GE class of inequality measures can be decomposed into between and within group component along the following lines Table Education   − GE −   For measuring educational attainment we used database that was put together by Araujo Ferreira and Schady

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.825290746989679
WordScorePoS
class0NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
measure0NN
line0NN
education0.0121171980355011NN
educational0JJ

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.311347166957845
WordScorePoS
class0NN
inequality0NN
measure0NN
line0NN
education0.244244978014045NN
educational0JJ

The data come from the individual level records of various household surveys for countries

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.649560747965606
WordScorePoS
datum0NN
individual0.064698038783335JJ
level0NN
record0NN
household0.0330412182586772NN
survey0.064698038783335NN
country0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.546864983703316
WordScorePoS
datum0.0739231123597559NN
individual0JJ
level0.0138997399903163NN
record0.048933054487825NN
household0NN
survey0NN
country0NN

The selection criteria were to choose survey instrument that was nationally representative was collected on or on the closest year and included information on the actual number of years of education completed by the interviewees

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.81356858224209
WordScorePoS
criterion0NN
survey0NN
nationally0RB
representative0NN
include0VB
information0.0182963616752599NN
actual0JJ
education0.244244978014045NN
complete0.0815069365350084JJ

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.358846300913358
WordScorePoS
criterion0NN
survey0NN
nationally0RB
representative0.107490825192354NN
include0VB
information0.0241291244414115NN
actual0JJ
education0.0201317944152378NN
complete0JJ

The fiveyear cohorts group adults who were likely to have completed their education at the time of the survey

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.948021801187774
WordScorePoS
adult0.163013873070017JJ
complete0.0815069365350084JJ
education0.244244978014045NN
time0NN
survey0NN

The cohorts are constructed based on one survey per country

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.620008875845685
WordScorePoS
base0NN
survey0.064698038783335NN
country0NN

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.56219458701974
WordScorePoS
base0.058665107245718NN
survey0NN
country0NN

The measure share of total population by years of schooling gives the percent of the population having completed the reported number of years of schooling at the time the survey was taken

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.596680151972755
WordScorePoS
measure0NN
share0NN
total0NN
population0.0860640399817412NN
schooling0NN
complete0JJ
report0NN
time0.0607862199751165NN
survey0.064698038783335NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.385943704239461
WordScorePoS
measure0.0504000902222448NN
share0.0365427838531249NN
total0.0252000451111224NN
population0.0310434135749871NN
schooling0NN
complete0JJ
report0NN
time0.0182713919265625NN
survey0NN

Mean years of schooling gives the arithmetic mean for years of formal schooling for the total population those living in urban areas and those living in rural areas as well as for males and females

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.673093174549668
WordScorePoS
schooling0NN
total0NN
population0.0194583992186006NN
live0.0269743071558856VB
urban0.27622591898666JJ
rural0.0373517915079663JJ
female0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.406842611116213
WordScorePoS
schooling0NN
total0.0252000451111224NN
population0.0310434135749871NN
live0.0143446978608332VB
urban0JJ
rural0.148975141598503JJ
female0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.347500264765936
WordScorePoS
schooling0NN
total0NN
population0.0860640399817412NN
live0.0159075630937118VB
urban0.0488696285210061JJ
rural0.0330412182586772JJ
female0NN

The Gini index and the Generalized Entropy indexes reported in this table are the same as those described in table except for the fact that now denotes years of schooling

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

We report the share of inequality in education which is due to differences between urban and rural dwellers location and between males and females gender

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.732074910072003
WordScorePoS
report0NN
share0NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
education0.0121171980355011NN
due0JJ
urban0.0488696285210061JJ
rural0.0330412182586772JJ
location0NN
female0NN
gender0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.369235295412229
WordScorePoS
report0NN
share0.0285529457667019NN
inequality0NN
education0.0512260062633133NN
due0JJ
urban0JJ
rural0JJ
location0NN
female0.0911713013253052NN
gender0.196902218579822NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.351178258069064
WordScorePoS
report0NN
share0NN
inequality0NN
education0.244244978014045NN
due0JJ
urban0JJ
rural0JJ
location0NN
female0NN
gender0.10561808200669NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.314756505400317
WordScorePoS
report0NN
share0NN
inequality0NN
education0NN
due0JJ
urban0.27622591898666JJ
rural0.0373517915079663JJ
location0NN
female0NN
gender0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.186215320636674
WordScorePoS
report0NN
share0.0365427838531249NN
inequality0NN
education0NN
due0JJ
urban0JJ
rural0.148975141598503JJ
location0NN
female0NN
gender0NN

 GE     GE    ∑  µj  gj   µ c    ∑  µ  log     µ    ∑  µj   µj     log     µ   µ   ∑ ∑GE  µj  GE    µ if if ∑  µj  GE    µ if where µ is average per capita consumption refers to subgroups refers to the population share of group and GE refers to inequality in group j

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.83265680061384
WordScorePoS
c0NN
average0.146608885563018NN
capita0NN
consumption0NN
population0.0860640399817412NN
share0NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.364344471952099
WordScorePoS
c0NN
average0NN
capita0.0332151194779746NN
consumption0.332151194779746NN
population0.0144336476662975NN
share0NN
inequality0NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.264087063999723
WordScorePoS
c0.109646614213117NN
average0.1656430212089NN
capita0NN
consumption0NN
population0NN
share0NN
inequality0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.254319648238438
WordScorePoS
c0NN
average0NN
capita0.049270765107907NN
consumption0.147812295323721NN
population0.0428212738652355NN
share0.0252035516550537NN
inequality0NN

The between group component of inequality is captured by the first term to the right of the equal sign

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.949515874179252
WordScorePoS
inequality0.635305170773079NN
capture0NN
term0.0396106020715138NN
equal0.0202620733250388JJ

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.204596859994477
WordScorePoS
inequality0NN
capture0NN
term0.149793392961411NN
equal0JJ

It can be interpreted as measuring what would be the level of inequality in the population if everyone within the group had the same group average consumption level µ j

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.824685151258505
WordScorePoS
measure0NN
level0NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
population0.0860640399817412NN
average0.146608885563018NN
consumption0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.339059217648385
WordScorePoS
measure0NN
level0.00513687014008325NN
inequality0NN
population0.0144336476662975NN
average0NN
consumption0.332151194779746NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.303791541502882
WordScorePoS
measure0.0710409787438328NN
level0.0415277415054218NN
inequality0NN
population0NN
average0.1656430212089NN
consumption0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.228632056734536
WordScorePoS
measure0.0347609334428716NN
level0.00761994916892276NN
inequality0NN
population0.0428212738652355NN
average0NN
consumption0.147812295323721NN

The second term on the right reflects the within group inequality GE j

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.969609261908501
WordScorePoS
term0.0396106020715138NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.215198795215484
WordScorePoS
term0.149793392961411NN
inequality0NN

Ratios of the respective components with the overall inequality level provide measure of percentage contribution of between group and within group inequality to total inequality

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.978858062637951
WordScorePoS
ratio0NN
respective0JJ
inequality0.635305170773079NN
level0NN
provide0VB
measure0NN
percentage0NN
contribution0NN
total0NN

Selected world development indicators In this year edition development data are presented in four tables presenting comparative socioeconomic data for more than economies for the most recent year for which data are available and for some indicators for an earlier year

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

An additional table presents basic indicators for economies with sparse data or with populations of less than million

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.493305338790065
WordScorePoS
additional0JJ
basic0.0214106369326177JJ
economy0.0821985033584295NN
datum0NN
population0.0428212738652355NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.373556267635682
WordScorePoS
additional0.036961556179878JJ
basic0JJ
economy0NN
datum0.0739231123597559NN
population0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.31507385671862
WordScorePoS
additional0JJ
basic0.0480507272610562JJ
economy0NN
datum0.0454743001434393NN
population0NN

The indicators presented here are selection from more than included in World Development Indicators

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Published annually World Development Indicators reflects comprehensive view of the development process

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.557606673784752
WordScorePoS
annually0RB
world0.00418824502414673NN
development0.0469463607292177NN
view0.048933054487825NN
process0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.539740404616619
WordScorePoS
annually0RB
world0.00257642711761688NN
development0.0330049940546426NN
view0NN
process0.0737171311497939NN

Its opening chapter reports on the Millennium Development Goals which grew out of agreements and resolutions of world conferences organized by the United Nations U

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.627338819167639
WordScorePoS
report0NN
millennium0.0911713013253052JJ
development0.0124956749436837NN
goal0NN
grow0VB
agreement0NN
world0.00585260443759492NN
conference0.18234260265061NN
organize0VB
unite0VB
nation0NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.417679261576141
WordScorePoS
report0NN
millennium0JJ
development0NN
goal0NN
grow0.0171695137813101VB
agreement0.0236803262479443NN
world0.00351929966767313NN
conference0NN
organize0VB
unite0.0828215106044499VB
nation0.0671298309154199NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.410007457631209
WordScorePoS
report0NN
millennium0JJ
development0.0368309542451156NN
goal0NN
grow0VB
agreement0.0464294830712827NN
world0NN
conference0NN
organize0.107490825192354VB
unite0VB
nation0NN

in the past decade and reaffirmed at the Millennium Summit in September by member countries of the U

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.758899185881397
WordScorePoS
decade0.124232265906675NN
millennium0JJ
country0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.556939260880085
WordScorePoS
decade0NN
millennium0.0911713013253052JJ
country0NN

The other five main sections recognize the contribution of wide range of factors human capital development environmental sustainability macroeconomic performance private sector development and the investment climate and the global links that influence the external environment for development

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.430159402262265
WordScorePoS
recognize0VB
contribution0NN
wide0.0414107553022249JJ
range0.0335649154577099NN
human0.0205355488872215JJ
development0NN
environmental0JJ
sustainability0NN
macroeconomic0JJ
performance0NN
private0JJ
sector0NN
investment0NN
climate0.291881734282273NN
global0.0375696197697663JJ
external0JJ
environment0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.514476609329045
WordScorePoS
recognize0VB
contribution0NN
wide0JJ
range0NN
human0JJ
development0.0469463607292177NN
environmental0JJ
sustainability0.036961556179878NN
macroeconomic0.048933054487825JJ
performance0NN
private0.0898760357768464JJ
sector0.0459744293658165NN
investment0.0766240489430275NN
climate0NN
global0.0201198688839505JJ
external0.048933054487825JJ
environment0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.363792383476072
WordScorePoS
recognize0.0368585655748969VB
contribution0NN
wide0JJ
range0.0368585655748969NN
human0.011275328195446JJ
development0.0330049940546426NN
environmental0.0221298700466866JJ
sustainability0NN
macroeconomic0JJ
performance0NN
private0.0368585655748969JJ
sector0.0565629593551219NN
investment0.0377086395700813NN
climate0NN
global0JJ
external0JJ
environment0.0221298700466866NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.300585810453617
WordScorePoS
recognize0VB
contribution0NN
wide0JJ
range0NN
human0.0101607690729067JJ
development0.022306853314744NN
environmental0.0598270388037045JJ
sustainability0.0409791940864438NN
macroeconomic0JJ
performance0NN
private0JJ
sector0.0169905820958638NN
investment0NN
climate0NN
global0.022306853314744JJ
external0JJ
environment0.079769385071606NN

World Development Indicators is complemented by separately published database that gives access to over data tables and time series indicators for economies and regions

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.479279102322362
WordScorePoS
world0.00257343720272548NN
development0.0164833460638534NN
complement0NN
access0.00514687440545096NN
datum0NN
time0NN
economy0NN
region0.184259548107002NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.519747526020627
WordScorePoS
world0.00418824502414673NN
development0.0469463607292177NN
complement0.0978661089756501NN
access0.00314118376811005NN
datum0.0739231123597559NN
time0NN
economy0NN
region0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.351641176980452
WordScorePoS
world0.00087176582269799NN
development0.00837573444202498NN
complement0NN
access0.00610236075888593NN
datum0NN
time0.0127591822694525NN
economy0NN
region0.124837844401518NN

This database is available through an electronic subscription WDI Online or as CD ROM

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Data sources and methodology Socioeconomic and environmental data presented here are drawn from several sources primary data collected by the World Bank member country statistical publications research institutes and international organizations such as the U

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.621843024027805
WordScorePoS
datum0.0739231123597559NN
source0.0109843026967392NN
environmental0JJ
primary0JJ
world0.00418824502414673NN
bank0.036961556179878NN
country0NN
statistical0.048933054487825JJ
research0NN
international0.00648516099948979JJ
organization0.0422721924574123NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.505256100853038
WordScorePoS
datum0.0454743001434393NN
source0.0135141354781442NN
environmental0.0221298700466866JJ
primary0.0160169090870187JJ
world0.00257642711761688NN
bank0NN
country0NN
statistical0JJ
research0.104016094894625NN
international0.00265959362690358JJ
organization0NN

and its specialized agencies the International Monetary Fund IMF and the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development OECD

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.342086170700746
WordScorePoS
agency0NN
international0.00355521737836969JJ
fund0NN
economic0.128463821595706JJ
cooperation0NN
development0.0055149369084567NN
oecd0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.624512275552031
WordScorePoS
agency0.0542519672965169NN
international0.0023966944644375JJ
fund0NN
economic0.0433009429988926JJ
cooperation0.0203215381458133NN
development0.022306853314744NN
oecd0.108503934593034NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.348992865784217
WordScorePoS
agency0NN
international0.00531301439641424JJ
fund0NN
economic0.0959899298575892JJ
cooperation0.0225244866060403NN
development0.0164833460638534NN
oecd0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.31520824139644
WordScorePoS
agency0NN
international0.00571634317201755JJ
fund0NN
economic0.103276847978089JJ
cooperation0NN
development0.0177346522508396NN
oecd0NN

Although international standards of coverage definition and classification apply to most statistics reported by countries and international agencies there are inevitably differences in timeliness and reliability arising from differences in the capabilities and resources devoted to basic data collection and compilation

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.505413784135291
WordScorePoS
international0.00265959362690358JJ
standard0.0454743001434393NN
coverage0NN
report0NN
country0NN
agency0NN
arise0VB
capability0.0909486002868787NN
resource0.0185001613201543NN
basic0.0480507272610562JJ
datum0.0454743001434393NN
collection0NN

For some topics competing sources of data require review by World Bank staff to ensure that the most reliable data available are presented

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.430128478073376
WordScorePoS
source0.0274787313211514NN
datum0NN
require0VB
review0NN
world0.00261936653839306NN
bank0NN
ensure0.0251662980592747VB
reliable0.149891440995783JJ

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.610926438559164
WordScorePoS
source0.0109843026967392NN
datum0.0739231123597559NN
require0.0211360962287062VB
review0.036961556179878NN
world0.00418824502414673NN
bank0.036961556179878NN
ensure0.00335331148065841VB
reliable0.0299586785922821JJ

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.442142181520508
WordScorePoS
source0.0135141354781442NN
datum0.0454743001434393NN
require0.0260040237236563VB
review0NN
world0.00257642711761688NN
bank0NN
ensure0.00412562425683033VB
reliable0.0737171311497939JJ

In some instances where available data are deemed too weak to provide reliable measures of levels and trends or do not adequately adhere to international standards the data are not shown

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.362770837109754
WordScorePoS
datum0NN
provide0VB
reliable0.149891440995783JJ
measure0NN
level0NN
international0.00540783824576293JJ
standard0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.514377328979153
WordScorePoS
datum0.0454743001434393NN
provide0.00740117451847634VB
reliable0.0737171311497939JJ
measure0NN
level0NN
international0.00265959362690358JJ
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.350780244747634
WordScorePoS
datum0NN
provide0.0295703421524739VB
reliable0JJ
measure0.103895385378356NN
level0.0113874611101829NN
international0.00531301439641424JJ
standard0NN

The data presented are generally consistent with those in World Development Indicators

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.803742570747995
WordScorePoS
datum0.0739231123597559NN
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.402099898968182
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However data have been revised and updated wherever new information has become available

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Differences may also reflect revisions to historical series and changes in methodology

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Thus data of different vintages may be published in different editions of World Bank publications

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Readers are advised not to compile data series from different publications or different editions of the same publication

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Consistent time series data are available on World Development Indicators CD ROM and through WDI Online

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All dollar figures are in current U

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dollars unless otherwise stated

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The various methods used to convert from national currency figures are described in the Technical notes

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Because the World Bank primary business is providing lending and policy advice to its low and middle income members the issues covered in these tables focus mainly on these economies

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Where available information on the highincome economies is also provided for comparison

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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.475282926242793
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.387558453327089
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Label: 7, with a score of: 0.361476235142693
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Readers may wish to refer to national statistical publications and publications of the OECD and the European Union for more information on the high income economies

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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.476599747857731
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.398524693519041
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Classification of economies and summary measures The summary measures at the bottom of each table include economies classified by income per capita and by region

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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.385450708809523
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GNI per capita is used to determine the following income classifications low income or less in middle WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT income to and high income and above

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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.267946151311339
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.53451906353838
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A further division at GNI per capita is made between lower middle income and upper middle income economies

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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.314252660414409
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.587511834911847
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See the table on classification of economies on the next page for list of economies in each group including those with populations of less than million

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Label: 13, with a score of: 0.504129972504483
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Summary measures are either totals indicated by if the aggregates include estimates for missing data and nonreporting countries or by an for simple sums of the data available weighted averages or median values calculated for groups of economies

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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.287163021184814
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Data for the countries excluded from the main tables those presented in Table have been included in the summary measures where data are available or by assuming that they follow the trend of reporting countries

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

This gives more consistent aggregated measure by standardizing country coverage for each period shown

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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.38823340935844
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Where missing information accounts for third or more of the overall estimate however the group measure is reported as not available

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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.377454737857107
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Label: 3, with a score of: 0.356406384116359
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The section on Statistical methods in the Technical notes provides further information on aggregation methods

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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.485493116295067
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Weights used to construct the aggregates are listed in the technical notes for each table

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.891435379283404
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From time to time an economy classification is revised because of changes in the above cutoff values or in the economy measured level of GNI per capita

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When such changes occur aggregates based on those classifications are recalculated for the past period so that consistent time series is maintained

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Terminology and country coverage The term country does not imply political independence but may refer to any territory for which authorities report separate social or economic statistics

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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.563838352931331
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Data are shown for economies as they were constituted in and historical data are revised to reflect current political arrangements

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Label: 13, with a score of: 0.373966205774992
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Throughout the tables exceptions are noted

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Technical notes Because data quality and intercountry comparisons are often problematic readers are encouraged to consult the Technical notes the table on Classification of Economies by Region and Income next page and the footnotes to the tables

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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.291530442203163
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income0.166475342664294NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.532284964828639
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.392040780687505
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For more extensive documentation see World Development Indicators

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Readers may find more information on the WDI and orders can be made online by phone or fax as follows For more information and to order online http www

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.735495179073865
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worldbank

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org data wdi index

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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.523956633971108
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To order by phone or fax or Fax To order by mail The World Bank P

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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.497317356935338
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Box Herndon VA U

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Classification of economies by region and income FY East Asia and the Pacific American Samoa Cambodia China Fiji Indonesia Kiribati Korea Dem

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asia0IN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.428459574807801
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Rep

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Lao PDR Malaysia Marshall Islands Micronesia Fed

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Sts

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Mongolia Myanmar Northern Mariana Islands Palau Papua New Guinea Philippines Samoa Solomon Islands Thailand Timor Leste Tonga Vanuatu Vietnam UMC LIC LMC LMC LMC LMC LIC LIC UMC LMC LMC LIC LIC UMC UMC LIC LMC LMC LIC LMC LIC LMC LMC LIC Europe and Central Asia Albania Armenia Azerbaijan Belarus Bosnia Herzegovina Bulgaria Croatia Czech Rep

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Estonia Georgia Hungary Kazakhstan Kyrgyz Rep

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Latvia Lithuania Macedonia FYR Moldova Poland Romania Russian Federation Serbia Montenegro Slovak Rep

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Tajikistan Turkey Turkmenistan Ukraine Uzbekistan LMC LMC LMC LMC LMC LMC UMC UMC UMC LMC UMC LMC LIC UMC UMC LMC LIC UMC LMC UMC LMC UMC LIC UMC LMC LMC LIC Latin America and the Caribbean Antigua Barbuda UMC Argentina UMC Barbados UMC Belize UMC Bolivia LMC Brazil LMC Chile UMC Colombia LMC Costa Rica UMC Cuba LMC Dominica UMC Dominican Republic LMC Ecuador LMC El Salvador LMC Grenada UMC Guatemala LMC Guyana LMC Haiti LIC Honduras LMC Jamaica LMC Mexico UMC Nicaragua LIC Panama UMC Paraguay LMC Peru LMC St

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Kitts and Nevis UMC St

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Lucia UMC St

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Vincent the Grenadines UMC Suriname LMC Trinidad Tobago UMC Uruguay UMC Venezuela RB UMC Middle East and North Africa Algeria Djibouti Egypt Arab Rep

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Iran Islamic Rep

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Iraq Jordan Lebanon Libya Morocco Oman Syrian Arab Rep

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Tunisia West Bank Gaza Yemen Rep

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LMC LMC LMC LMC LMC LMC UMC UMC LMC UMC LMC LMC LMC LIC South Asia Afghanistan Bangladesh Bhutan India Maldives Nepal Pakistan Sri Lanka LIC LIC LIC LIC LMC LIC LIC LMC Sub Saharan Africa Angola Benin Botswana Burkina Faso Burundi Cameroon Cape Verde Central African Rep

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Chad Comoros Congo Dem

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Rep

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Congo Rep

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Côte Ivoire Equatorial Guinea Eritrea Ethiopia Gabon Gambia The Ghana Guinea Guinea Bissau Kenya Lesotho Liberia Madagascar Malawi Mali Mauritania Mauritius Mayotte Mozambique Namibia Niger Nigeria Rwanda São Tomé Principe Senegal Seychelles Sierra Leone Somalia South Africa Sudan Swaziland Tanzania Togo Uganda Zambia Zimbabwe LMC LIC UMC LIC LIC LIC LMC LIC LIC LIC LIC LIC LIC UMC LIC LIC UMC LIC LIC LIC LIC LIC LIC LIC LIC LIC LIC LIC UMC UMC LIC LMC LIC LIC LIC LIC LIC UMC LIC LIC UMC LIC LMC LIC LIC LIC LIC LIC High income OECD Australia Austria Belgium Canada Denmark Finland France Germany Greece Iceland Ireland Italy Japan Korea Rep

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Luxembourg Netherlands New Zealand Norway Portugal Spain Sweden Switzerland United Kingdom United States Other high income Andorra Aruba Bahamas The Bahrain Bermuda Brunei Cayman Islands Channel Islands Cyprus Faeroe Islands French Polynesia Greenland Guam Hong Kong China Isle of Man Israel Kuwait Liechtenstein Macao China Malta Monaco Netherlands Antilles New Caledonia Puerto Rico Qatar San Marino Saudi Arabia Singapore Slovenia Taiwan China United Arab Emirates Virgin Islands U

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Note This table classifies all World Bank member economies and all other economies with populations of more than

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Economies are divided among income groups according to GNI per capita calculated using the World Bank Atlas method

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.518694485426713
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The groups are low income economies LIC or less lower middle income economies LMC upper middleincome economies UMC and high income economies or more

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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.421666411337599
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Source World Bank data

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Label: 6, with a score of: 0.326778185753377
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.306011851623565
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Table

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Key indicators of development Population Millions Albania Algeria Angola Argentina Armenia Australia Austria Azerbaijan Bangladesh Belarus Belgium Benin Bolivia Bosnia Herzegovina Brazil Bulgaria Burkina Faso Burundi Cambodia Cameroon Canada Central African Rep

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Chad Chile China Hong Kong China Colombia Congo Dem

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Rep

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Congo Rep

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Costa Rica Côte Ivoire Croatia Czech Republic Denmark Dominican Rep

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Ecuador Egypt Arab Rep

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

El Salvador Eritrea Ethiopia Finland France Georgia Germany Ghana Greece Guatemala Guinea Haiti Honduras Hungary India Indonesia Iran Islamic Rep

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Ireland Israel Italy Jamaica Japan Jordan Kazakhstan Kenya Korea Rep

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Kuwait Kyrgyz Rep

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Lao PDR Latvia Lebanon Lithuania Macedonia FYR Madagascar Malawi Malaysia Mali Mauritania

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Average annual growth

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.686393096286111
WordScorePoS
average0.146608885563018NN
growth0.11178243319132NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.554035596489963
WordScorePoS
average0NN
growth0.208565600657229NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.440015658242209
WordScorePoS
average0.1656430212089NN
growth0NN

Gross national income GNI Density people per sq

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.539126531100489
WordScorePoS
gross0.0249900578719309JJ
national0.0134132459226336JJ
income0.017987180284335NN
gnus0.146799163463475NN
density0NN
people0.00432344066632653NNS

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.470397881338634
WordScorePoS
gross0JJ
national0.00886732612541978JJ
income0.166475342664294NN
gnus0NN
density0NN
people0.00571634317201755NNS

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.426435788625281
WordScorePoS
gross0.030745604615229JJ
national0.00412562425683033JJ
income0.110649350233433NN
gnus0NN
density0NN
people0.0186171553883251NNS

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.342051477137559
WordScorePoS
gross0.0373517915079663JJ
national0.00501208088147356JJ
income0NN
gnus0NN
density0.0731385760866977NN
people0.0161552501392041NNS

km billions

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

per capita PPP gross national income GNI billions per capita Life expectancy at birth Gross domestic product GDP per capita growth Male years Female years Adult literacy rate ages and older Carbon dioxide emissions per capita metric tons

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.518743021534113
WordScorePoS
capita0.049270765107907NN
gross0.0410992516792148JJ
national0.0055149369084567JJ
income0NN
gnus0NN
life0.0123650647908625NN
expectancy0NN
birth0NN
domestic0.0695218668857431JJ
product0.0591643007226199NN
gdp0NN
growth0.208565600657229NN
female0NN
adult0JJ
literacy0NN
rate0NN
age0.0252035516550537NN
carbon0NN
dioxide0NN
emission0NN
ton0NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.367474827596485
WordScorePoS
capita0NN
gross0JJ
national0JJ
income0NN
gnus0NN
life0.0125233923809486NN
expectancy0NN
birth0NN
domestic0JJ
product0NN
gdp0NN
growth0NN
female0NN
adult0.163013873070017JJ
literacy0.244520809605025NN
rate0.0216847879059514NN
age0.0255262687343935NN
carbon0NN
dioxide0NN
emission0NN
ton0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.286426414651501
WordScorePoS
capita0NN
gross0JJ
national0.00886732612541978JJ
income0.166475342664294NN
gnus0NN
life0NN
expectancy0NN
birth0.0396106020715138NN
domestic0JJ
product0NN
gdp0NN
growth0.11178243319132NN
female0NN
adult0JJ
literacy0NN
rate0.0172128079963482NN
age0.0202620733250388NN
carbon0NN
dioxide0NN
emission0NN
ton0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.255511347896607
WordScorePoS
capita0NN
gross0.0249900578719309JJ
national0.0134132459226336JJ
income0.017987180284335NN
gnus0.146799163463475NN
life0NN
expectancy0NN
birth0NN
domestic0.0634082886861185JJ
product0.017987180284335NN
gdp0NN
growth0NN
female0NN
adult0JJ
literacy0NN
rate0NN
age0.0153248097886055NN
carbon0NN
dioxide0NN
emission0NN
ton0NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.246222805973716
WordScorePoS
capita0NN
gross0JJ
national0.0112708859309299JJ
income0NN
gnus0NN
life0.00842350130803634NN
expectancy0NN
birth0NN
domestic0JJ
product0NN
gdp0NN
growth0NN
female0NN
adult0JJ
literacy0NN
rate0NN
age0NN
carbon0.0559964069957828NN
dioxide0.0414107553022249NN
emission0.19598742448524NN
ton0NN

Note For data comparability and coverage see the technical notes

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.631107963955828
WordScorePoS
datum0NN
coverage0NN
technical0.124876512346911JJ

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.459107759245035
WordScorePoS
datum0NN
coverage0.0908430554521382NN
technical0JJ

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.385204455194253
WordScorePoS
datum0.0454743001434393NN
coverage0NN
technical0.030745604615229JJ

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.373596796177639
WordScorePoS
datum0.0739231123597559NN
coverage0NN
technical0JJ

Figures in italics are for years other than those specified

Label: 9, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
figure0.0602029956716497NN

Table

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Key indicators of development continued Population Millions Mexico

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.508802927965293
WordScorePoS
key0NN
development0.0177346522508396NN
continue0.0237821918091848VB
population0.0860640399817412NN
million0CD

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.332016603318735
WordScorePoS
key0NN
development0.0100241617629471NN
continue0.0537696560159885VB
population0.0194583992186006NN
million0CD

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.310744752911163
WordScorePoS
key0NN
development0.0055149369084567NN
continue0.0295821503613099VB
population0.0428212738652355NN
million0CD

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.308041370004712
WordScorePoS
key0.0528409850971592NN
development0.0106357666046841NN
continue0VB
population0.0137637438743113NN
million0CD

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.306407165571166
WordScorePoS
key0.0297950283197006NN
development0.0159922815774215NN
continue0VB
population0.0310434135749871NN
million0CD

Moldova

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Mongolia

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Morocco

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Mozambique

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Namibia

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Nepal

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Netherlands

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

New Zealand

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Nicaragua

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Niger

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Nigeria

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Norway

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Oman

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Pakistan

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Panama

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Papua New Guinea

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Paraguay

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Peru

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Philippines

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Poland

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Portugal

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Romania

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Russian Federation

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Rwanda

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Saudi Arabia

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Senegal

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Serbia Montenegro

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Sierra Leone

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Singapore

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Slovak Rep

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Slovenia

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

South Africa

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Spain

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Sri Lanka

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Sudan

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Sweden

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Switzerland

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Syrian Arab Rep

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Tajikistan

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Tanzania

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Thailand

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Togo

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Tunisia

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Turkey

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Turkmenistan

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Uganda

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Ukraine

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

United Kingdom

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.91318849194418
WordScorePoS
unite0.0828215106044499VB

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.407537456169018
WordScorePoS
unite0.036961556179878VB

United States

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.91318849194418
WordScorePoS
unite0.0828215106044499VB

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.407537456169018
WordScorePoS
unite0.036961556179878VB

Uruguay

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Uzbekistan

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Venezuela RB

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Vietnam

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

West Bank Gaza

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.922190632718945
WordScorePoS
bank0.0881366997038154NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.386735616313563
WordScorePoS
bank0.036961556179878NN

Yemen Rep

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Zambia

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Zimbabwe

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

World

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.661149940846533
WordScorePoS
world0.0124838525528648NN

Low income

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.756711939782219
WordScorePoS
income0.166475342664294NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.502955471427553
WordScorePoS
income0.110649350233433NN

Middle income

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.651236533539157
WordScorePoS
middle0JJ
income0.166475342664294NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.668358975651015
WordScorePoS
middle0.0602029956716497JJ
income0.110649350233433NN

Lower middle income

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.651236533539157
WordScorePoS
middle0JJ
income0.166475342664294NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.668358975651015
WordScorePoS
middle0.0602029956716497JJ
income0.110649350233433NN

Upper middle income

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.651236533539157
WordScorePoS
middle0JJ
income0.166475342664294NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.668358975651015
WordScorePoS
middle0.0602029956716497JJ
income0.110649350233433NN

Low middle income

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.651236533539157
WordScorePoS
middle0JJ
income0.166475342664294NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.668358975651015
WordScorePoS
middle0.0602029956716497JJ
income0.110649350233433NN

East Asia Pacific

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Europe Central Asia

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.902717615649585
WordScorePoS
central0.0924643738905717JJ
asia0IN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.430233548663895
WordScorePoS
central0.0440683498519077JJ
asia0IN

Latin America Carib

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Middle East N

Label: 9, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
middle0.0602029956716497JJ

Africa

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

South Asia

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Sub Saharan Africa

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.57938972469668
WordScorePoS
saharan0.0442083771593746JJ
africa0IN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.439223058077786
WordScorePoS
saharan0.0335134328085675JJ
africa0IN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.392664417410503
WordScorePoS
saharan0.0299609328954485JJ
africa0IN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.392542829083243
WordScorePoS
saharan0.0299516555085695JJ
africa0IN

High income

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.756711939782219
WordScorePoS
income0.166475342664294NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.502955471427553
WordScorePoS
income0.110649350233433NN

Average annual growth

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.686393096286111
WordScorePoS
average0.146608885563018NN
growth0.11178243319132NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.554035596489963
WordScorePoS
average0NN
growth0.208565600657229NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.440015658242209
WordScorePoS
average0.1656430212089NN
growth0NN

Gross national income GNI Density people per sq

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.539126531100489
WordScorePoS
gross0.0249900578719309JJ
national0.0134132459226336JJ
income0.017987180284335NN
gnus0.146799163463475NN
density0NN
people0.00432344066632653NNS

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.470397881338634
WordScorePoS
gross0JJ
national0.00886732612541978JJ
income0.166475342664294NN
gnus0NN
density0NN
people0.00571634317201755NNS

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.426435788625281
WordScorePoS
gross0.030745604615229JJ
national0.00412562425683033JJ
income0.110649350233433NN
gnus0NN
density0NN
people0.0186171553883251NNS

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.342051477137559
WordScorePoS
gross0.0373517915079663JJ
national0.00501208088147356JJ
income0NN
gnus0NN
density0.0731385760866977NN
people0.0161552501392041NNS

km billions

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

per capita

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.662206686226422
WordScorePoS
capita0.049270765107907NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.601826190709444
WordScorePoS
capita0.04477822029736NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.446416331346851
WordScorePoS
capita0.0332151194779746NN

k PPP gross national income GNI billions

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.615962366964737
WordScorePoS
gross0.0249900578719309JJ
national0.0134132459226336JJ
income0.017987180284335NN
gnus0.146799163463475NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.531545217012604
WordScorePoS
gross0JJ
national0.00886732612541978JJ
income0.166475342664294NN
gnus0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.4411405867969
WordScorePoS
gross0.030745604615229JJ
national0.00412562425683033JJ
income0.110649350233433NN
gnus0NN

per capita Life expectancy at birth Gross domestic product GDP per capita growth Male years Female years Adult literacy rate ages and older

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.577352595624322
WordScorePoS
capita0.049270765107907NN
life0.0123650647908625NN
expectancy0NN
birth0NN
gross0.0410992516792148JJ
domestic0.0695218668857431JJ
product0.0591643007226199NN
gdp0NN
growth0.208565600657229NN
female0NN
adult0JJ
literacy0NN
rate0NN
age0.0252035516550537NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.524391467327856
WordScorePoS
capita0NN
life0.0125233923809486NN
expectancy0NN
birth0NN
gross0JJ
domestic0JJ
product0NN
gdp0NN
growth0NN
female0NN
adult0.163013873070017JJ
literacy0.244520809605025NN
rate0.0216847879059514NN
age0.0255262687343935NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.306687257095548
WordScorePoS
capita0NN
life0.0250390290383647NN
expectancy0.0407408489778079NN
birth0.0748292956291867NN
gross0JJ
domestic0JJ
product0NN
gdp0NN
growth0NN
female0NN
adult0JJ
literacy0NN
rate0.0433561464459019NN
age0.0893142758861673NN

Carbon dioxide emissions per capita metric tons

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.803039141286199
WordScorePoS
carbon0.0559964069957828NN
dioxide0.0414107553022249NN
emission0.19598742448524NN
capita0NN
ton0NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.342220530433694
WordScorePoS
carbon0.0625160381065121NN
dioxide0NN
emission0.0625160381065121NN
capita0NN
ton0NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.327029090018342
WordScorePoS
carbon0.0373517915079663NN
dioxide0NN
emission0.0373517915079663NN
capita0.04477822029736NN
ton0NN

Note a

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Calculated using the World Bank Atlas method

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.918499615257701
WordScorePoS
world0.0124838525528648NN
bank0.0881366997038154NN

PPP is purchasing power parity see definitions

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.742862169406105
WordScorePoS
power0NN
parity0NN
definition0.120266261535276NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.563148050213803
WordScorePoS
power0NN
parity0.0911713013253052NN
definition0NN

National estimates based on census data

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.531522713178356
WordScorePoS
national0.0134132459226336JJ
estimate0NN
base0.017987180284335NN
datum0.0739231123597559NN

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.413141300038585
WordScorePoS
national0.0036456034155327JJ
estimate0.0195550357485727NN
base0.058665107245718NN
datum0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.406062047597042
WordScorePoS
national0.00558382296134999JJ
estimate0.059903311017139NN
base0.0149758277542848NN
datum0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.361989499014206
WordScorePoS
national0.00412562425683033JJ
estimate0.0221298700466866NN
base0NN
datum0.0454743001434393NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.306285089108008
WordScorePoS
national0.0164833460638534JJ
estimate0NN
base0.0442083771593746NN
datum0NN

The estimate is based on regression others are extrapolated from the latest International Comparison Programme benchmark estimates

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

National estimates based on survey data

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.498730464565389
WordScorePoS
national0.0134132459226336JJ
estimate0NN
base0.017987180284335NN
survey0NN
datum0.0739231123597559NN

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.387652582647493
WordScorePoS
national0.0036456034155327JJ
estimate0.0195550357485727NN
base0.058665107245718NN
survey0NN
datum0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.381010084083632
WordScorePoS
national0.00558382296134999JJ
estimate0.059903311017139NN
base0.0149758277542848NN
survey0NN
datum0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.348348423497206
WordScorePoS
national0.00886732612541978JJ
estimate0NN
base0NN
survey0.064698038783335NN
datum0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.339656587639685
WordScorePoS
national0.00412562425683033JJ
estimate0.0221298700466866NN
base0NN
survey0NN
datum0.0454743001434393NN

Estimate based on bilateral comparison between China and the United States Ruoen and Kai

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.495102185853998
WordScorePoS
estimate0NN
base0NN
unite0.0828215106044499VB

GNI and GNI per capita estimates include the French overseas departments of French Guiana Guadeloupe Martinique and Réunion

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.932277954104006
WordScorePoS
gnus0.146799163463475NN
capita0NN
estimate0NN
include0VB

Excludes data for Transnistria

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.851744941703599
WordScorePoS
datum0.0739231123597559NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.523956633971108
WordScorePoS
datum0.0454743001434393NN

Excludes data for Kosovo

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.851744941703599
WordScorePoS
datum0.0739231123597559NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.523956633971108
WordScorePoS
datum0.0454743001434393NN

Data refers to mainland Tanzania only

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.851744941703599
WordScorePoS
datum0.0739231123597559NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.523956633971108
WordScorePoS
datum0.0454743001434393NN

Estimated to be low income or less

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.682975582212594
WordScorePoS
estimate0NN
income0.166475342664294NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.544735117076287
WordScorePoS
estimate0.0221298700466866NN
income0.110649350233433NN

Table

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Millennium Development Goals eradicating poverty and improving lives Achieve universal primary education Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger Proportion of population below PPP day Survey year Albania Algeria Angola Argentina Armenia Australia Austria Azerbaijan Bangladesh Belarus Belgium Benin Bolivia Bosnia Herzegovina Brazil Bulgaria Burkina Faso Burundi Cambodia Cameroon Canada Central African Rep

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.788762133472131
WordScorePoS
millennium0JJ
development0.0164833460638534NN
goal0NN
eradicate0.0614198493690006VB
poverty0.269969049497485NN
improve0VB
life0.0184786920895884NN
achieve0.0113874611101829VB
universal0JJ
primary0JJ
education0.0225244866060403NN
extreme0.294526332970048JJ
hunger0.0736315832425121NN
proportion0.0376648791150643NN
population0NN
day0.25973846344589NN
survey0NN
central0JJ
african0IN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.281327464100199
WordScorePoS
millennium0JJ
development0.0279277626235394NN
goal0NN
eradicate0VB
poverty0NN
improve0.0305306222517556VB
life0.0125233923809486NN
achieve0.0308700730580309VB
universal0.0182963616752599JJ
primary0.108423939529757JJ
education0.244244978014045NN
extreme0JJ
hunger0NN
proportion0.0255262687343935NN
population0NN
day0NN
survey0NN
central0JJ
african0IN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.279968420178049
WordScorePoS
millennium0JJ
development0.0159922815774215NN
goal0NN
eradicate0VB
poverty0.0261926252110933NN
improve0.0218534471578307VB
life0NN
achieve0.0110482109530745VB
universal0JJ
primary0.0155217067874935JJ
education0NN
extreme0.0714379839896614JJ
hunger0.214313951968984NN
proportion0.0182713919265625NN
population0.0310434135749871NN
day0NN
survey0NN
central0.0440683498519077JJ
african0IN

Chad Chile China Hong Kong China Colombia Congo Dem

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Rep

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Congo Rep

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Costa Rica Côte Ivoire Croatia Czech Rep

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Denmark Dominican Rep

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Ecuador Egypt Arab Rep

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

El Salvador Eritrea Ethiopia Finland France Georgia Germany Ghana Greece Guatemala Guinea Haiti Honduras Hungary India Indonesia Iran Islamic Rep

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Ireland Israel Italy Jamaica Japan Jordan Kazakhstan Kenya Korea Rep

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Kuwait Kyrgyz Rep

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Lao PDR Latvia Lebanon Lithuania Macedonia FYR Madagascar Malawi Malaysia Mali Mauritania Prevalence of child malnutrition of children under < <

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

<

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

<

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

<

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

<

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

< <

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

<

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

<

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

<

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

<

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

< <

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

<

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

<

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

<

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

< <

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

<

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Primary completion rate

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.62087372377191
WordScorePoS
primary0.108423939529757JJ
rate0.0216847879059514NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.462994257596387
WordScorePoS
primary0.0970239057629001JJ
rate0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.409402142600631
WordScorePoS
primary0.0285977592242194JJ
rate0.0571955184484387NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.305373443528786
WordScorePoS
primary0JJ
rate0.0639932865717261NN

Promote gender equality Reduce child mortality Gender parity ratio in primary and secondary school Under five mortality rate per

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.63559670012743
WordScorePoS
promote0.00624783747184187VB
gender0.196902218579822NN
equality0.18624433894234NN
reduce0VB
child0.0170753354211044NN
mortality0NN
parity0.0911713013253052NN
ratio0.0688661930304451NN
primary0.0970239057629001JJ
secondary0.0688661930304451JJ
school0.0931221694711702NN
rate0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.520211651050363
WordScorePoS
promote0.00837573444202498VB
gender0.0175975629039954NN
equality0NN
reduce0.01675146888405VB
child0.10682408961305NN
mortality0.276962203701274NN
parity0NN
ratio0.0615471563780609NN
primary0.0108390366114755JJ
secondary0JJ
school0NN
rate0.0433561464459019NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.486004378857618
WordScorePoS
promote0.0111711050494158VB
gender0.10561808200669NN
equality0.0832510082312742NN
reduce0VB
child0.076326555629389NN
mortality0NN
parity0NN
ratio0NN
primary0.108423939529757JJ
secondary0.0615662203253227JJ
school0.208127520578185NN
rate0.0216847879059514NN

Note For data comparability and coverage see the technical notes

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.631107963955828
WordScorePoS
datum0NN
coverage0NN
technical0.124876512346911JJ

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.459107759245035
WordScorePoS
datum0NN
coverage0.0908430554521382NN
technical0JJ

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.385204455194253
WordScorePoS
datum0.0454743001434393NN
coverage0NN
technical0.030745604615229JJ

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.373596796177639
WordScorePoS
datum0.0739231123597559NN
coverage0NN
technical0JJ

Figures in italics are for years other than those specified

Label: 9, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
figure0.0602029956716497NN

Combat HIV AIDS and other diseases Improve maternal health HIV prevalence of population ages Maternal mortality rate per live births Modeled estimates Births attended by skilled health staff of total

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.95940106773511
WordScorePoS
combat0.020806307400253NN
hiv0.448149338755887NN
aid0.123094312756122NN
disease0.215415047323213NN
improve0VB
maternal0.184641469134183JJ
health0.191387734041787NN
prevalence0.0407408489778079NN
population0NN
age0.0893142758861673NN
mortality0.276962203701274NN
rate0.0433561464459019NN
live0.0300513417930436VB
birth0.0748292956291867NN
estimate0.059903311017139NN
attend0VB
total0NN

<

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

<

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

<

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

<

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

<

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

<

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

<

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

<

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Table

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Millennium Development Goals eradicating poverty and improving lives continued Achieve universal primary education Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger Proportion of population below PPP day Survey year Mexico Moldova Mongolia Morocco Mozambique Namibia Nepal Netherlands New Zealand Nicaragua Niger Nigeria Norway Oman Pakistan Panama Papua New Guinea Paraguay Peru Philippines Poland Portugal Romania Russian Federation Rwanda Saudi Arabia Senegal Serbia Montenegro Sierra Leone Singapore Slovak Rep

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.784844907615125
WordScorePoS
millennium0JJ
development0.0164833460638534NN
goal0NN
eradicate0.0614198493690006VB
poverty0.269969049497485NN
improve0VB
life0.0184786920895884NN
continue0VB
achieve0.0113874611101829VB
universal0JJ
primary0JJ
education0.0225244866060403NN
extreme0.294526332970048JJ
hunger0.0736315832425121NN
proportion0.0376648791150643NN
population0NN
day0.25973846344589NN
survey0NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.279930308773018
WordScorePoS
millennium0JJ
development0.0279277626235394NN
goal0NN
eradicate0VB
poverty0NN
improve0.0305306222517556VB
life0.0125233923809486NN
continue0VB
achieve0.0308700730580309VB
universal0.0182963616752599JJ
primary0.108423939529757JJ
education0.244244978014045NN
extreme0JJ
hunger0NN
proportion0.0255262687343935NN
population0NN
day0NN
survey0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.253823865169756
WordScorePoS
millennium0JJ
development0.0159922815774215NN
goal0NN
eradicate0VB
poverty0.0261926252110933NN
improve0.0218534471578307VB
life0NN
continue0VB
achieve0.0110482109530745VB
universal0JJ
primary0.0155217067874935JJ
education0NN
extreme0.0714379839896614JJ
hunger0.214313951968984NN
proportion0.0182713919265625NN
population0.0310434135749871NN
day0NN
survey0NN

Slovenia South Africa Spain Sri Lanka Sudan Sweden Switzerland Syrian Arab Rep

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Tajikistan Tanzania Thailand Togo Tunisia Turkey Turkmenistan Uganda Ukraine United Kingdom United States Uruguay Uzbekistan Venezuela RB Vietnam West Bank Gaza Yemen Rep

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Zambia Zimbabwe World Low income Middle income Lower middle income Upper middle income Low middle income East Asia Pacific Europe Central Asia Latin America Carib

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.652811587104108
WordScorePoS
world0.00276879546803864NN
income0.166475342664294NN
middle0JJ
asia0IN
central0JJ

Middle East N

Label: 9, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
middle0.0602029956716497JJ

Africa South Asia Sub Saharan Africa High income Prevalence of child malnutrition of children under

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.370696611171298
WordScorePoS
africa0IN
south0RB
asia0IN
saharan0JJ
income0.166475342664294NN
prevalence0NN
child0.0242343960710022NN
malnutrition0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.490379176735075
WordScorePoS
africa0IN
south0RB
asia0IN
saharan0.0299516555085695JJ
income0NN
prevalence0.0407408489778079NN
child0.10682408961305NN
malnutrition0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.434856122392287
WordScorePoS
africa0IN
south0RB
asia0IN
saharan0.0442083771593746JJ
income0.0442083771593746NN
prevalence0NN
child0.0450489732120807NN
malnutrition0.0736315832425121NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.397988309112448
WordScorePoS
africa0IN
south0RB
asia0IN
saharan0.0214456704626236JJ
income0.0643370113878709NN
prevalence0NN
child0.0546336178945768NN
malnutrition0.0357189919948307NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.314939541761685
WordScorePoS
africa0IN
south0RB
asia0IN
saharan0.0299609328954485JJ
income0NN
prevalence0NN
child0.076326555629389NN
malnutrition0NN

<

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

< < < <

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

< <

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

<

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

<

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

<

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Primary completion rate

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.62087372377191
WordScorePoS
primary0.108423939529757JJ
rate0.0216847879059514NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.462994257596387
WordScorePoS
primary0.0970239057629001JJ
rate0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.409402142600631
WordScorePoS
primary0.0285977592242194JJ
rate0.0571955184484387NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.305373443528786
WordScorePoS
primary0JJ
rate0.0639932865717261NN

Promote gender equality Reduce child mortality Gender parity ratio in primary and secondary school Under five mortality rate per

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.63559670012743
WordScorePoS
promote0.00624783747184187VB
gender0.196902218579822NN
equality0.18624433894234NN
reduce0VB
child0.0170753354211044NN
mortality0NN
parity0.0911713013253052NN
ratio0.0688661930304451NN
primary0.0970239057629001JJ
secondary0.0688661930304451JJ
school0.0931221694711702NN
rate0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.520211651050363
WordScorePoS
promote0.00837573444202498VB
gender0.0175975629039954NN
equality0NN
reduce0.01675146888405VB
child0.10682408961305NN
mortality0.276962203701274NN
parity0NN
ratio0.0615471563780609NN
primary0.0108390366114755JJ
secondary0JJ
school0NN
rate0.0433561464459019NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.486004378857618
WordScorePoS
promote0.0111711050494158VB
gender0.10561808200669NN
equality0.0832510082312742NN
reduce0VB
child0.076326555629389NN
mortality0NN
parity0NN
ratio0NN
primary0.108423939529757JJ
secondary0.0615662203253227JJ
school0.208127520578185NN
rate0.0216847879059514NN

Combat HIV AIDS and other diseases Improve maternal health HIV prevalence of population ages Maternal mortality rate per live births Modeled estimates

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.965791349198709
WordScorePoS
combat0.020806307400253NN
hiv0.448149338755887NN
aid0.123094312756122NN
disease0.215415047323213NN
improve0VB
maternal0.184641469134183JJ
health0.191387734041787NN
prevalence0.0407408489778079NN
population0NN
age0.0893142758861673NN
mortality0.276962203701274NN
rate0.0433561464459019NN
live0.0300513417930436VB
birth0.0748292956291867NN
estimate0.059903311017139NN

<

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

<

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

<

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

<

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

<

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

<

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

<

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

<

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

<

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

<

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Births attended by skilled health staff of total

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.814118470141651
WordScorePoS
birth0.0748292956291867NN
attend0VB
health0.191387734041787NN
total0NN

Data are for the most recent year available

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.851744941703599
WordScorePoS
datum0.0739231123597559NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.523956633971108
WordScorePoS
datum0.0454743001434393NN

Data are for or closest year

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.851744941703599
WordScorePoS
datum0.0739231123597559NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.523956633971108
WordScorePoS
datum0.0454743001434393NN

Expenditure base

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.620008875845685
WordScorePoS
expenditure0.064698038783335NN
base0NN

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.56219458701974
WordScorePoS
expenditure0NN
base0.058665107245718NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.423654051049938
WordScorePoS
expenditure0NN
base0.0442083771593746NN

income base

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.681576779569935
WordScorePoS
income0.166475342664294NN
base0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.453016204001391
WordScorePoS
income0.110649350233433NN
base0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.361992387005457
WordScorePoS
income0.0442083771593746NN
base0.0442083771593746NN

Preliminary data

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.851744941703599
WordScorePoS
datum0.0739231123597559NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.523956633971108
WordScorePoS
datum0.0454743001434393NN

Survey data

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.68288339501151
WordScorePoS
survey0NN
datum0.0739231123597559NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.597664451138594
WordScorePoS
survey0.064698038783335NN
datum0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.420080316918988
WordScorePoS
survey0NN
datum0.0454743001434393NN

Survey data

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.68288339501151
WordScorePoS
survey0NN
datum0.0739231123597559NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.597664451138594
WordScorePoS
survey0.064698038783335NN
datum0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.420080316918988
WordScorePoS
survey0NN
datum0.0454743001434393NN

Survey data

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.68288339501151
WordScorePoS
survey0NN
datum0.0739231123597559NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.597664451138594
WordScorePoS
survey0.064698038783335NN
datum0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.420080316918988
WordScorePoS
survey0NN
datum0.0454743001434393NN

Survey data

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.68288339501151
WordScorePoS
survey0NN
datum0.0739231123597559NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.597664451138594
WordScorePoS
survey0.064698038783335NN
datum0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.420080316918988
WordScorePoS
survey0NN
datum0.0454743001434393NN

Survey data

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.68288339501151
WordScorePoS
survey0NN
datum0.0739231123597559NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.597664451138594
WordScorePoS
survey0.064698038783335NN
datum0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.420080316918988
WordScorePoS
survey0NN
datum0.0454743001434393NN

Represent only of the population

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.608193475876828
WordScorePoS
represent0.0516150472983178VB
population0.0363595928905615NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.594984958302951
WordScorePoS
represent0VB
population0.0860640399817412NN

Table

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Economic activity Value added as of GDP Gross domestic product Albania Algeria Angola Argentina Armenia Australia Austria Azerbaijan Bangladesh Belarus Belgium Benin Bolivia Bosnia Herzegovina Brazil Bulgaria Burkina Faso Burundi Cambodia Cameroon Canada Central African Rep

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.762075105700564
WordScorePoS
economic0.128463821595706JJ
activity0.0295821503613099NN
add0.0804764811724088VB
gdp0NN
gross0.0410992516792148JJ
domestic0.0695218668857431JJ
product0.0591643007226199NN
central0JJ
african0IN

Chad Chile China Hong Kong China Colombia Congo Dem

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Rep

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Congo Rep

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Costa Rica Côte Ivoire Croatia Czech Rep

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Denmark Dominican Rep

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Ecuador Egypt Arab Rep

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

El Salvador Eritrea Ethiopia Finland France Georgia Germany Ghana Greece Guatemala Guinea Haiti Honduras Hungary India Indonesia Iran Islamic Rep

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Ireland Israel Italy Jamaica Japan Jordan Kazakhstan Kenya Korea Rep

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Kuwait Kyrgyz Rep

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Lao PDR Latvia Lebanon Lithuania Macedonia FYR Madagascar Malawi Malaysia Mali Mauritania Agricultural productivity Agr

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.898564509978077
WordScorePoS
agricultural0.250032943963815JJ
productivity0.0595900566394012NN

Value added per agricultural worker dollars Agriculture Industry Services millions Avg

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.72178602694484
WordScorePoS
add0VB
agricultural0.250032943963815JJ
worker0NN
dollar0NN
agriculture0.148975141598503NN
industry0NN
service0.0143446978608332NN
million0CD

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.487239245811486
WordScorePoS
add0VB
agricultural0.0368585655748969JJ
worker0.0454743001434393NN
dollar0NN
agriculture0NN
industry0.181897200573757NN
service0.0148023490369527NN
million0CD

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.387370069211462
WordScorePoS
add0.0804764811724088VB
agricultural0JJ
worker0.121575732851624NN
dollar0NN
agriculture0NN
industry0NN
service0.0197870712294258NN
million0CD

annual growth

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.851431893492884
WordScorePoS
growth0.208565600657229NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.456331861301254
WordScorePoS
growth0.11178243319132NN

Household final cons

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.930742918006213
WordScorePoS
household0.0554128417527413NN
final0.108503934593034JJ

expenditure of GDP General gov t

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.772412912241943
WordScorePoS
expenditure0.064698038783335NN
gdp0NN

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.635120691681447
WordScorePoS
expenditure0NN
gdp0.0531983120572613NN

final cons

Label: 12, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
final0.108503934593034JJ

expenditure of GDP Gross capital formation of GDP External balance of goods and services of GDP GDP implicit deflator Avg

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

annual growth

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.851431893492884
WordScorePoS
growth0.208565600657229NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.456331861301254
WordScorePoS
growth0.11178243319132NN

Note For data comparability and coverage see the technical notes

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.631107963955828
WordScorePoS
datum0NN
coverage0NN
technical0.124876512346911JJ

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.459107759245035
WordScorePoS
datum0NN
coverage0.0908430554521382NN
technical0JJ

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.385204455194253
WordScorePoS
datum0.0454743001434393NN
coverage0NN
technical0.030745604615229JJ

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.373596796177639
WordScorePoS
datum0.0739231123597559NN
coverage0NN
technical0JJ

Figures in italics are for years other than those specified

Label: 9, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
figure0.0602029956716497NN

Table

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Economic activity continued Value added as of GDP Gross domestic product Millions of dollars Mexico Moldova Mongolia Morocco Mozambique Namibia Nepal Netherlands New Zealand Nicaragua Niger Nigeria Norway Oman Pakistan Panama Papua New Guinea Paraguay Peru Philippines Poland Portugal Romania Russian Federation Rwanda Saudi Arabia Senegal Serbia Montenegro Sierra Leone Singapore Slovak Rep

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.737147355816301
WordScorePoS
economic0.128463821595706JJ
activity0.0295821503613099NN
continue0.0295821503613099VB
add0.0804764811724088VB
gdp0NN
gross0.0410992516792148JJ
domestic0.0695218668857431JJ
product0.0591643007226199NN
million0CD
dollar0NN

Slovenia South Africa Spain Sri Lanka Sudan Sweden Switzerland Syrian Arab Rep

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Tajikistan Tanzania Thailand Togo Tunisia Turkey Turkmenistan Uganda Ukraine United Kingdom United States Uruguay Uzbekistan Venezuela RB Vietnam West Bank Gaza Yemen Rep

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Zambia Zimbabwe World Low income Middle income Lower middle income Upper middle income Low middle income East Asia Pacific Europe Central Asia Latin America Carib

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.652811587104108
WordScorePoS
world0.00276879546803864NN
income0.166475342664294NN
middle0JJ
asia0IN
central0JJ

Middle East N

Label: 9, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
middle0.0602029956716497JJ

Africa South Asia Sub Saharan Africa High income Avg

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.649053734730093
WordScorePoS
africa0IN
south0RB
asia0IN
saharan0JJ
income0.166475342664294NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.517679359826576
WordScorePoS
africa0IN
south0RB
asia0IN
saharan0.0221298700466866JJ
income0.110649350233433NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.344719065807971
WordScorePoS
africa0IN
south0RB
asia0IN
saharan0.0442083771593746JJ
income0.0442083771593746NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.334449349309967
WordScorePoS
africa0IN
south0RB
asia0IN
saharan0.0214456704626236JJ
income0.0643370113878709NN

annual growth

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.851431893492884
WordScorePoS
growth0.208565600657229NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.456331861301254
WordScorePoS
growth0.11178243319132NN

Agricultural productivity Agr

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.898564509978077
WordScorePoS
agricultural0.250032943963815JJ
productivity0.0595900566394012NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.374650869358851
WordScorePoS
agricultural0.0368585655748969JJ
productivity0.0922368138456871NN

Value added per agricultural worker dollars Agriculture Industry Services Household final cons

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.694603303214861
WordScorePoS
add0VB
agricultural0.250032943963815JJ
worker0NN
dollar0NN
agriculture0.148975141598503NN
industry0NN
service0.0143446978608332NN
household0.0297950283197006NN
final0JJ

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.437363859767955
WordScorePoS
add0VB
agricultural0.0368585655748969JJ
worker0.0454743001434393NN
dollar0NN
agriculture0NN
industry0.181897200573757NN
service0.0148023490369527NN
household0NN
final0JJ

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.347717615289254
WordScorePoS
add0.0804764811724088VB
agricultural0JJ
worker0.121575732851624NN
dollar0NN
agriculture0NN
industry0NN
service0.0197870712294258NN
household0NN
final0JJ

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.310810094488337
WordScorePoS
add0VB
agricultural0JJ
worker0NN
dollar0NN
agriculture0.0277064208763707NN
industry0NN
service0.00666957305782837NN
household0.0554128417527413NN
final0.108503934593034JJ

expenditure of GDP

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.772412912241943
WordScorePoS
expenditure0.064698038783335NN
gdp0NN

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.635120691681447
WordScorePoS
expenditure0NN
gdp0.0531983120572613NN

General gov t

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

final cons

Label: 12, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
final0.108503934593034JJ

expenditure of GDP

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.772412912241943
WordScorePoS
expenditure0.064698038783335NN
gdp0NN

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.635120691681447
WordScorePoS
expenditure0NN
gdp0.0531983120572613NN

a Gross capital formation of GDP External balance of goods and services of GDP GDP implicit deflator Avg

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

annual growth

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.851431893492884
WordScorePoS
growth0.208565600657229NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.456331861301254
WordScorePoS
growth0.11178243319132NN

Note a

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Data on general government final consumption expenditure are not available they are included in household final consumption expenditure

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.916978290432296
WordScorePoS
datum0NN
government0NN
final0.108503934593034JJ
consumption0.332151194779746NN
expenditure0NN
include0VB
household0.0554128417527413NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.28939323861815
WordScorePoS
datum0NN
government0NN
final0JJ
consumption0.147812295323721NN
expenditure0NN
include0VB
household0NN

Data covers mainland Tanzania only

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.715502554044409
WordScorePoS
datum0.0739231123597559NN
cover0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.440146212157135
WordScorePoS
datum0.0454743001434393NN
cover0NN

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.388934724658282
WordScorePoS
datum0NN
cover0.0401833161726777NN

Table

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Trade aid and finance Merchandise trade Exports Albania Algeria Angola Argentina Armenia Australia Austria Azerbaijan Bangladesh Belarus Belgium Benin Bolivia Bosnia Herzegovina Brazil Bulgaria Burkina Faso Burundi Cambodia Cameroon Canada Central African Rep

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Chad Chile China Hong Kong China Colombia Congo Dem

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Rep

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Congo Rep

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Costa Rica Côte Ivoire Croatia Czech Rep

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Denmark Dominican Rep

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Ecuador Egypt Arab Rep

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

El Salvador Eritrea Ethiopia Finland France Georgia Germany Ghana Greece Guatemala Guinea Haiti Honduras Hungary India Indonesia Iran Islamic Rep

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Ireland Israel Italy Jamaica Japan Jordan Kazakhstan Kenya Korea Rep

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Kuwait Kyrgyz Rep

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Lao PDR Latvia Lebanon Lithuania Macedonia FYR Madagascar Malawi Malaysia Mali Mauritania Imports External debt millions millions Manufactured exports of total merchandise exports

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.900697533739224
WordScorePoS
import0.0978661089756501NN
external0.048933054487825JJ
debt0.342531381414775NN
million0CD
manufacture0NN
export0.110884668539634NN
total0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.337956066416873
WordScorePoS
import0NN
external0JJ
debt0NN
million0CD
manufacture0.240811982686599NN
export0NN
total0.0260040237236563NN

High technology exports of manufactured exports

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.62522365455532
WordScorePoS
technology0.0810848128688654NN
export0NN
manufacture0.240811982686599NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.644094309131629
WordScorePoS
technology0.109843026967392NN
export0.110884668539634NN
manufacture0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.367814855698266
WordScorePoS
technology0.0130963126055467NN
export0.0881366997038154NN
manufacture0NN

Current account balance millions

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.772795541121811
WordScorePoS
current0.0332151194779746JJ
account0.0577345906651901NN
million0CD

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.397006226348009
WordScorePoS
current0.0325700316331562JJ
account0.0141533244035107NN
million0CD

Net private capital flows millions Foreign direct investment millions

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.73645751192048
WordScorePoS
private0.0898760357768464JJ
flow0NN
million0CD
foreign0.036961556179878JJ
direct0.0299586785922821JJ
investment0.0766240489430275NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.497276723231653
WordScorePoS
private0JJ
flow0.0488696285210061NN
million0CD
foreign0.0488696285210061JJ
direct0.0396106020715138JJ
investment0.0202620733250388NN

Official development assistance or official aida per capita Note For data comparability and coverage see the technical notes

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.691399378186025
WordScorePoS
official0.0739231123597559NN
development0.0469463607292177NN
assistance0.0499801157438617NN
capita0NN
datum0.0739231123597559NN
coverage0NN
technical0JJ

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.331503509635475
WordScorePoS
official0NN
development0.0279277626235394NN
assistance0NN
capita0NN
datum0NN
coverage0NN
technical0.124876512346911JJ

Figures in italics are for years other than those specified

Label: 9, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
figure0.0602029956716497NN

Total millions Present value of GNI Domestic credit provided by banking sector of GDP

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.642957511581709
WordScorePoS
total0NN
million0CD
gnus0.146799163463475NN
domestic0.0634082886861185JJ
credit0NN
banking0NN
sector0.0459744293658165NN
gdp0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.488847978998713
WordScorePoS
total0.0260040237236563NN
million0CD
gnus0NN
domestic0.0520080474473126JJ
credit0.0602029956716497NN
banking0NN
sector0.0565629593551219NN
gdp0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.439716410847013
WordScorePoS
total0NN
million0CD
gnus0NN
domestic0.0695218668857431JJ
credit0NN
banking0.0804764811724088NN
sector0.0252035516550537NN
gdp0NN

Net migration thousands Table

Label: 10, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
migration0.12939607756667NN

Trade aid and finance continued Merchandise trade Exports Mexico Moldova Mongolia Morocco Mozambique Namibia Nepal Netherlands New Zealand Nicaragua Niger Nigeria Norway Oman Pakistan Panama Papua New Guinea Paraguay Peru Philippines Poland Portugal Romania Russian Federation Rwanda Saudi Arabia Senegal Serbia Montenegro Sierra Leone Singapore Slovak Rep

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Slovenia South Africa Spain Sri Lanka Sudan Sweden Switzerland Syrian Arab Rep

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Tajikistan Tanzania Thailand Togo Tunisia Turkey Turkmenistan Uganda Ukraine United Kingdom United States Uruguay Uzbekistan Venezuela RB Vietnam West Bank Gaza Yemen Rep

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Zambia Zimbabwe World Low income Middle income Lower middle income Upper middle income Low middle income East Asia Pacific Europe Central Asia Latin America Carib

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.652811587104108
WordScorePoS
world0.00276879546803864NN
income0.166475342664294NN
middle0JJ
asia0IN
central0JJ

Middle East N

Label: 9, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
middle0.0602029956716497JJ

Africa South Asia Sub Saharan Africa High income Imports millions millions

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.59272346798004
WordScorePoS
africa0IN
south0RB
asia0IN
saharan0JJ
income0.166475342664294NN
import0NN
million0CD

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.472750851030375
WordScorePoS
africa0IN
south0RB
asia0IN
saharan0.0221298700466866JJ
income0.110649350233433NN
import0NN
million0CD

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.412487292640974
WordScorePoS
africa0IN
south0RB
asia0IN
saharan0JJ
income0.017987180284335NN
import0.0978661089756501NN
million0CD

External debt Manufactured exports of total merchandise exports

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.872758069214942
WordScorePoS
external0.048933054487825JJ
debt0.342531381414775NN
manufacture0NN
export0.110884668539634NN
total0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.37973417781271
WordScorePoS
external0JJ
debt0NN
manufacture0.240811982686599NN
export0NN
total0.0260040237236563NN

High technology exports of manufactured exports

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.62522365455532
WordScorePoS
technology0.0810848128688654NN
export0NN
manufacture0.240811982686599NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.644094309131629
WordScorePoS
technology0.109843026967392NN
export0.110884668539634NN
manufacture0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.367814855698266
WordScorePoS
technology0.0130963126055467NN
export0.0881366997038154NN
manufacture0NN

Current account balance millions

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.772795541121811
WordScorePoS
current0.0332151194779746JJ
account0.0577345906651901NN
million0CD

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.397006226348009
WordScorePoS
current0.0325700316331562JJ
account0.0141533244035107NN
million0CD

Net private capital flows millions Foreign direct investment millions

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.73645751192048
WordScorePoS
private0.0898760357768464JJ
flow0NN
million0CD
foreign0.036961556179878JJ
direct0.0299586785922821JJ
investment0.0766240489430275NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.497276723231653
WordScorePoS
private0JJ
flow0.0488696285210061NN
million0CD
foreign0.0488696285210061JJ
direct0.0396106020715138JJ
investment0.0202620733250388NN

Official development assistance or official aida per capita Total millions Present value of GNI

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.844168067613135
WordScorePoS
official0.0739231123597559NN
development0.0469463607292177NN
assistance0.0499801157438617NN
capita0NN
total0NN
million0CD
gnus0.146799163463475NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.320175527285678
WordScorePoS
official0.0488696285210061NN
development0.0177346522508396NN
assistance0.0330412182586772NN
capita0NN
total0NN
million0CD
gnus0NN

Domestic credit provided by banking sector of GDP

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.599657990348237
WordScorePoS
domestic0.0695218668857431JJ
credit0NN
banking0.0804764811724088NN
sector0.0252035516550537NN
gdp0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.57765743015519
WordScorePoS
domestic0.0520080474473126JJ
credit0.0602029956716497NN
banking0NN
sector0.0565629593551219NN
gdp0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.374380762955319
WordScorePoS
domestic0.0634082886861185JJ
credit0NN
banking0NN
sector0.0459744293658165NN
gdp0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.330240722197725
WordScorePoS
domestic0.0393804437159645JJ
credit0NN
banking0NN
sector0.0571058915334038NN
gdp0NN

Net migration thousands

Label: 10, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
migration0.12939607756667NN

w Note a

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Regional aggregates include data for economies that are not specified elsewhere

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.561454469506839
WordScorePoS
regional0.0422721924574123JJ
include0VB
datum0.0739231123597559NN
economy0NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.405861059105303
WordScorePoS
regional0JJ
include0VB
datum0NN
economy0.0839946104936743NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.397182288647383
WordScorePoS
regional0JJ
include0VB
datum0NN
economy0.0821985033584295NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.345382496058555
WordScorePoS
regional0.0260040237236563JJ
include0VB
datum0.0454743001434393NN
economy0NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.30207682716604
WordScorePoS
regional0JJ
include0VB
datum0NN
economy0.0625160381065121NN

World and income group totals include aid not allocated by country or region

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.514300035439307
WordScorePoS
world0.00257343720272548NN
income0.0442083771593746NN
total0NN
include0VB
aid0NN
country0NN
region0.184259548107002NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.376738889128539
WordScorePoS
world0.00276879546803864NN
income0.166475342664294NN
total0NN
include0VB
aid0NN
country0NN
region0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.553839646021559
WordScorePoS
world0.00087176582269799NN
income0NN
total0NN
include0VB
aid0.123094312756122NN
country0NN
region0.124837844401518NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.309926719881187
WordScorePoS
world0.00257642711761688NN
income0.110649350233433NN
total0.0260040237236563NN
include0VB
aid0NN
country0NN
region0NN

Includes Luxembourg

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Data are from debt sustainability analysis undertaken as part of the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries HIPC initiative

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.923205400006264
WordScorePoS
datum0.0739231123597559NN
debt0.342531381414775NN
sustainability0.036961556179878NN
undertake0VB
heavily0RB
indebted0.048933054487825JJ
poor0.0153248097886055JJ
country0NN
initiative0.036961556179878NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.250776747212802
WordScorePoS
datum0NN
debt0NN
sustainability0NN
undertake0VB
heavily0RB
indebted0JJ
poor0.150659516460257JJ
country0NN
initiative0NN

Includes re exports

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.782831493644596
WordScorePoS
include0VB
export0.110884668539634NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.622233760381233
WordScorePoS
include0VB
export0.0881366997038154NN

Data are estimates and reflect borrowing by the former Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia that are not yet allocated to the successor republics

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Data on total exports and imports refer to South Africa only

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.877706980748709
WordScorePoS
datum0.0739231123597559NN
total0NN
export0.110884668539634NN
import0.0978661089756501NN
south0RB
africa0IN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.351912418028354
WordScorePoS
datum0NN
total0.0252000451111224NN
export0.0881366997038154NN
import0NN
south0RB
africa0IN

Data on export commodity shares refer to the South African Customs Union Botswana Lesotho Namibia South Africa and Swaziland

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.765751234309146
WordScorePoS
datum0.0739231123597559NN
export0.110884668539634NN
commodity0NN
share0.0766240489430275NN
south0RB
african0IN
africa0IN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.494273638361895
WordScorePoS
datum0NN
export0.0881366997038154NN
commodity0.0440683498519077NN
share0.0365427838531249NN
south0RB
african0IN
africa0IN

GNI refers to mainaland Tanzania only

Label: 17, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
gnus0.146799163463475NN

World totals computed by the UN sum to zero but because the aggregates shown here refer to World Bank definitions regional and income group totals do not equal zero

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.356438437739875
WordScorePoS
world0.00276879546803864NN
total0NN
bank0NN
definition0NN
regional0JJ
income0.166475342664294NN
equal0.0202620733250388JJ

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.502958565707186
WordScorePoS
world0.0124838525528648NN
total0.0252000451111224NN
bank0.0881366997038154NN
definition0NN
regional0.0252000451111224JJ
income0.0643370113878709NN
equal0.0182713919265625JJ

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.480566838663935
WordScorePoS
world0.00257343720272548NN
total0NN
bank0NN
definition0.120266261535276NN
regional0.0519476926891779JJ
income0.0442083771593746NN
equal0.0376648791150643JJ

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.359291926316128
WordScorePoS
world0.00257642711761688NN
total0.0260040237236563NN
bank0NN
definition0NN
regional0.0260040237236563JJ
income0.110649350233433NN
equal0JJ

Data include the intratrade of the Baltic states and the Commonwealth of Independent States

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.851744941703599
WordScorePoS
datum0.0739231123597559NN
include0VB

Table

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Key indicators for other economies Gross national income GNI Population Thousands Afghanistan American Samoa Andorra Antigua and Barbuda Aruba Bahamas The Bahrain Barbados Belize Bermuda Bhutan Botswana Brunei Cape Verde Cayman Islands Channel Islands Comoros Cuba Cyprus Djibouti Dominica Equatorial Guinea Estonia Faeroe Islands Fiji French Polynesia Gabon Gambia The Greenland Grenada Guam Guinea Bissau Guyana Iceland Iraq Isle of Man Kiribati Korea Dem

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.56264594537566
WordScorePoS
key0NN
economy0NN
gross0JJ
national0.00886732612541978JJ
income0.166475342664294NN
gnus0NN
population0.0860640399817412NN
island0.0344256159926965NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.37374416276617
WordScorePoS
key0NN
economy0NN
gross0.0249900578719309JJ
national0.0134132459226336JJ
income0.017987180284335NN
gnus0.146799163463475NN
population0NN
island0.0130185595639838NN

Rep

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Lesotho Liberia Libya Liechtenstein Luxembourg Macao China Maldives Malta Marshall Islands Mauritius Mayotte Micronesia Fed

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Sts

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Monaco Myanmar Northern Mariana Islands Netherlands Antilles New Caledonia Palau Puerto Rico Qatar Samoa San Marino São Tomé Principe Seychelles Solomon Islands Somalia St

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Kitts and Nevis St

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Lucia St

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Vincent the Grenadines Suriname Swaziland Timor Leste Tonga Trinidad Tobago United Arab Emirates Vanuatu Virgin Islands U

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Avg

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

annual growth

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.851431893492884
WordScorePoS
growth0.208565600657229NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.456331861301254
WordScorePoS
growth0.11178243319132NN

Density people per sq

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.818222388758268
WordScorePoS
density0.0731385760866977NN
people0.0161552501392041NNS

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.340791660552236
WordScorePoS
density0NN
people0.0371911007748996NNS

km millions per capita

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.662206686226422
WordScorePoS
million0CD
capita0.049270765107907NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.601826190709444
WordScorePoS
million0CD
capita0.04477822029736NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.446416331346851
WordScorePoS
million0CD
capita0.0332151194779746NN

e PPP gross national income GNI millions

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.615962366964737
WordScorePoS
gross0.0249900578719309JJ
national0.0134132459226336JJ
income0.017987180284335NN
gnus0.146799163463475NN
million0CD

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.531545217012604
WordScorePoS
gross0JJ
national0.00886732612541978JJ
income0.166475342664294NN
gnus0NN
million0CD

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.4411405867969
WordScorePoS
gross0.030745604615229JJ
national0.00412562425683033JJ
income0.110649350233433NN
gnus0NN
million0CD

Life expectancy at birth per capita Gross domestic product per capita growth Male years Female years

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.773525539732187
WordScorePoS
life0.0123650647908625NN
expectancy0NN
birth0NN
capita0.049270765107907NN
gross0.0410992516792148JJ
domestic0.0695218668857431JJ
product0.0591643007226199NN
growth0.208565600657229NN
female0NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.31086321809198
WordScorePoS
life0.0112376090361851NN
expectancy0NN
birth0NN
capita0.04477822029736NN
gross0.0373517915079663JJ
domestic0.0315914058171786JJ
product0.0268848280079943NN
growth0NN
female0NN

Adult literacy rate ages and older

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.88299906591502
WordScorePoS
adult0.163013873070017JJ
literacy0.244520809605025NN
rate0.0216847879059514NN
age0.0255262687343935NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.343664949411413
WordScorePoS
adult0JJ
literacy0NN
rate0.0639932865717261NN
age0.112994637345193NN

Carbon dioxide emissions per capita metric tons

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.803039141286199
WordScorePoS
carbon0.0559964069957828NN
dioxide0.0414107553022249NN
emission0.19598742448524NN
capita0NN
ton0NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.342220530433694
WordScorePoS
carbon0.0625160381065121NN
dioxide0NN
emission0.0625160381065121NN
capita0NN
ton0NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.327029090018342
WordScorePoS
carbon0.0373517915079663NN
dioxide0NN
emission0.0373517915079663NN
capita0.04477822029736NN
ton0NN

Note For data comparability and coverage see the technical notes

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.631107963955828
WordScorePoS
datum0NN
coverage0NN
technical0.124876512346911JJ

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.459107759245035
WordScorePoS
datum0NN
coverage0.0908430554521382NN
technical0JJ

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.385204455194253
WordScorePoS
datum0.0454743001434393NN
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technical0.030745604615229JJ

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.373596796177639
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datum0.0739231123597559NN
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Figures in italics are for years other than those specified

Label: 9, with a score of: 1
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figure0.0602029956716497NN

Calculated using the World Bank Atlas method

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.918499615257701
WordScorePoS
world0.0124838525528648NN
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PPP is purchasing power parity see Definitions

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.742862169406105
WordScorePoS
power0NN
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definition0.120266261535276NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.563148050213803
WordScorePoS
power0NN
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Estimated to be low income or less

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.682975582212594
WordScorePoS
estimate0NN
income0.166475342664294NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.544735117076287
WordScorePoS
estimate0.0221298700466866NN
income0.110649350233433NN

Estimated to be upper middle income

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.592195589515561
WordScorePoS
estimate0NN
middle0JJ
income0.166475342664294NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.686487351895923
WordScorePoS
estimate0.0221298700466866NN
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Estimated to be high income or more

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.682975582212594
WordScorePoS
estimate0NN
income0.166475342664294NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.544735117076287
WordScorePoS
estimate0.0221298700466866NN
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National estimate based on census data

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.531522713178356
WordScorePoS
national0.0134132459226336JJ
estimate0NN
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Label: 14, with a score of: 0.413141300038585
WordScorePoS
national0.0036456034155327JJ
estimate0.0195550357485727NN
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Label: 3, with a score of: 0.406062047597042
WordScorePoS
national0.00558382296134999JJ
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.361989499014206
WordScorePoS
national0.00412562425683033JJ
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.306285089108008
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The estimate is based on regression others are extrapolated from the latest International Comparison Programme benchmark estimates

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Estimated to be lower middle income

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.592195589515561
WordScorePoS
estimate0NN
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income0.166475342664294NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.686487351895923
WordScorePoS
estimate0.0221298700466866NN
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National estimates based on survey data

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WordScorePoS
national0.0134132459226336JJ
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Label: 14, with a score of: 0.387652582647493
WordScorePoS
national0.0036456034155327JJ
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Label: 3, with a score of: 0.381010084083632
WordScorePoS
national0.00558382296134999JJ
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.348348423497206
WordScorePoS
national0.00886732612541978JJ
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.339656587639685
WordScorePoS
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Selected world development indicators Technical notes These technical notes discuss the sources and methods used to compile the indicators included in this edition of Selected World Development Indicators

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

The notes follow the order in which the indicators appear in the tables

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Note that the Selected World Development Indicators uses terminology in line with the System of National Accounts SNA

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

For example in the SNA gross national income replaces gross national product

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.471417156424635
WordScorePoS
gross0JJ
national0.00886732612541978JJ
income0.166475342664294NN
product0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.574912311499593
WordScorePoS
gross0.030745604615229JJ
national0.00412562425683033JJ
income0.110649350233433NN
product0.0442597400933733NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.389992534920215
WordScorePoS
gross0.0410992516792148JJ
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product0.0591643007226199NN

Sources The data published in the Selected World Development Indicators are taken from World Development Indicators

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.631757241349165
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source0.0109843026967392NN
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Where possible however revisions reported since the closing date of that edition have been incorporated

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

In addition newly released estimates of population and gross national income GNI per capita for are included in table

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.533708417144083
WordScorePoS
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Label: 17, with a score of: 0.414847903787796
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gross0.0249900578719309JJ
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gnus0.146799163463475NN
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Label: 9, with a score of: 0.417541627200971
WordScorePoS
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The World Bank draws on variety of sources for the statistics published in the World Development Indicators

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.611657610005632
WordScorePoS
world0.00257343720272548NN
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variety0.120266261535276NN
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development0.0164833460638534NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.51496054103535
WordScorePoS
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Data on external debt for developing countries are reported directly to the World Bank by developing member countries through the Debtor Reporting System

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.307484375837675
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Other data are drawn mainly from the U

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.851744941703599
WordScorePoS
datum0.0739231123597559NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.523956633971108
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and its specialized agencies from the IMF and from country reports to the World Bank

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.664122305130354
WordScorePoS
agency0NN
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world0.0124838525528648NN
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Label: 12, with a score of: 0.659199213377681
WordScorePoS
agency0.0542519672965169NN
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Bank staff estimates are also used to improve currentness or consistency

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.647010664240473
WordScorePoS
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Label: 4, with a score of: 0.355838067258545
WordScorePoS
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For most countries national accounts estimates are obtained from member governments through World Bank economic missions

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.371535203764449
WordScorePoS
country0NN
national0.0055149369084567JJ
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economic0.128463821595706JJ

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.364296783662711
WordScorePoS
country0NN
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economic0.0433009429988926JJ

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.361747201759286
WordScorePoS
country0NN
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economic0.103276847978089JJ

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.314986426648538
WordScorePoS
country0NN
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economic0.0959899298575892JJ

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.309963003905757
WordScorePoS
country0NN
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In some instances these are adjusted by staff to ensure conformity with international definitions and concepts

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Most social data from national sources are drawn from regular administrative files special surveys or periodic censuses

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.699632330527119
WordScorePoS
social0.101310366625194JJ
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survey0.064698038783335NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.401573264123481
WordScorePoS
social0.112994637345193JJ
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Label: 11, with a score of: 0.322148372411554
WordScorePoS
social0.0458109463416786JJ
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For more detailed notes about the data please refer to the World Bank World Development Indicators

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.693769302858804
WordScorePoS
datum0.0739231123597559NN
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.538864417711266
WordScorePoS
datum0NN
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Data consistency and reliability Considerable effort has been made to standardize the data but full comparability cannot be assured and care must be taken in interpreting the indicators

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.446224337937766
WordScorePoS
datum0NN
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full0.0465610847355851JJ
care0.0931221694711702NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.439559791738368
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datum0NN
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Many factors affect data availability comparability and reliability statistical systems in many developing economies are still weak statistical methods coverage practices and definitions differ widely and cross country and intertemporal comparisons involve complex technical and conceptual problems that cannot be unequivocally resolved

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Data coverage may not be complete because of special circumstances or for economies experiencing problems such as those stemming from conflicts affecting the collection and reporting of data

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.550557760577621
WordScorePoS
datum0.0739231123597559NN
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Label: 13, with a score of: 0.367268922310111
WordScorePoS
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Label: 8, with a score of: 0.319229416785926
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For these reasons although the data are drawn from the sources thought to be most authoritative they should be construed only as indicating trends and characterizing major differences among economies rather than offering precise quantitative measures of those differences

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WordScorePoS
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Discrepancies in data presented in different editions reflect updates by countries as well as revisions to historical series and changes in methodology

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Thus readers are advised not to compare data series between editions or between different editions of World Bank publications

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.67738437419958
WordScorePoS
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Label: 2, with a score of: 0.592309586254019
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Consistent time series are available from the World Development Indicators CD ROM

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.506627042527952
WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.467483974649164
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Ratios and growth rates For ease of reference the tables usually show ratios and rates of growth rather than the simple underlying values

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.443058051620158
WordScorePoS
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Values in their original form are available from the World Development Indicators CD ROM

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WordScorePoS
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Label: 5, with a score of: 0.400859901036271
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.362371494681491
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Unless otherwise noted growth rates are computed using the least squares regression method see statistical methods on page

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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.441977064342883
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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.397249178953992
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Because this method takes into account all available observations during period the resulting growth rates reflect general trends that are not unduly influenced by exceptional values

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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.419185422706261
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To exclude the effects of inflation constant price economic indicators are used in calculating growth rates

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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.456039258208513
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Data in italics are for year or period other than that specified in the column heading up to two years before or after for economic indicators and up to three years for social indicators because the latter tend to be collected less regularly and change less dramatically over short periods

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Label: 10, with a score of: 0.332516594290083
WordScorePoS
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Constant price series An economy growth is measured by the increase in value added produced by the individuals and enterprises operating in that economy

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Thus measuring real growth requires estimates of GDP and its components valued in constant prices

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The World Bank collects constant price national accounts series in national currencies and recorded in the country original base year

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To obtain comparable series of constant price data it rescales GDP and value added by industrial origin to common reference year currently

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This process gives rise to discrepancy between the rescaled GDP and the sum of the rescaled components

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Because allocating the discrepancy would give rise to distortions in the growth rate it is left unallocated

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Label: 1, with a score of: 0.336931775723484
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Summary measures The summary measures for regions and income groups presented at the end of most tables are calculated by simple addition when they are expressed in levels

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Aggregate growth rates and ratios are usually computed as weighted averages

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The summary measures for social indicators are weighted by population or subgroups of population except for infant mortality which is weighted by the number of births

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WordScorePoS
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population0NN
infant0NN
mortality0.276962203701274NN
birth0.0748292956291867NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.577411710971825
WordScorePoS
measure0NN
social0.101310366625194JJ
population0.0860640399817412NN
infant0NN
mortality0.0488696285210061NN
birth0.0396106020715138NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.346030329489801
WordScorePoS
measure0.103895385378356NN
social0.112994637345193JJ
population0NN
infant0NN
mortality0NN
birth0NN

See the notes on specific indicators for more information

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.750008629339307
WordScorePoS
information0.0675706773907211NN

WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT For summary measures that cover many years calculations are based on uniform group of economies so that the composition of the aggregate does not change over time

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.797783084785453
WordScorePoS
world0.00351929966767313NN
development0NN
report0NN
measure0.0710409787438328NN
cover0NN
base0NN
economy0.0839946104936743NN
change0.402565546215053NN
time0NN

Group measures are compiled only if the data available for given year account for at least two thirds of the full group as defined for the benchmark year

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.40712193989106
WordScorePoS
measure0.103895385378356NN
datum0NN
account0NN
third0JJ
full0JJ

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.401182321285109
WordScorePoS
measure0NN
datum0NN
account0NN
third0.0558185411034276JJ
full0.0465610847355851JJ

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.361436943955451
WordScorePoS
measure0NN
datum0.0454743001434393NN
account0.0160169090870187NN
third0JJ
full0.030745604615229JJ

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.337464149020402
WordScorePoS
measure0.0504000902222448NN
datum0NN
account0NN
third0.0357189919948307JJ
full0JJ

As long as this criterion is met economies for which data are missing are assumed to behave like those that provide estimates

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.412885938807623
WordScorePoS
criterion0NN
meet0.0881366997038154VB
economy0NN
datum0NN
provide0.0215170467912497VB
estimate0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.379149270740741
WordScorePoS
criterion0NN
meet0.0307735781890304VB
economy0NN
datum0NN
provide0.0100171139310145VB
estimate0.059903311017139NN

Readers should keep in mind that the summary measures are estimates of representative aggregates for each topic and that nothing meaningful can be deduced about behavior at the country level by working back from group indicators

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.57553767592481
WordScorePoS
measure0NN
estimate0NN
representative0.107490825192354NN
meaningful0JJ
country0NN
level0.0610668815653026NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.571557481683232
WordScorePoS
measure0.0710409787438328NN
estimate0NN
representative0NN
meaningful0.0548233071065585JJ
country0NN
level0.0415277415054218NN

In addition the estimation process may result in discrepancies between subgroup and overall totals

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.650672925454118
WordScorePoS
addition0.0368585655748969NN
process0.0737171311497939NN
result0NN
total0.0260040237236563NN

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.466154039483843
WordScorePoS
addition0NN
process0NN
result0.0683326727248364NN
total0.0295155485671997NN

Table

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Key indicators of development Population is based on the de facto definition which counts all residents regardless of legal status or citizenship except for refugees not permanently settled in the country of asylum who are generally considered part of the population of the country of origin

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Average annual population growth rate is the exponential rate of change for the period see the section on statistical methods on page

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.691831207154253
WordScorePoS
average0.1656430212089NN
population0NN
growth0NN
rate0NN
change0.402565546215053NN
period0NN
statistical0JJ

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.461312442546848
WordScorePoS
average0.146608885563018NN
population0.0860640399817412NN
growth0.11178243319132NN
rate0.0172128079963482NN
change0NN
period0NN
statistical0JJ

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.306080011521277
WordScorePoS
average0NN
population0.0428212738652355NN
growth0.208565600657229NN
rate0NN
change0NN
period0NN
statistical0JJ

Population density is midyear population divided by land area

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.520821593746928
WordScorePoS
population0.0860640399817412NN
density0NN
land0NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.458106575305467
WordScorePoS
population0.0137637438743113NN
density0NN
land0.123873694868802NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.456808486736844
WordScorePoS
population0.0194583992186006NN
density0.0731385760866977NN
land0.0389167984372011NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.328756821543293
WordScorePoS
population0.0310434135749871NN
density0NN
land0.0465651203624806NN

Land area is country total area excluding areas under inland bodies of water and coastal waterways

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.79037864901566
WordScorePoS
land0NN
country0NN
total0.0295155485671997NN
inland0RB
water0.556409482163189NN
coastal0JJ

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.422847440250465
WordScorePoS
land0.0141533244035107NN
country0NN
total0NN
inland0RB
water0.0333211986002325NN
coastal0.265991560286306JJ

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.33480344103574
WordScorePoS
land0.0144336476662975NN
country0NN
total0.0468670845659596NN
inland0RB
water0.186896403054502NN
coastal0JJ

Density is calculated using the most recently available data on land area

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.614144457354757
WordScorePoS
density0NN
datum0NN
land0.123873694868802NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.555551259317415
WordScorePoS
density0.0731385760866977NN
datum0NN
land0.0389167984372011NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.366498067037082
WordScorePoS
density0NN
datum0.0739231123597559NN
land0NN

Gross national income GNI formerly gross national product or GNP the broadest measure of national income measures total value added from domestic and foreign sources claimed by residents

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.408150040540378
WordScorePoS
gross0JJ
national0.00886732612541978JJ
income0.166475342664294NN
gnus0NN
product0NN
measure0NN
total0NN
add0VB
domestic0JJ
foreign0.0488696285210061JJ
source0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.402066511651918
WordScorePoS
gross0.0249900578719309JJ
national0.0134132459226336JJ
income0.017987180284335NN
gnus0.146799163463475NN
product0.017987180284335NN
measure0NN
total0NN
add0VB
domestic0.0634082886861185JJ
foreign0.036961556179878JJ
source0.0109843026967392NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.430665458879762
WordScorePoS
gross0.030745604615229JJ
national0.00412562425683033JJ
income0.110649350233433NN
gnus0NN
product0.0442597400933733NN
measure0NN
total0.0260040237236563NN
add0VB
domestic0.0520080474473126JJ
foreign0JJ
source0.0135141354781442NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.377176238775114
WordScorePoS
gross0.0410992516792148JJ
national0.0055149369084567JJ
income0NN
gnus0NN
product0.0591643007226199NN
measure0.0347609334428716NN
total0NN
add0.0804764811724088VB
domestic0.0695218668857431JJ
foreign0JJ
source0NN

GNI comprises gross domestic product GDP plus net receipts of primary income from foreign sources

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.56161568675258
WordScorePoS
gnus0.146799163463475NN
gross0.0249900578719309JJ
domestic0.0634082886861185JJ
product0.017987180284335NN
gdp0NN
primary0JJ
income0.017987180284335NN
foreign0.036961556179878JJ
source0.0109843026967392NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.378985881113587
WordScorePoS
gnus0NN
gross0JJ
domestic0JJ
product0NN
gdp0NN
primary0JJ
income0.166475342664294NN
foreign0.0488696285210061JJ
source0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.470234676109046
WordScorePoS
gnus0NN
gross0.030745604615229JJ
domestic0.0520080474473126JJ
product0.0442597400933733NN
gdp0NN
primary0.0160169090870187JJ
income0.110649350233433NN
foreign0JJ
source0.0135141354781442NN

Data are converted from national currency to current U

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.678843610541537
WordScorePoS
datum0.0739231123597559NN
national0.0134132459226336JJ
current0JJ

dollars using the World Bank Atlas method

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.741330234617603
WordScorePoS
dollar0NN
world0.0124838525528648NN
bank0.0881366997038154NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.663692884279803
WordScorePoS
dollar0.048933054487825NN
world0.00418824502414673NN
bank0.036961556179878NN

This involves using three year average of exchange rates to smooth the effects of transitory exchange rate fluctuations

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.617569983035465
WordScorePoS
involve0.0488696285210061VB
average0.146608885563018NN
rate0.0172128079963482NN
effect0NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.444951370659528
WordScorePoS
involve0VB
average0.1656430212089NN
rate0NN
effect0NN

See the section on statistical methods for discussion of the Atlas method

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

GNI per capita is GNI divided by midyear population

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.879067659223857
WordScorePoS
gnus0.146799163463475NN
capita0NN
population0NN

It is converted into current U

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.585119272677246
WordScorePoS
current0.0335649154577099JJ

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.579021465891287
WordScorePoS
current0.0332151194779746JJ

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.567775993485773
WordScorePoS
current0.0325700316331562JJ

dollars by the Atlas method

Label: 17, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
dollar0.048933054487825NN

The World Bank uses GNI per capita in U

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.822573712016866
WordScorePoS
world0.00418824502414673NN
bank0.036961556179878NN
gnus0.146799163463475NN
capita0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.440373913851501
WordScorePoS
world0.0124838525528648NN
bank0.0881366997038154NN
gnus0NN
capita0NN

S dollars to classify economies for analytical purposes and to determine borrowing eligibility

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.532893426344597
WordScorePoS
dollar0NN
economy0.0839946104936743NN
determine0VB

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.52149824658536
WordScorePoS
dollar0NN
economy0.0821985033584295NN
determine0VB

PPP gross national income which is GNI converted into international dollars using purchasing power parity PPP conversion factors is included because nominal exchange rates do not always reflect international differences in relative prices

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.581581180437147
WordScorePoS
gross0.0249900578719309JJ
national0.0134132459226336JJ
income0.017987180284335NN
gnus0.146799163463475NN
international0.00648516099948979JJ
dollar0.048933054487825NN
power0.036961556179878NN
parity0NN
include0VB
rate0NN
relative0JJ
price0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.392762382965017
WordScorePoS
gross0JJ
national0.00886732612541978JJ
income0.166475342664294NN
gnus0NN
international0.00571634317201755JJ
dollar0NN
power0NN
parity0NN
include0VB
rate0.0172128079963482NN
relative0JJ
price0NN

At the PPP rate one international dollar has the same purchasing power over domestic GNI that the U

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.853527123923383
WordScorePoS
rate0NN
international0.00648516099948979JJ
dollar0.048933054487825NN
power0.036961556179878NN
domestic0.0634082886861185JJ
gnus0.146799163463475NN

dollar has over U

Label: 17, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
dollar0.048933054487825NN

GNI

Label: 17, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
gnus0.146799163463475NN

PPP rates allow standard comparison of real price levels between countries just as conventional price indexes allow comparison of real values over time

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

The PPP conversion factors used here are derived from price surveys covering countries conducted by the International Comparison Program

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.828591854108504
WordScorePoS
price0NN
survey0.064698038783335NN
cover0NN
country0NN
conduct0.064698038783335NN
international0.00571634317201755JJ

For Organisation for Economic Co operation and Development OECD countries data come from the most recent round of surveys completed in the rest are either from the survey or data from the or earlier round and extrapolated to the benchmark

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.25709434595251
WordScorePoS
economic0.128463821595706JJ
development0.0055149369084567NN
oecd0NN
country0NN
datum0NN
round0NN
survey0NN
complete0JJ

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.480511785253716
WordScorePoS
economic0.103276847978089JJ
development0.0177346522508396NN
oecd0NN
country0NN
datum0NN
round0NN
survey0.064698038783335NN
complete0JJ

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.334106257438704
WordScorePoS
economic0.0433009429988926JJ
development0.022306853314744NN
oecd0.108503934593034NN
country0NN
datum0NN
round0NN
survey0NN
complete0JJ

Estimates for countries not included in the surveys are derived from statistical models using available data

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.715568030657625
WordScorePoS
estimate0NN
country0NN
include0VB
survey0NN
statistical0.048933054487825JJ
datum0.0739231123597559NN

PPP GNI per capita is PPP GNI divided by midyear population

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.879067659223857
WordScorePoS
gnus0.146799163463475NN
capita0NN
population0NN

Gross domestic product GDP per capita growth is based on GDP measured in constant prices

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.744266360692069
WordScorePoS
gross0.0410992516792148JJ
domestic0.0695218668857431JJ
product0.0591643007226199NN
gdp0NN
capita0.049270765107907NN
growth0.208565600657229NN
base0NN
measure0.0347609334428716NN
price0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.322009371408427
WordScorePoS
gross0JJ
domestic0JJ
product0NN
gdp0NN
capita0NN
growth0.0519476926891779NN
base0.0442083771593746NN
measure0.103895385378356NN
price0NN

Growth in GDP is considered broad measure of the growth of an economy

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.819529382284752
WordScorePoS
growth0.208565600657229NN
gdp0NN
measure0.0347609334428716NN
economy0.0821985033584295NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.34304659878241
WordScorePoS
growth0.11178243319132NN
gdp0NN
measure0NN
economy0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.318842214878538
WordScorePoS
growth0.0519476926891779NN
gdp0NN
measure0.103895385378356NN
economy0NN

GDP in constant prices can be estimated by measuring the total quantity of goods and services produced in period valuing them at an agreed set of base year prices and subtracting the cost of intermediate inputs also in constant prices

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.688159911664657
WordScorePoS
gdp0NN
price0.0583416713841148NN
estimate0NN
measure0.0504000902222448NN
total0.0252000451111224NN
service0.0143446978608332NN
produce0.0357189919948307VB
period0.0440683498519077NN
value0NN
agree0.0504000902222448VB
set0NN
base0NN
cost0NN
input0.0583416713841148NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.331949726910632
WordScorePoS
gdp0NN
price0NN
estimate0.0199423462679015NN
measure0NN
total0.0468670845659596NN
service0.00666957305782837NN
produce0.0332151194779746VB
period0.0409791940864438NN
value0NN
agree0.0234335422829798VB
set0NN
base0.0199423462679015NN
cost0.0277064208763707NN
input0NN

See the section on statistical methods for details of the least squares growth rate

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.71460939994897
WordScorePoS
statistical0JJ
growth0.208565600657229NN
rate0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.441977064342883
WordScorePoS
statistical0JJ
growth0.11178243319132NN
rate0.0172128079963482NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.397249178953992
WordScorePoS
statistical0JJ
growth0.0519476926891779NN
rate0.0639932865717261NN

Life expectancy at birth is the number of years newborn infant would live if patterns of mortality prevailing at its birth were to stay the same throughout its life

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.89115351580049
WordScorePoS
life0.0250390290383647NN
expectancy0.0407408489778079NN
birth0.0748292956291867NN
newborn0.0407408489778079JJ
infant0NN
live0.0300513417930436VB
pattern0NN
mortality0.276962203701274NN

Adult literacy rate is the percentage of persons aged and above who can with understanding read and write short simple statement about their everyday life

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.880757357481069
WordScorePoS
adult0.163013873070017JJ
literacy0.244520809605025NN
rate0.0216847879059514NN
percentage0NN
person0.0299609328954485NN
aged0JJ
simple0JJ
life0.0125233923809486NN

Carbon dioxide CO emissions measures those emissions stemming from the burning of fossil fuels and the manufacture of cement

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.743903743758435
WordScorePoS
carbon0.0559964069957828NN
dioxide0.0414107553022249NN
emission0.19598742448524NN
measure0.0710409787438328NN
fossil0NN
fuel0NN
manufacture0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.319653081074554
WordScorePoS
carbon0NN
dioxide0NN
emission0NN
measure0NN
fossil0NN
fuel0NN
manufacture0.240811982686599NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.471170428482714
WordScorePoS
carbon0.0625160381065121NN
dioxide0NN
emission0.0625160381065121NN
measure0NN
fossil0.0924643738905717NN
fuel0.0749457204978913NN
manufacture0NN

These include carbon dioxide produced during consumption of solid liquid and gas fuels and from gas flaring

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.724130148615195
WordScorePoS
include0VB
carbon0NN
dioxide0NN
produce0.0332151194779746VB
consumption0.332151194779746NN
gas0.0332151194779746NN
fuel0.0332151194779746NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.23017774749688
WordScorePoS
include0VB
carbon0NN
dioxide0NN
produce0VB
consumption0.147812295323721NN
gas0NN
fuel0NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.447475036329928
WordScorePoS
include0VB
carbon0.0625160381065121NN
dioxide0NN
produce0VB
consumption0NN
gas0.0749457204978913NN
fuel0.0749457204978913NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.360758539274076
WordScorePoS
include0VB
carbon0.0559964069957828NN
dioxide0.0414107553022249NN
produce0VB
consumption0NN
gas0.0671298309154199NN
fuel0NN

The Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center CDIAC sponsored by the U

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.57147074187932
WordScorePoS
carbon0.0559964069957828NN
dioxide0.0414107553022249NN
information0NN

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.465200402195939
WordScorePoS
carbon0.0271683202880942NN
dioxide0.0401833161726777NN
information0.0119417512090511NN

Department of Energy calculates annual anthropogenic emissions of CO

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.880100958675997
WordScorePoS
energy0.494617163780726NN
emission0.0625160381065121NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.329041067664013
WordScorePoS
energy0.0123065238088614NN
emission0.19598742448524NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.29915303696188
WordScorePoS
energy0.133960988253756NN
emission0.0554128417527413NN

These calculations are derived from data on fossil fuel consumption based on the World Energy Data Set maintained by the UNSD and from data on world cement manufacturing based on the Cement Manufacturing Data Set maintained by the U

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.540893324518256
WordScorePoS
datum0.0454743001434393NN
fossil0NN
fuel0NN
consumption0NN
base0NN
world0.00257642711761688NN
energy0.0540565419125769NN
set0NN
maintain0VB
manufacture0.240811982686599NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.499383503718057
WordScorePoS
datum0NN
fossil0.0924643738905717NN
fuel0.0749457204978913NN
consumption0NN
base0NN
world0.00261936653839306NN
energy0.494617163780726NN
set0NN
maintain0VB
manufacture0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.441166918656938
WordScorePoS
datum0NN
fossil0.0409791940864438NN
fuel0.0332151194779746NN
consumption0.332151194779746NN
base0.0199423462679015NN
world0.00464349782489754NN
energy0.133960988253756NN
set0NN
maintain0VB
manufacture0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.113200615448411
WordScorePoS
datum0NN
fossil0NN
fuel0NN
consumption0.147812295323721NN
base0NN
world0.00172202218602071NN
energy0NN
set0NN
maintain0VB
manufacture0NN

Bureau of Mines

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Each year the CDIAC recalculates the entire time series from to the present incorporating its most recent findings and the latest corrections to its database

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Fuels supplied to ships and aircraft engaged in international transportation are excluded in these estimates because of the difficulty of apportioning these fuels among the countries benefiting from that transport

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.690590966249197
WordScorePoS
fuel0.0332151194779746NN
supply0.0703006268489394NN
engage0.0819583881728876VB
international0.0023966944644375JJ
transportation0.0332151194779746NN
estimate0.0199423462679015NN
country0NN
transport0.0277064208763707NN

Table

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Millennium Development Goals eradicating poverty and improving lives Proportion of population below day PPP is the percentage of the population living on less than

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.753179281903832
WordScorePoS
millennium0JJ
development0.0164833460638534NN
goal0NN
eradicate0.0614198493690006VB
poverty0.269969049497485NN
improve0VB
life0.0184786920895884NN
proportion0.0376648791150643NN
population0NN
day0.25973846344589NN
percentage0NN
live0.0739258553811849VB

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.350116387367361
WordScorePoS
millennium0JJ
development0.0055149369084567NN
goal0NN
eradicate0.0821985033584295VB
poverty0.0722601961736204NN
improve0.0150723186962745VB
life0.0123650647908625NN
proportion0.0252035516550537NN
population0.0428212738652355NN
day0.0347609334428716NN
percentage0NN
live0.00989353561471291VB

day at international prices

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.927713693447483
WordScorePoS
day0.25973846344589NN
international0.00531301439641424JJ
price0NN

For further information on poverty data see the technical note for Table

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.695827656612546
WordScorePoS
information0NN
poverty0.269969049497485NN
datum0NN
technical0JJ

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.37061086819471
WordScorePoS
information0.0675706773907211NN
poverty0NN
datum0.0454743001434393NN
technical0.030745604615229JJ

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.369018765694691
WordScorePoS
information0.0182963616752599NN
poverty0NN
datum0NN
technical0.124876512346911JJ

Selected world development indicators Prevalence of child malnutrition is the percentage of children under five whose weight for age is less than minus two standard deviations from the median for the international reference population ages months

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.52649727871375
WordScorePoS
world0.00087176582269799NN
development0.00837573444202498NN
prevalence0.0407408489778079NN
child0.10682408961305NN
malnutrition0NN
percentage0NN
age0.0893142758861673NN
standard0NN
international0JJ
population0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.492954410940952
WordScorePoS
world0.00257343720272548NN
development0.0164833460638534NN
prevalence0NN
child0.0450489732120807NN
malnutrition0.0736315832425121NN
percentage0NN
age0.112994637345193NN
standard0NN
international0.00531301439641424JJ
population0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.406050077446832
WordScorePoS
world0.0124838525528648NN
development0.0159922815774215NN
prevalence0NN
child0.0546336178945768NN
malnutrition0.0357189919948307NN
percentage0.0583416713841148NN
age0.0365427838531249NN
standard0NN
international0.00515473144367677JJ
population0.0310434135749871NN

The reference population adopted by the World Health Organization WHO in is based on children from the United States who are assumed to be well nourished

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.631769050123231
WordScorePoS
population0NN
adopt0VB
world0.00087176582269799NN
health0.191387734041787NN
organization0.0175975629039954NN
base0.0149758277542848NN
child0.10682408961305NN
unite0VB

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.384404393567827
WordScorePoS
population0.0860640399817412NN
adopt0.0202620733250388VB
world0.00276879546803864NN
health0.0405241466500776NN
organization0.02794560829783NN
base0NN
child0.0242343960710022NN
unite0VB

Estimates of child malnutrition are from national survey data

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.520624398620657
WordScorePoS
estimate0.059903311017139NN
child0.10682408961305NN
malnutrition0NN
national0.00558382296134999JJ
survey0NN
datum0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.40838677827915
WordScorePoS
estimate0NN
child0.0450489732120807NN
malnutrition0.0736315832425121NN
national0.0164833460638534JJ
survey0NN
datum0NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.321139033434735
WordScorePoS
estimate0.0299609328954485NN
child0.076326555629389NN
malnutrition0NN
national0JJ
survey0NN
datum0NN

The proportion of children who are underweight is the most common indicator of malnutrition

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.573079098596237
WordScorePoS
proportion0.025518364538905NN
child0.10682408961305NN
common0.0615471563780609JJ
malnutrition0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.462109862622187
WordScorePoS
proportion0.0376648791150643NN
child0.0450489732120807NN
common0JJ
malnutrition0.0736315832425121NN

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.325813779326311
WordScorePoS
proportion0.0428007293971684NN
child0.0255958462813622NN
common0JJ
malnutrition0.041835863322702NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.321059725048935
WordScorePoS
proportion0.0182713919265625NN
child0.0546336178945768NN
common0JJ
malnutrition0.0357189919948307NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.301046170634507
WordScorePoS
proportion0.0255262687343935NN
child0.076326555629389NN
common0JJ
malnutrition0NN

Being underweight even mildly increases the risk of death and inhibits cognitive development in children

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.775525249815143
WordScorePoS
increase0.0143984997539974NN
risk0.0703902516159815NN
death0.193573191943949NN
development0.00837573444202498NN
child0.10682408961305NN

Moreover it perpetuates the problem from one generation to the next as malnourished women are more likely to have low birth weight babies

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.711843535090084
WordScorePoS
generation0NN
woman0.221979360474357NN
birth0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.362306751053124
WordScorePoS
generation0NN
woman0.0381514605760894NN
birth0.0748292956291867NN

Primary completion rate is the percentage of students completing the last year of primary school

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.814224850893337
WordScorePoS
primary0.108423939529757JJ
rate0.0216847879059514NN
percentage0NN
complete0.0815069365350084JJ
school0.208127520578185NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.442702554359437
WordScorePoS
primary0.0970239057629001JJ
rate0NN
percentage0NN
complete0JJ
school0.0931221694711702NN

It is calculated by taking the total number of students in the last grade of primary school minus the number of repeaters in that grade divided by the total number of children of official graduation age

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.677362277849473
WordScorePoS
total0NN
primary0.108423939529757JJ
school0.208127520578185NN
child0.076326555629389NN
age0.0255262687343935NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.335474496676804
WordScorePoS
total0NN
primary0.0970239057629001JJ
school0.0931221694711702NN
child0.0170753354211044NN
age0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.335079466822572
WordScorePoS
total0NN
primary0.0108390366114755JJ
school0NN
child0.10682408961305NN
age0.0893142758861673NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.302564831924339
WordScorePoS
total0.0252000451111224NN
primary0.0155217067874935JJ
school0.0297950283197006NN
child0.0546336178945768NN
age0.0365427838531249NN

The primary completion rate reflects the primary cycle as defined by the International Standard Classification of Education ISCED ranging from three or four years of primary education in very small number of countries to five or six years in most countries and seven in small number of countries

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.831770310449499
WordScorePoS
primary0.108423939529757JJ
rate0.0216847879059514NN
cycle0NN
international0.00360073990568919JJ
standard0NN
education0.244244978014045NN
range0NN
country0NN

Because curricula and standards for school completion vary across countries high rate of primary completion does not necessarily mean high levels of student learning

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.878624204848124
WordScorePoS
standard0NN
school0.208127520578185NN
country0NN
rate0.0216847879059514NN
primary0.108423939529757JJ
level0.0231525547935232NN
learn0.244520809605025VB

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.300765246451741
WordScorePoS
standard0NN
school0.0931221694711702NN
country0NN
rate0NN
primary0.0970239057629001JJ
level0.0172651853471334NN
learn0VB

Gender parity ratio in primary and secondary school is the ratio of female gross enrollment rate in primary and secondary school to the gross enrollment rate of males

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.712012935465551
WordScorePoS
gender0.196902218579822NN
parity0.0911713013253052NN
ratio0.0688661930304451NN
primary0.0970239057629001JJ
secondary0.0688661930304451JJ
school0.0931221694711702NN
female0.0911713013253052NN
gross0JJ
rate0NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.622733732221474
WordScorePoS
gender0.10561808200669NN
parity0NN
ratio0NN
primary0.108423939529757JJ
secondary0.0615662203253227JJ
school0.208127520578185NN
female0NN
gross0JJ
rate0.0216847879059514NN

Eliminating gender disparities in education would help to increase the status and capabilities of women

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.672077025109992
WordScorePoS
eliminate0.078760887431929VB
gender0.196902218579822NN
disparity0NN
education0.0512260062633133NN
increase0.00402768349408688NN
status0NN
capability0NN
woman0.221979360474357NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.634641935460815
WordScorePoS
eliminate0.0352060273355634VB
gender0.10561808200669NN
disparity0.0615662203253227NN
education0.244244978014045NN
increase0.0144029596227568NN
status0NN
capability0NN
woman0.0610612445035112NN

This indicator is an imperfect measure of the relative accessibility of schooling for girls

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.852985370117642
WordScorePoS
measure0NN
relative0JJ
schooling0NN
girl0.393804437159645NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.305026794251416
WordScorePoS
measure0NN
relative0JJ
schooling0NN
girl0.140824109342254NN

With target date of this is the first of the targets to fall due

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.63456775286456
WordScorePoS
target0.0898760357768464NN
fall0NN
due0JJ

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.434552329555363
WordScorePoS
target0NN
fall0.123094312756122NN
due0JJ

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.407764951323936
WordScorePoS
target0.0357189919948307NN
fall0.0440683498519077NN
due0JJ

School enrollment data are reported to the UNESCO Institute for Statistics by national education authorities

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.88188144922472
WordScorePoS
school0.208127520578185NN
datum0NN
report0NN
national0JJ
education0.244244978014045NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.305760590594009
WordScorePoS
school0.0931221694711702NN
datum0NN
report0NN
national0.0124956749436837JJ
education0.0512260062633133NN

Primary education provides children with basic reading writing and mathematics skills along with an elementary understanding of such subjects as history geography natural science social science art and music

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.841155343878758
WordScorePoS
primary0.108423939529757JJ
education0.244244978014045NN
child0.076326555629389NN
basic0.0433695758119029JJ
skill0.407534682675042NN
history0NN
natural0JJ
science0NN
social0JJ

Secondary education completes the provision of basic education that began at the primary level and aims at laying foundations for lifelong learning and human development by offering more subject or skilloriented instruction using more specialized teachers

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.917672718295646
WordScorePoS
secondary0.0615662203253227JJ
education0.244244978014045NN
complete0.0815069365350084JJ
provision0NN
basic0.0433695758119029JJ
primary0.108423939529757JJ
level0.0231525547935232NN
aim0NN
foundation0.0499016491051341NN
lifelong0.0815069365350084JJ
learn0.244520809605025VB
human0.0152653111258778JJ
development0.0279277626235394NN
teacher0.163013873070017NN

Under five mortality rate is the probability that newborn baby will die before reaching age five if subject to current age specific mortality rates

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.872155157507169
WordScorePoS
mortality0.276962203701274NN
rate0.0433561464459019NN
newborn0.0407408489778079JJ
die0.0748292956291867VB
reach0NN
age0.0893142758861673NN
current0JJ

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.330241946785225
WordScorePoS
mortality0NN
rate0.0639932865717261NN
newborn0JJ
die0VB
reach0NN
age0.112994637345193NN
current0JJ

The probability is expressed as rate per

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.596643111610239
WordScorePoS
rate0.0639932865717261NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.533263939475719
WordScorePoS
rate0.0571955184484387NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.404232186042173
WordScorePoS
rate0.0433561464459019NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.303645839941113
WordScorePoS
rate0.0325677023224526NN

The main sources of mortality data are vital registration systems and direct or indirect estimates based on sample surveys or censuses

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.689136467828092
WordScorePoS
source0NN
mortality0.276962203701274NN
datum0NN
vital0JJ
registration0NN
system0NN
direct0JJ
estimate0.059903311017139NN
base0.0149758277542848NN
survey0NN

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.349190103381931
WordScorePoS
source0.0238835024181023NN
mortality0NN
datum0NN
vital0.0531983120572613JJ
registration0NN
system0.0229784274580034NN
direct0JJ
estimate0.0195550357485727NN
base0.058665107245718NN
survey0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.30161234006951
WordScorePoS
source0.0109843026967392NN
mortality0NN
datum0.0739231123597559NN
vital0JJ
registration0NN
system0.0211360962287062NN
direct0.0299586785922821JJ
estimate0NN
base0.017987180284335NN
survey0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.300023671930731
WordScorePoS
source0NN
mortality0.0488696285210061NN
datum0NN
vital0JJ
registration0NN
system0NN
direct0.0396106020715138JJ
estimate0NN
base0NN
survey0.064698038783335NN

To produce harmonized estimates of under five mortality rates that make use of all available information in transparent way methodology that fits regression line to the relationship between mortality rates and their reference dates using weighted least squares was developed and adopted by both UNICEF and the World Bank

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.841266364709661
WordScorePoS
produce0VB
estimate0.059903311017139NN
mortality0.276962203701274NN
rate0.0433561464459019NN
information0.00914534810831654NN
transparent0JJ
line0NN
develop0VB
adopt0VB
world0.00087176582269799NN
bank0NN

Prevalence of HIV is the percentage of people ages who are infected with HIV

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.982048492509028
WordScorePoS
prevalence0.0407408489778079NN
hiv0.448149338755887NN
percentage0NN
people0.00539943740774902NNS
age0.0893142758861673NN
infected0.0407408489778079JJ

Adult HIV prevalence rates reflect the rate of HIV infection in each country population

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.963729288018368
WordScorePoS
adult0JJ
hiv0.448149338755887NN
prevalence0.0407408489778079NN
rate0.0433561464459019NN
infection0.122222546933424NN
country0NN
population0NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.173562149465312
WordScorePoS
adult0.163013873070017JJ
hiv0NN
prevalence0NN
rate0.0216847879059514NN
infection0NN
country0NN
population0NN

Low national prevalence rates can be very misleading however

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.561327438361797
WordScorePoS
national0.00558382296134999JJ
prevalence0.0407408489778079NN
rate0.0433561464459019NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.542421388335657
WordScorePoS
national0.0294647633960925JJ
prevalence0NN
rate0.0571955184484387NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.503716880139877
WordScorePoS
national0.0164833460638534JJ
prevalence0NN
rate0.0639932865717261NN

They often disguise serious epidemics that are initially concentrated in certain localities or among specific population groups and threaten to spill over into the wider population

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

In many parts of the developing world most new infections occur in young adults with young women especially vulnerable

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.598706740066137
WordScorePoS
develop0VB
world0.0017440716962658NN
infection0NN
occur0VB
adult0.163013873070017JJ
woman0.0610612445035112NN
vulnerable0.051052537468787JJ

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.492663279859157
WordScorePoS
develop0VB
world0.00585260443759492NN
infection0NN
occur0VB
adult0JJ
woman0.221979360474357NN
vulnerable0JJ

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.415222172856397
WordScorePoS
develop0VB
world0.00087176582269799NN
infection0.122222546933424NN
occur0.0307735781890304VB
adult0JJ
woman0.0381514605760894NN
vulnerable0JJ

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.347317908535426
WordScorePoS
develop0VB
world0.00257343720272548NN
infection0NN
occur0VB
adult0JJ
woman0.0450489732120807NN
vulnerable0.112994637345193JJ

The estimates of HIV prevalence are based on extrapolations from data collected through surveys and from surveillance of small nonrepresentative groups

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.956989380952187
WordScorePoS
estimate0.059903311017139NN
hiv0.448149338755887NN
prevalence0.0407408489778079NN
base0.0149758277542848NN
datum0NN
survey0NN

Maternal mortality rate is the number of women who die from pregnancy related causes during pregnancy and childbirth per live births

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.840899538699273
WordScorePoS
maternal0.184641469134183JJ
mortality0.276962203701274NN
rate0.0433561464459019NN
woman0.0381514605760894NN
die0.0748292956291867VB
related0.0125195145191824JJ
childbirth0.0407408489778079NN
live0.0300513417930436VB
birth0.0748292956291867NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.240518970554754
WordScorePoS
maternal0JJ
mortality0NN
rate0NN
woman0.221979360474357NN
die0VB
related0JJ
childbirth0NN
live0VB
birth0NN

The data shown here have been collected in various years and adjusted to common base year

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.574680460253391
WordScorePoS
datum0.0739231123597559NN
common0JJ
base0.017987180284335NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.478469412685159
WordScorePoS
datum0NN
common0.0615471563780609JJ
base0.0149758277542848NN

The values are modeled estimates based on an exercise carried out by the World Health Organization WHO and United Nations Children Fund UNICEF

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.688128966210779
WordScorePoS
value0NN
estimate0.059903311017139NN
base0.0149758277542848NN
world0.00087176582269799NN
health0.191387734041787NN
organization0.0175975629039954NN
unite0VB
nation0NN
child0.10682408961305NN
fund0NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.342485019370445
WordScorePoS
value0NN
estimate0NN
base0NN
world0.00351929966767313NN
health0NN
organization0NN
unite0.0828215106044499VB
nation0.0671298309154199NN
child0NN
fund0.0414107553022249NN

In this exercise maternal mortality was estimated with regression model using information on fertility birth attendants and HIV prevalence

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.978966606926528
WordScorePoS
maternal0.184641469134183JJ
mortality0.276962203701274NN
estimate0.059903311017139NN
information0.00914534810831654NN
fertility0NN
birth0.0748292956291867NN
hiv0.448149338755887NN
prevalence0.0407408489778079NN

This cannot be assumed to provide an accurate estimate of maternal mortality in any country in the table

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.965200784966262
WordScorePoS
provide0.0100171139310145VB
estimate0.059903311017139NN
maternal0.184641469134183JJ
mortality0.276962203701274NN
country0NN

Births attended by skilled health staff are the percentage of deliveries attended by personnel trained to give the necessary supervision care and advice to women during pregnancy labor and the postpartum period to conduct deliveries on their own and to care for newborns

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.673894718170848
WordScorePoS
birth0.0748292956291867NN
attend0VB
health0.191387734041787NN
percentage0NN
care0.104031537001265NN
woman0.0381514605760894NN
period0NN
conduct0NN
newborn0.0407408489778079JJ

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.566881402708283
WordScorePoS
birth0NN
attend0VB
health0.0571058915334038NN
percentage0NN
care0.0931221694711702NN
woman0.221979360474357NN
period0NN
conduct0NN
newborn0JJ

The share of births attended by skilled health staff is an indicator of health system ability to provide adequate care for pregnant women

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.648939825765194
WordScorePoS
share0NN
birth0.0748292956291867NN
attend0VB
health0.191387734041787NN
system0NN
ability0NN
provide0.0100171139310145VB
adequate0JJ
care0.104031537001265NN
pregnant0JJ
woman0.0381514605760894NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.49917800057353
WordScorePoS
share0.0285529457667019NN
birth0NN
attend0VB
health0.0571058915334038NN
system0NN
ability0NN
provide0.0112083245137075VB
adequate0JJ
care0.0931221694711702NN
pregnant0JJ
woman0.221979360474357NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.324549182334356
WordScorePoS
share0.0365427838531249NN
birth0NN
attend0.0583416713841148VB
health0NN
system0.0756001353333673NN
ability0NN
provide0.0215170467912497VB
adequate0JJ
care0NN
pregnant0.0583416713841148JJ
woman0.0546336178945768NN

Good antenatal and postnatal care improves maternal health and reduces maternal and infant mortality

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.953176552429235
WordScorePoS
antenatal0.0814816979556159JJ
care0.104031537001265NN
improve0VB
maternal0.184641469134183JJ
health0.191387734041787NN
reduce0.01675146888405VB
infant0NN
mortality0.276962203701274NN

But data may not reflect such improvements because health information system are often weak material deaths are underreported and rates of maternal mortality are difficult to measure

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.878790899071282
WordScorePoS
datum0NN
improvement0NN
health0.191387734041787NN
information0.00914534810831654NN
system0NN
material0NN
death0.193573191943949NN
rate0.0433561464459019NN
maternal0.184641469134183JJ
mortality0.276962203701274NN
measure0NN

Table

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Economic activity Gross domestic product is gross value added at purchasers prices by all resident producers in the economy plus any taxes and minus any subsidies not included in the value of the products

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.726964363918422
WordScorePoS
economic0.128463821595706JJ
activity0.0295821503613099NN
gross0.0410992516792148JJ
domestic0.0695218668857431JJ
product0.0591643007226199NN
add0.0804764811724088VB
price0NN
producer0NN
economy0.0821985033584295NN
tax0NN
subsidy0NN
include0VB

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.265935764284392
WordScorePoS
economic0.0141533244035107JJ
activity0.0391100714971453NN
gross0JJ
domestic0JJ
product0NN
add0VB
price0NN
producer0NN
economy0NN
tax0NN
subsidy0.162850158165781NN
include0VB

It is calculated without deducting for depreciation of fabricated assets or for depletion or degradation of natural resources

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.663676942542186
WordScorePoS
fabricate0VB
asset0NN
depletion0NN
degradation0.221714625071441NN
natural0.016202004209163JJ
resource0.0317953333768269NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.473179649868261
WordScorePoS
fabricate0VB
asset0NN
depletion0NN
degradation0.0996453584339239NN
natural0.0509717462875914JJ
resource0.0416785799329393NN

Value added is the net output of an industry after adding up all outputs and subtracting intermediate inputs

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.718950612568444
WordScorePoS
add0VB
industry0.181897200573757NN
input0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.636168289052861
WordScorePoS
add0.0804764811724088VB
industry0NN
input0NN

The industrial origin of value added is determined by the International Standard Industrial Classification ISIC revision

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.973993070877876
WordScorePoS
industrial0.318320101004075JJ
origin0NN
add0VB
determine0VB
international0.00265959362690358JJ
standard0.0454743001434393NN

The World Bank conventionally uses the U

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.918499615257702
WordScorePoS
world0.0124838525528648NN
bank0.0881366997038154NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.375629786620639
WordScorePoS
world0.00418824502414673NN
bank0.036961556179878NN

dollar and applies the average official exchange rate reported by the International Monetary Fund for the year shown

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.672320967801945
WordScorePoS
dollar0NN
average0.1656430212089NN
rate0NN
report0NN
international0.00726580379728728JJ
fund0.0414107553022249NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.531841172749871
WordScorePoS
dollar0NN
average0.146608885563018NN
rate0.0172128079963482NN
report0NN
international0.00571634317201755JJ
fund0NN

An alternative conversion factor is applied if the official exchange rate is WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT judged to diverge by an exceptionally large margin from the rate effectively applied to transactions in foreign currencies and traded products

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Gross domestic product average annual growth rate is calculated from constant price GDP data in local currency

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.631212226045169
WordScorePoS
gross0.0410992516792148JJ
domestic0.0695218668857431JJ
product0.0591643007226199NN
average0NN
growth0.208565600657229NN
rate0NN
price0NN
gdp0NN
datum0NN
local0.0214106369326177JJ

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.435171035942742
WordScorePoS
gross0JJ
domestic0JJ
product0NN
average0.146608885563018NN
growth0.11178243319132NN
rate0.0172128079963482NN
price0NN
gdp0NN
datum0NN
local0JJ

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.284575921334069
WordScorePoS
gross0JJ
domestic0JJ
product0NN
average0.1656430212089NN
growth0NN
rate0NN
price0NN
gdp0NN
datum0NN
local0.0145856516935579JJ

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.313412744236315
WordScorePoS
gross0.030745604615229JJ
domestic0.0520080474473126JJ
product0.0442597400933733NN
average0NN
growth0.0260040237236563NN
rate0NN
price0NN
gdp0NN
datum0.0454743001434393NN
local0JJ

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.305258119153882
WordScorePoS
gross0.0249900578719309JJ
domestic0.0634082886861185JJ
product0.017987180284335NN
average0NN
growth0NN
rate0NN
price0NN
gdp0NN
datum0.0739231123597559NN
local0.0130185595639838JJ

Agricultural productivity refers to the ratio of agricultural value added measured in constant U

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.882144719969395
WordScorePoS
agricultural0.250032943963815JJ
productivity0.0595900566394012NN
ratio0NN
add0VB
measure0.0504000902222448NN

dollars to the number of workers in agriculture

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.685972721092335
WordScorePoS
dollar0NN
worker0NN
agriculture0.148975141598503NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.559809075448202
WordScorePoS
dollar0NN
worker0.121575732851624NN
agriculture0NN

Value added is the net output of an industry after adding up all out puts and subtracting intermediate inputs

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.718950612568444
WordScorePoS
add0VB
industry0.181897200573757NN
input0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.636168289052861
WordScorePoS
add0.0804764811724088VB
industry0NN
input0NN

The industrial origin of value added is determined by the International Standard Industrial Classification ISIC revision

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.973993070877876
WordScorePoS
industrial0.318320101004075JJ
origin0NN
add0VB
determine0VB
international0.00265959362690358JJ
standard0.0454743001434393NN

Agriculture value added corresponds to ISIC divisions and includes forestry and fishing

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.882523068129863
WordScorePoS
agriculture0.148975141598503NN
add0VB
include0VB
forestry0.0583416713841148NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.342578829255513
WordScorePoS
agriculture0NN
add0.0804764811724088VB
include0VB
forestry0NN

Industry value added comprises mining manufacturing construction electricity water and gas ISIC divisions

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.717418448605602
WordScorePoS
industry0NN
add0VB
manufacture0NN
electricity0.0348974218717993NN
water0.556409482163189NN
gas0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.59591677642416
WordScorePoS
industry0.181897200573757NN
add0VB
manufacture0.240811982686599NN
electricity0.030745604615229NN
water0.0377086395700813NN
gas0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.267056017675252
WordScorePoS
industry0NN
add0VB
manufacture0NN
electricity0NN
water0.186896403054502NN
gas0.0332151194779746NN

Services value added correspond to ISIC divisions

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.788867759888123
WordScorePoS
service0.0197870712294258NN
add0.0804764811724088VB

Household final consumption expenditure private consumption in previous editions is the market value of all goods and services including durable products such as cars washing machines and home computers purchased by households

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.858932296667444
WordScorePoS
household0.0554128417527413NN
final0.108503934593034JJ
consumption0.332151194779746NN
expenditure0NN
private0JJ
previous0JJ
market0.0169905820958638NN
service0.00666957305782837NN
include0VB
product0.0199423462679015NN
car0.0542519672965169NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.349860690497847
WordScorePoS
household0NN
final0JJ
consumption0.147812295323721NN
expenditure0NN
private0JJ
previous0JJ
market0.0252035516550537NN
service0.0197870712294258NN
include0VB
product0.0591643007226199NN
car0NN

It excludes purchases of dwellings but includes imputed rent for owner occupied dwellings

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

It also includes payments and fees to governments to obtain permits and licenses

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.857358815817645
WordScorePoS
include0VB
government0NN
obtain0.0815069365350084VB

Here household consumption expenditure includes the expenditures of nonprofit institutions serving households even when reported separately by the country

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.716148113033059
WordScorePoS
household0.0554128417527413NN
consumption0.332151194779746NN
expenditure0NN
include0VB
institution0NN
serve0VB
report0.0409791940864438NN
country0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.406165700338229
WordScorePoS
household0NN
consumption0NN
expenditure0NN
include0VB
institution0.274477239401321NN
serve0VB
report0NN
country0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.279547371424257
WordScorePoS
household0NN
consumption0.147812295323721NN
expenditure0NN
include0VB
institution0.0410992516792148NN
serve0VB
report0NN
country0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.435946151663423
WordScorePoS
household0.0330412182586772NN
consumption0NN
expenditure0.064698038783335NN
include0VB
institution0.0991236547760315NN
serve0VB
report0NN
country0NN

In practice household consumption expenditure may include any statistical discrepancy in the use of resources relative to the supply of resources

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.792863174771434
WordScorePoS
practice0.0703006268489394NN
household0.0554128417527413NN
consumption0.332151194779746NN
expenditure0NN
include0VB
statistical0JJ
resource0.0416785799329393NN
relative0JJ
supply0.0703006268489394NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.223708115330455
WordScorePoS
practice0NN
household0NN
consumption0.147812295323721NN
expenditure0NN
include0VB
statistical0JJ
resource0.0123650647908625NN
relative0JJ
supply0NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.327500614952336
WordScorePoS
practice0NN
household0NN
consumption0.08955644059472NN
expenditure0NN
include0VB
statistical0JJ
resource0.0449504361447405NN
relative0.0731385760866977JJ
supply0NN

General government final consumption expenditure general government consumption in previous editions includes all government current expenditures for purchases of goods and services including compensation of employees

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.877891476500014
WordScorePoS
government0NN
final0.108503934593034JJ
consumption0.332151194779746NN
expenditure0NN
previous0JJ
include0VB
current0.0332151194779746JJ
service0.00666957305782837NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.340716464024356
WordScorePoS
government0NN
final0JJ
consumption0.147812295323721NN
expenditure0NN
previous0JJ
include0VB
current0JJ
service0.0197870712294258NN

It also includes most expenditures on national defense and security but excludes government military expenditures that are part of government capital formation

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Gross capital formation gross domestic investment in previous editions consists of outlays on additions to the fixed assets of the economy plus net changes in the level of inventories and valuables

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.536415672656356
WordScorePoS
gross0.0410992516792148JJ
domestic0.0695218668857431JJ
investment0.0252035516550537NN
previous0JJ
addition0NN
asset0NN
economy0.0821985033584295NN
level0.00761994916892276NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.41006494225359
WordScorePoS
gross0.0249900578719309JJ
domestic0.0634082886861185JJ
investment0.0766240489430275NN
previous0JJ
addition0NN
asset0NN
economy0NN
level0.0138997399903163NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.362672928318112
WordScorePoS
gross0JJ
domestic0JJ
investment0NN
previous0.0548233071065585JJ
addition0NN
asset0NN
economy0.0839946104936743NN
level0.0415277415054218NN

Fixed assets include land improvements fences ditches drains and so on plant machinery and equipment purchases and the construction of buildings roads railways and the like including commercial and industrial buildings offices schools hospitals and private dwellings

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.5119698064412
WordScorePoS
asset0NN
include0VB
land0NN
improvement0.0454743001434393NN
plant0NN
building0NN
road0.0368585655748969NN
commercial0JJ
industrial0.318320101004075JJ
school0NN
private0.0368585655748969JJ

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.456087812571161
WordScorePoS
asset0NN
include0VB
land0NN
improvement0NN
plant0NN
building0.149940347231585NN
road0NN
commercial0JJ
industrial0JJ
school0NN
private0.0898760357768464JJ

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.244060044798246
WordScorePoS
asset0NN
include0VB
land0.0465651203624806NN
improvement0NN
plant0.132205049555723NN
building0NN
road0NN
commercial0JJ
industrial0JJ
school0.0297950283197006NN
private0JJ

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.243547880591846
WordScorePoS
asset0NN
include0VB
land0NN
improvement0NN
plant0NN
building0NN
road0NN
commercial0JJ
industrial0JJ
school0.208127520578185NN
private0JJ

Inventories are stocks of goods held by firms to meet temporary or unexpected fluctuations in production or sales and work in progress

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.630943905091027
WordScorePoS
stock0NN
hold0.18234260265061NN
meet0VB
production0NN
progress0.0335134328085675NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.467424049788977
WordScorePoS
stock0.0409791940864438NN
hold0NN
meet0VB
production0.118934074671047NN
progress0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.417843232513179
WordScorePoS
stock0NN
hold0NN
meet0.0881366997038154VB
production0.0548141757796873NN
progress0NN

According to the SNA net acquisitions of valuables are also considered capital formation

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

External balance of goods and services is exports of goods and services less imports of goods and services

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.688225204963776
WordScorePoS
external0.048933054487825JJ
service0NN
export0.110884668539634NN
import0.0978661089756501NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.350332597093813
WordScorePoS
external0JJ
service0.0143446978608332NN
export0.0881366997038154NN
import0NN

Trade in goods and services comprise all transactions between res idents of country and the rest of the world involving change in ownership of general merchandise goods sent for processing and repairs nonmonetary gold and services

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.674500784830896
WordScorePoS
trade0NN
service0NN
transaction0NN
country0NN
world0.00351929966767313NN
involve0VB
change0.402565546215053NN
ownership0NN
processing0NN

The GDP implicit deflator reflects changes in prices for all final demand categories such as government consumption capital formation and international trade as well as the main component private final consumption

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.808941191506086
WordScorePoS
gdp0NN
price0NN
demand0NN
government0NN
consumption0.332151194779746NN
international0.0023966944644375JJ
trade0NN
private0JJ

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.434797822955667
WordScorePoS
gdp0NN
price0NN
demand0NN
government0NN
consumption0.147812295323721NN
international0.00355521737836969JJ
trade0.0591643007226199NN
private0JJ

It is derived as the ratio of current to constant price GDP

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.584657777663134
WordScorePoS
ratio0NN
current0.0325700316331562JJ
price0NN
gdp0.0531983120572613NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.469440747493401
WordScorePoS
ratio0.0688661930304451NN
current0JJ
price0NN
gdp0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.419549009823106
WordScorePoS
ratio0.0615471563780609NN
current0JJ
price0NN
gdp0NN

The GDP deflator may also be calculated explicitly as Paasche price index in which the weights are the current period quantities of output

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

National accounts indicators for most developing countries are collected from national statistical organizations and central banks by visiting and resident World Bank missions

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Data for high income economies come from the OECD data files

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.442932209890186
WordScorePoS
datum0NN
income0.166475342664294NN
economy0NN
oecd0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.536381089861221
WordScorePoS
datum0.0454743001434393NN
income0.110649350233433NN
economy0NN
oecd0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.441224240037096
WordScorePoS
datum0.0739231123597559NN
income0.017987180284335NN
economy0NN
oecd0NN

Table

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Trade aid and finance Merchandise exports show the f

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.673408326441707
WordScorePoS
trade0.0539615408530051NN
aid0NN
finance0.036961556179878NN
export0.110884668539634NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.460723510757439
WordScorePoS
trade0.0149758277542848NN
aid0.123094312756122NN
finance0NN
export0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.400266005142677
WordScorePoS
trade0.0591643007226199NN
aid0.0607878664258118NN
finance0NN
export0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.365663235465439
WordScorePoS
trade0.0214456704626236NN
aid0NN
finance0NN
export0.0881366997038154NN

free on board value of goods provided to the rest of the world valued in U

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.860296136169166
WordScorePoS
free0.0898760357768464JJ
world0.00418824502414673NN
value0.036961556179878NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.339098112852372
WordScorePoS
free0.0499016491051341JJ
world0.0017440716962658NN
value0NN

dollars

Label: 17, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
dollar0.048933054487825NN

Merchandise imports show the c

Label: 17, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
import0.0978661089756501NN

value of goods the cost of the goods including insurance and freight purchased from the rest of the world valued in U

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.579038893372491
WordScorePoS
cost0NN
include0VB
insurance0.0804764811724088NN
world0.00172202218602071NN
value0NN

dollars

Label: 17, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
dollar0.048933054487825NN

Data on merchandise trade come from the World Trade Organization WTO in its annual report

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.697130444814496
WordScorePoS
datum0.0739231123597559NN
trade0.0539615408530051NN
world0.00418824502414673NN
organization0.0422721924574123NN
report0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.47271447576477
WordScorePoS
datum0NN
trade0.0591643007226199NN
world0.00172202218602071NN
organization0.0347609334428716NN
report0NN

Manufactured exports comprise the commodities in Standard Industrial Trade Classification SITC sections chemicals basic manufactures machinery and transport equipment and miscellaneous manufactured goods excluding division

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.96367391107506
WordScorePoS
manufacture0.240811982686599NN
export0NN
commodity0.0454743001434393NN
standard0.0454743001434393NN
industrial0.318320101004075JJ
trade0NN
chemical0NN
basic0.0480507272610562JJ
transport0.030745604615229NN

High technology exports are products with high D intensity

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.625930767838903
WordScorePoS
technology0.109843026967392NN
export0.110884668539634NN
product0.017987180284335NN
intensity0NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.60918287751506
WordScorePoS
technology0.109914925284606NN
export0NN
product0NN
intensity0.122412709674631NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.32866411035335
WordScorePoS
technology0.0810848128688654NN
export0NN
product0.0442597400933733NN
intensity0NN

They include high technology products such as in aerospace computers pharmaceuticals scientific instruments and electrical machinery

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.693673296495248
WordScorePoS
include0VB
technology0.0810848128688654NN
product0.0442597400933733NN
electrical0.0602029956716497JJ

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.477895838068654
WordScorePoS
include0VB
technology0.109843026967392NN
product0.017987180284335NN
electrical0JJ

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.410919190889682
WordScorePoS
include0VB
technology0.109914925284606NN
product0NN
electrical0JJ

Current account balance is the sum of net exports of goods and services net income and net current transfers

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.451040587695421
WordScorePoS
current0JJ
account0.0172128079963482NN
export0NN
service0.00795378154685591NN
income0.166475342664294NN
transfer0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.392616961985607
WordScorePoS
current0JJ
account0NN
export0.0881366997038154NN
service0.0143446978608332NN
income0.0643370113878709NN
transfer0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.390298697111244
WordScorePoS
current0JJ
account0NN
export0.110884668539634NN
service0NN
income0.017987180284335NN
transfer0.036961556179878NN

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.375769271524238
WordScorePoS
current0.0325700316331562JJ
account0.0141533244035107NN
export0NN
service0NN
income0NN
transfer0.0803666323453555NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.332954711523623
WordScorePoS
current0JJ
account0.0160169090870187NN
export0NN
service0.0148023490369527NN
income0.110649350233433NN
transfer0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.307926481409126
WordScorePoS
current0.0332151194779746JJ
account0.0577345906651901NN
export0NN
service0.00666957305782837NN
income0NN
transfer0NN

Net private capital flows consist of private debt and nondebt flows

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.9540993506818
WordScorePoS
private0.0898760357768464JJ
flow0NN
debt0.342531381414775NN

Private debt flows include commercial bank lending bonds and other private credits nondebt private flows are foreign direct investment and portfolio equity investment

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.918586392884733
WordScorePoS
private0.0898760357768464JJ
debt0.342531381414775NN
include0VB
commercial0JJ
bank0.036961556179878NN
credit0NN
foreign0.036961556179878JJ
direct0.0299586785922821JJ
investment0.0766240489430275NN

Foreign direct investment is net inflows of investment to acquire lasting management interest percent or more of voting stock in an enterprise operating in an economy other than that of the investor

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.548719495643671
WordScorePoS
foreign0.036961556179878JJ
direct0.0299586785922821JJ
investment0.0766240489430275NN
acquire0NN
last0.048933054487825JJ
management0NN
stock0NN
enterprise0NN
operate0VB
economy0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.394344934979911
WordScorePoS
foreign0JJ
direct0JJ
investment0.0252035516550537NN
acquire0NN
last0JJ
management0NN
stock0NN
enterprise0.0607878664258118NN
operate0VB
economy0.0821985033584295NN

It is the sum of equity capital re investment of earnings other long term capital and short term capital as shown in the balance of payments

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.861566511910127
WordScorePoS
investment0.0766240489430275NN
term0.149793392961411NN

Data on the current account balance private capital flows and foreign direct investment are drawn from the IMF Balance of Payments Statistics Yearbook and International Financial Statistics

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.736489858361536
WordScorePoS
datum0.0739231123597559NN
current0JJ
account0NN
private0.0898760357768464JJ
foreign0.036961556179878JJ
direct0.0299586785922821JJ
investment0.0766240489430275NN
international0.00648516099948979JJ
financial0.0150369494376999JJ

Official development assistance or official aid from the high income members of the OECD are the main source of Selected world development indicators official external finance for developing countries but official development assistance ODA is also disbursed by some important donor countries that are not members of OECD Development Assistance Committee DAC

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.718806855866535
WordScorePoS
official0.0739231123597559NN
development0.0469463607292177NN
assistance0.0499801157438617NN
aid0NN
income0.017987180284335NN
oecd0NN
source0.0109843026967392NN
world0.00418824502414673NN
external0.048933054487825JJ
develop0VB
country0NN
oda0.1957322179513NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.411517741989244
WordScorePoS
official0.0488696285210061NN
development0.0177346522508396NN
assistance0.0330412182586772NN
aid0NN
income0.166475342664294NN
oecd0NN
source0NN
world0.00276879546803864NN
external0JJ
develop0VB
country0NN
oda0NN

DAC has three criteria for ODA it is undertaken by the official sector it promotes economic development or welfare as main objective and it is provided on concessional terms with grant element of at least percent on loans

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.748143423034962
WordScorePoS
criterion0NN
oda0.1957322179513NN
undertake0VB
sector0.0459744293658165NN
promote0.0100599344419752VB
economic0JJ
development0.0469463607292177NN
welfare0NN
objective0.0299586785922821NN
concessional0.048933054487825JJ
term0.149793392961411NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.264925159246769
WordScorePoS
criterion0NN
oda0NN
undertake0VB
sector0.0252035516550537NN
promote0.0275746845422835VB
economic0.128463821595706JJ
development0.0055149369084567NN
welfare0NN
objective0NN
concessional0JJ
term0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.308512449191409
WordScorePoS
criterion0NN
oda0NN
undertake0.0688661930304451VB
sector0.0571058915334038NN
promote0.00624783747184187VB
economic0.0727679293221751JJ
development0.0124956749436837NN
welfare0NN
objective0NN
concessional0JJ
term0NN

Official development assistance comprises grants and loans net of repayments that meet the DAC definition of ODA and are made to countries and territories in part of the DAC list of aid recipients

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.772699142280031
WordScorePoS
development0.0469463607292177NN
assistance0.0499801157438617NN
meet0VB
oda0.1957322179513NN
country0NN
aid0NN

Official aid comprises grants and ODA like loans net of repayments to countries and territories in part II of the DAC list of aid recipients

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.580471551960398
WordScorePoS
aid0NN
oda0.1957322179513NN
country0NN

Bilateral grants are transfers in money or in kind for which no repayment is required

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.604868812216563
WordScorePoS
transfer0.0803666323453555NN
money0NN
kind0.0531983120572613NN
require0VB

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.486788266555094
WordScorePoS
transfer0NN
money0.107490825192354NN
kind0NN
require0VB

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.47226024651533
WordScorePoS
transfer0NN
money0NN
kind0NN
require0.104282800328615VB

Bilateral loans are loans extended by governments or official agencies that have grant element of at least percent and for which repayment is required in convertible currencies or in kind

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Total external debt is debt owed to nonresidents repayable in foreign currency goods or services

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.980226997373116
WordScorePoS
total0NN
external0.048933054487825JJ
debt0.342531381414775NN
foreign0.036961556179878JJ
service0NN

It is the sum of public publicly guaranteed and private non guaranteed long term debt use of IMF credit and short term debt

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.964660038084846
WordScorePoS
public0.0390556786919513NN
guarantee0NN
private0.0898760357768464JJ
term0.149793392961411NN
debt0.342531381414775NN
credit0NN

Short term debt includes all debt having an original maturity of one year or less and interest in arrears on long term debt

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.991939302516137
WordScorePoS
term0.149793392961411NN
debt0.342531381414775NN
include0VB

Present value of debt is the sum of short term external debt plus the discounted sum of total debt service payments due on public publicly guaranteed and private nonguaranteed long term external debt over the life of existing loans

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.973528260838506
WordScorePoS
debt0.342531381414775NN
term0.149793392961411NN
external0.048933054487825JJ
total0NN
service0NN
due0JJ
public0.0390556786919513NN
guarantee0NN
private0.0898760357768464JJ
life0NN
exist0.0599173571845643VB

The main sources of external debt information are reports to the World Bank through its Debtor Reporting System from member countries that have received World Bank loans

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.795147886911039
WordScorePoS
source0.0109843026967392NN
external0.048933054487825JJ
debt0.342531381414775NN
information0.0219686053934784NN
report0NN
world0.00418824502414673NN
bank0.036961556179878NN
system0.0211360962287062NN
country0NN
receive0VB

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.456484509898535
WordScorePoS
source0.0130963126055467NN
external0JJ
debt0NN
information0.0130963126055467NN
report0NN
world0.0124838525528648NN
bank0.0881366997038154NN
system0.0756001353333673NN
country0NN
receive0VB

Additional information has been drawn from the files of the World Bank and the IMF

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.755017836870059
WordScorePoS
additional0.0440683498519077JJ
information0.0130963126055467NN
world0.0124838525528648NN
bank0.0881366997038154NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.478892506798645
WordScorePoS
additional0.036961556179878JJ
information0.0219686053934784NN
world0.00418824502414673NN
bank0.036961556179878NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.335660823509587
WordScorePoS
additional0JJ
information0.0675706773907211NN
world0.00257642711761688NN
bank0NN

Summary tables of the external debt of developing countries are published annually in the World Bank Global Development Finance

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.946575501766832
WordScorePoS
external0.048933054487825JJ
debt0.342531381414775NN
develop0VB
country0NN
annually0RB
world0.00418824502414673NN
bank0.036961556179878NN
global0.0201198688839505JJ
development0.0469463607292177NN
finance0.036961556179878NN

Net migration is the total number of migrants during the period that is the number of immigrants less the number of emigrants including both citizens and noncitizens

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.707885737004045
WordScorePoS
migration0.12939607756667NN
total0NN
migrant0.0488696285210061NN
period0NN
include0VB

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.48277220077961
WordScorePoS
migration0NN
total0NN
migrant0.121575732851624NN
period0NN
include0VB

Data shown in the table are five year estimates

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.590671823308405
WordScorePoS
datum0.0739231123597559NN
estimate0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.540181239598247
WordScorePoS
datum0.0454743001434393NN
estimate0.0221298700466866NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.478648650079927
WordScorePoS
datum0NN
estimate0.059903311017139NN

Data are from the United Nations Population Division World Population Prospects The Revision

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.598548683715018
WordScorePoS
datum0NN
unite0VB
nation0.0396106020715138NN
population0.0860640399817412NN
world0.00276879546803864NN
prospects0NNS

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.428235189472143
WordScorePoS
datum0NN
unite0.0828215106044499VB
nation0.0671298309154199NN
population0NN
world0.00351929966767313NN
prospects0NNS

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.404687377766943
WordScorePoS
datum0.0739231123597559NN
unite0.036961556179878VB
nation0.0299586785922821NN
population0NN
world0.00418824502414673NN
prospects0NNS

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.302064637199907
WordScorePoS
datum0.0454743001434393NN
unite0VB
nation0NN
population0NN
world0.00257642711761688NN
prospects0.0602029956716497NNS

Domestic credit provided by banking sector includes all credit to various sectors on gross basis with the exception of credit to the central government which is net

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.661577179755943
WordScorePoS
domestic0.0520080474473126JJ
credit0.0602029956716497NN
banking0NN
sector0.0565629593551219NN
include0VB
gross0.030745604615229JJ
basis0NN
central0JJ
government0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.488884923631559
WordScorePoS
domestic0.0634082886861185JJ
credit0NN
banking0NN
sector0.0459744293658165NN
include0VB
gross0.0249900578719309JJ
basis0.048933054487825NN
central0JJ
government0.048933054487825NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.424379432083632
WordScorePoS
domestic0.0695218668857431JJ
credit0NN
banking0.0804764811724088NN
sector0.0252035516550537NN
include0VB
gross0.0410992516792148JJ
basis0NN
central0JJ
government0NN

The banking sector includes monetary authorities deposit money banks and other banking institutions for which data are available including institutions that do not accept transferable deposits but do incur such liabilities as time and savings deposits

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.792420163787842
WordScorePoS
banking0NN
sector0NN
include0VB
money0.107490825192354NN
bank0NN
institution0.274477239401321NN
datum0NN
incur0VB
time0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.390788723481931
WordScorePoS
banking0NN
sector0NN
include0VB
money0NN
bank0NN
institution0.0991236547760315NN
datum0NN
incur0.064698038783335VB
time0.0607862199751165NN

Examples of other banking institutions include savings and mortgage loan institutions and building and loan associations

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.891110437811645
WordScorePoS
banking0NN
institution0.274477239401321NN
include0VB
building0.109790895760528NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.270440170312685
WordScorePoS
banking0NN
institution0.0249900578719309NN
include0VB
building0.149940347231585NN

Data are from the IMF International Finance Statistics

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.864968033763097
WordScorePoS
datum0.0739231123597559NN
international0.00648516099948979JJ
finance0.036961556179878NN

Statistical methods This section describes the calculation of the least squares growth rate the exponential endpoint growth rate and the World Bank Atlas methodology for calculating the conversion factor used to estimate GNI and GNI per capita in U

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.613473995657303
WordScorePoS
statistical0JJ
growth0.208565600657229NN
rate0NN
world0.00172202218602071NN
bank0NN
estimate0NN
gnus0NN
capita0.049270765107907NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.502812147823048
WordScorePoS
statistical0.048933054487825JJ
growth0NN
rate0NN
world0.00418824502414673NN
bank0.036961556179878NN
estimate0NN
gnus0.146799163463475NN
capita0NN

dollars

Label: 17, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
dollar0.048933054487825NN

Least squares growth rate Least squares growth rates are used wherever there is sufficiently long time series to permit reliable calculation

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.632666562511266
WordScorePoS
growth0.208565600657229NN
rate0NN
time0NN
reliable0JJ

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.326133108361221
WordScorePoS
growth0NN
rate0.0325677023224526NN
time0NN
reliable0.149891440995783JJ

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.483491428714057
WordScorePoS
growth0.11178243319132NN
rate0.0172128079963482NN
time0.0607862199751165NN
reliable0JJ

No growth rate is calculated if more than half the observations in period are missing

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.695226523714116
WordScorePoS
growth0.208565600657229NN
rate0NN
period0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.429988995423816
WordScorePoS
growth0.11178243319132NN
rate0.0172128079963482NN
period0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.386474297360478
WordScorePoS
growth0.0519476926891779NN
rate0.0639932865717261NN
period0NN

The least squares growth rate is estimated by fitting linear regression trendline to the logarithmic annual values of the variable in the relevant period

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.551900955931846
WordScorePoS
growth0.208565600657229NN
rate0NN
estimate0NN
value0NN
relevant0JJ
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The regression equation takes the form ln Xt bt which is equivalent to the logarithmic transformation of the compound growth equation Xt Xo t

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.738965477484179
WordScorePoS
form0.0591643007226199NN
equivalent0.049270765107907JJ
growth0.208565600657229NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.368430965560292
WordScorePoS
form0.158049144643351NN
equivalent0JJ
growth0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.327205875477305
WordScorePoS
form0.0884167543187491NN
equivalent0JJ
growth0.0519476926891779NN

In this equation is the variable is time and log Xo and ln are the parameters to be estimated

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.578035486372361
WordScorePoS
time0.0127591822694525NN
estimate0.059903311017139NN

If is the least squares estimate of the average annual growth rate is obtained as [exp ] and is multiplied by to express it as percentage

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.605692071727053
WordScorePoS
estimate0NN
average0.146608885563018NN
growth0.11178243319132NN
rate0.0172128079963482NN
obtain0VB
percentage0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.458362261271037
WordScorePoS
estimate0NN
average0NN
growth0.208565600657229NN
rate0NN
obtain0VB
percentage0NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.364031793957514
WordScorePoS
estimate0NN
average0.1656430212089NN
growth0NN
rate0NN
obtain0VB
percentage0NN

The calculated growth rate is an average rate that is representative of the available observations over the entire period

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.568705062864837
WordScorePoS
growth0.11178243319132NN
rate0.0172128079963482NN
average0.146608885563018NN
representative0NN
period0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.405073269193537
WordScorePoS
growth0.208565600657229NN
rate0NN
average0NN
representative0NN
period0NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.321709619940903
WordScorePoS
growth0NN
rate0NN
average0.1656430212089NN
representative0NN
period0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.430935930795926
WordScorePoS
growth0NN
rate0.0571955184484387NN
average0NN
representative0.107490825192354NN
period0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.349465880620214
WordScorePoS
growth0.0519476926891779NN
rate0.0639932865717261NN
average0NN
representative0NN
period0NN

It does not necessarily match the actual growth rate between any two periods

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.666168442430924
WordScorePoS
match0NN
actual0JJ
growth0.208565600657229NN
rate0NN
period0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.412016931997419
WordScorePoS
match0NN
actual0JJ
growth0.11178243319132NN
rate0.0172128079963482NN
period0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.370320998883645
WordScorePoS
match0NN
actual0JJ
growth0.0519476926891779NN
rate0.0639932865717261NN
period0NN

Exponential growth rate The growth rate between two points in time for certain demographic data notably labor force and population is calculated from the equation ln pn where pn and are the last and first observations in the period is the number of years in the period and ln is the natural logarithm operator

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.621408128863364
WordScorePoS
growth0.208565600657229NN
rate0NN
time0NN
datum0NN
notably0RB
force0.0410992516792148NN
population0.0428212738652355NN
period0NN
natural0JJ

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.502086540560201
WordScorePoS
growth0.11178243319132NN
rate0.0172128079963482NN
time0.0607862199751165NN
datum0NN
notably0RB
force0NN
population0.0860640399817412NN
period0NN
natural0JJ

This growth rate is based on model of continuous exponential growth between two points in time

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.713643165183838
WordScorePoS
growth0.208565600657229NN
rate0NN
base0NN
time0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.515926431285562
WordScorePoS
growth0.11178243319132NN
rate0.0172128079963482NN
base0NN
time0.0607862199751165NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.362863312491743
WordScorePoS
growth0.0519476926891779NN
rate0.0639932865717261NN
base0.0442083771593746NN
time0NN

It does not take into account the intermediate values of the series

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.584050921849618
WordScorePoS
account0.0577345906651901NN
value0NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.534546546565286
WordScorePoS
account0.0137637438743113NN
value0.0390772412228479NN

Note also that the exponential growth rate does not correspond to the annual rate of change measured at one year interval which is given by pn pn pn

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.68290705498671
WordScorePoS
growth0NN
rate0NN
change0.402565546215053NN
measure0.0710409787438328NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.350859623010575
WordScorePoS
growth0.208565600657229NN
rate0NN
change0NN
measure0.0347609334428716NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.409262248325709
WordScorePoS
growth0.0519476926891779NN
rate0.0639932865717261NN
change0NN
measure0.103895385378356NN

WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT World Bank Atlas method In calculating GNI and GNI per capita in U

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.88011633064047
WordScorePoS
world0.00418824502414673NN
development0.0469463607292177NN
report0NN
bank0.036961556179878NN
gnus0.146799163463475NN
capita0NN

dollars for certain operational purposes the World Bank uses the Atlas conversion factor

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.741330234617603
WordScorePoS
dollar0NN
world0.0124838525528648NN
bank0.0881366997038154NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.663692884279802
WordScorePoS
dollar0.048933054487825NN
world0.00418824502414673NN
bank0.036961556179878NN

The purpose of the Atlas conversion factor is to reduce the impact of exchange rate fluctuations in the cross country comparison of national incomes

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.574151008755269
WordScorePoS
reduce0.0310356414389692VB
impact0NN
rate0.0172128079963482NN
country0NN
national0.00886732612541978JJ
income0.166475342664294NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.362500776256609
WordScorePoS
reduce0.0164833460638534VB
impact0NN
rate0.0639932865717261NN
country0NN
national0.0164833460638534JJ
income0.0442083771593746NN

The Atlas conversion factor for any year is the average of country exchange rate or alternative conversion factor for that year and its exchange rates for the two preceding years adjusted for the difference between the rate of inflation in the country and that in Japan the United Kingdom the United States and the Euro Zone

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.650947473990726
WordScorePoS
average0.1656430212089NN
country0NN
rate0NN
alternative0NN
unite0.0828215106044499VB

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.389538250499622
WordScorePoS
average0.146608885563018NN
country0NN
rate0.0172128079963482NN
alternative0NN
unite0VB

A country inflation rate is measured by the change in its GDP deflator

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.851814738081311
WordScorePoS
country0NN
rate0NN
measure0.0710409787438328NN
change0.402565546215053NN
gdp0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.301959617503989
WordScorePoS
country0NN
rate0.0639932865717261NN
measure0.103895385378356NN
change0NN
gdp0NN

The inflation rate for Japan the United Kingdom the United States and the Euro Zone representing international inflation is measured by the change in the SDR deflator

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.89667171568205
WordScorePoS
rate0NN
unite0.0828215106044499VB
represent0VB
international0.00726580379728728JJ
measure0.0710409787438328NN
change0.402565546215053NN

Special drawing rights or SDRs are the IMF unit of account

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.524964241036333
WordScorePoS
special0.0747035830159326JJ
rights0NNS
account0.0194583992186006NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.439101307267161
WordScorePoS
special0JJ
rights0.078760887431929NNS
account0NN

The SDR deflator is calculated as weighted average of these countries GDP deflators in SDR terms the weights being the amount of each country currency in one SDR unit

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.583112786772786
WordScorePoS
average0.1656430212089NN
country0NN
gdp0NN
term0NN
amount0.0279982034978914NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.560763672871792
WordScorePoS
average0.146608885563018NN
country0NN
gdp0NN
term0.0396106020715138NN
amount0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.451073592114168
WordScorePoS
average0NN
country0NN
gdp0NN
term0.149793392961411NN
amount0NN

Weights vary over time because both the composition of the SDR and the relative exchange rates for each currency change

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.843652762243352
WordScorePoS
time0NN
relative0JJ
rate0NN
change0.402565546215053NN

The SDR deflator is calculated in SDR terms first and then converted to U

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.870304811925903
WordScorePoS
term0.149793392961411NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.435437237204259
WordScorePoS
term0.0749457204978913NN

dollars using the SDR to dollar Atlas conversion factor

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

The Atlas conversion factor is then applied to country GNI

Label: 17, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
country0NN
gnus0.146799163463475NN

The resulting GNI in U

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.906593565270908
WordScorePoS
result0NN
gnus0.146799163463475NN

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.422004866570736
WordScorePoS
result0.0683326727248364NN
gnus0NN

dollars is divided by the midyear population to derive GNI per capita

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.77576704116645
WordScorePoS
dollar0.048933054487825NN
population0NN
gnus0.146799163463475NN
capita0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.364998513463713
WordScorePoS
dollar0NN
population0.0428212738652355NN
gnus0NN
capita0.049270765107907NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.34110708163578
WordScorePoS
dollar0NN
population0.0860640399817412NN
gnus0NN
capita0NN

When official exchange rates are deemed to be unreliable or unrepresentative of the effective exchange rate during period an alternative estimate of the exchange rate is used in the Atlas formula see below

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

The following formulas describe the calculation of the Atlas conversion factor for year    pt  [  pt pt   ] et  −  −  −  −  − − and the calculation of GNI per capita in U

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.891972896043261
WordScorePoS
gnus0.146799163463475NN
capita0NN

dollars for year Yt Nt et where et is the Atlas conversion factor national currency to the U

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

dollar for year et is the average annual exchange rate national currency to the U

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.610783779288213
WordScorePoS
dollar0NN
average0.1656430212089NN
rate0NN
national0.0112708859309299JJ

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.596197629626055
WordScorePoS
dollar0NN
average0.146608885563018NN
rate0.0172128079963482NN
national0.00886732612541978JJ

dollar for year pt is the GDP deflator for year pS is the SDR deflator in U

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

dollar terms for year is the Atlas GNI per capita in U

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.950632828865252
WordScorePoS
dollar0.048933054487825NN
term0.149793392961411NN
gnus0.146799163463475NN
capita0NN

dollars in year Yt is current GNI local currency for year and Nt is the midyear population for year t

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.781811548209289
WordScorePoS
dollar0.048933054487825NN
current0JJ
gnus0.146799163463475NN
local0.0130185595639838JJ
population0NN

Alternative conversion factors The World Bank systematically assesses the appropriateness of official exchange rates as conversion factors

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

An alternative conversion factor is used when the official exchange rate is judged to diverge by an exceptionally large margin from the rate effectively applied to domestic transactions of foreign currencies and traded products

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

This applies to only small number of countries as shown in Primary data documentation table in World Development Indicators

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.533978006226405
WordScorePoS
country0NN
primary0.108423939529757JJ
datum0NN
world0.0017440716962658NN
development0.0279277626235394NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.483563465555534
WordScorePoS
country0NN
primary0JJ
datum0.0739231123597559NN
world0.00418824502414673NN
development0.0469463607292177NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.446112199381165
WordScorePoS
country0NN
primary0.0970239057629001JJ
datum0NN
world0.00585260443759492NN
development0.0124956749436837NN

Alternative conversion factors are used in the Atlas methodology and elsewhere in the Selected World Development Indicators as single year conversion factors

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Table

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Key indicators for other economies Population is based on the de facto definition which counts all residents regardless of legal status or citizenship except for refugees not permanently settled in the country of asylum who are generally considered part of the population of the country of origin

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Average annual population growth rate is the exponential rate of change for the period see the section on statistical methods below

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.691831207154253
WordScorePoS
average0.1656430212089NN
population0NN
growth0NN
rate0NN
change0.402565546215053NN
period0NN
statistical0JJ

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.461312442546849
WordScorePoS
average0.146608885563018NN
population0.0860640399817412NN
growth0.11178243319132NN
rate0.0172128079963482NN
change0NN
period0NN
statistical0JJ

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.306080011521277
WordScorePoS
average0NN
population0.0428212738652355NN
growth0.208565600657229NN
rate0NN
change0NN
period0NN
statistical0JJ

Population density is midyear population divided by land area

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.520821593746928
WordScorePoS
population0.0860640399817412NN
density0NN
land0NN

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.458106575305467
WordScorePoS
population0.0137637438743113NN
density0NN
land0.123873694868802NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.456808486736844
WordScorePoS
population0.0194583992186006NN
density0.0731385760866977NN
land0.0389167984372011NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.328756821543293
WordScorePoS
population0.0310434135749871NN
density0NN
land0.0465651203624806NN

Land area is country total area excluding areas under inland bodies of water and coastal waterways

Label: 6, with a score of: 0.79037864901566
WordScorePoS
land0NN
country0NN
total0.0295155485671997NN
inland0RB
water0.556409482163189NN
coastal0JJ

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.422847440250465
WordScorePoS
land0.0141533244035107NN
country0NN
total0NN
inland0RB
water0.0333211986002325NN
coastal0.265991560286306JJ

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.33480344103574
WordScorePoS
land0.0144336476662975NN
country0NN
total0.0468670845659596NN
inland0RB
water0.186896403054502NN
coastal0JJ

Density is calculated using the most recently available data on land area

Label: 15, with a score of: 0.614144457354757
WordScorePoS
density0NN
datum0NN
land0.123873694868802NN

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.555551259317415
WordScorePoS
density0.0731385760866977NN
datum0NN
land0.0389167984372011NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.366498067037082
WordScorePoS
density0NN
datum0.0739231123597559NN
land0NN

Gross national income GNI formerly gross national product or GNP the broadest measure of national income measures total value added from domestic and foreign sources claimed by residents

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.408150040540378
WordScorePoS
gross0JJ
national0.00886732612541978JJ
income0.166475342664294NN
gnus0NN
product0NN
measure0NN
total0NN
add0VB
domestic0JJ
foreign0.0488696285210061JJ
source0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.402066511651918
WordScorePoS
gross0.0249900578719309JJ
national0.0134132459226336JJ
income0.017987180284335NN
gnus0.146799163463475NN
product0.017987180284335NN
measure0NN
total0NN
add0VB
domestic0.0634082886861185JJ
foreign0.036961556179878JJ
source0.0109843026967392NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.430665458879762
WordScorePoS
gross0.030745604615229JJ
national0.00412562425683033JJ
income0.110649350233433NN
gnus0NN
product0.0442597400933733NN
measure0NN
total0.0260040237236563NN
add0VB
domestic0.0520080474473126JJ
foreign0JJ
source0.0135141354781442NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.377176238775114
WordScorePoS
gross0.0410992516792148JJ
national0.0055149369084567JJ
income0NN
gnus0NN
product0.0591643007226199NN
measure0.0347609334428716NN
total0NN
add0.0804764811724088VB
domestic0.0695218668857431JJ
foreign0JJ
source0NN

GNI comprises gross domestic product GDP plus net receipts of primary income from foreign sources

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.56161568675258
WordScorePoS
gnus0.146799163463475NN
gross0.0249900578719309JJ
domestic0.0634082886861185JJ
product0.017987180284335NN
gdp0NN
primary0JJ
income0.017987180284335NN
foreign0.036961556179878JJ
source0.0109843026967392NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.378985881113587
WordScorePoS
gnus0NN
gross0JJ
domestic0JJ
product0NN
gdp0NN
primary0JJ
income0.166475342664294NN
foreign0.0488696285210061JJ
source0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.470234676109046
WordScorePoS
gnus0NN
gross0.030745604615229JJ
domestic0.0520080474473126JJ
product0.0442597400933733NN
gdp0NN
primary0.0160169090870187JJ
income0.110649350233433NN
foreign0JJ
source0.0135141354781442NN

Data are converted from national currency to current U

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.678843610541537
WordScorePoS
datum0.0739231123597559NN
national0.0134132459226336JJ
current0JJ

dollars using the World Bank Atlas method

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.741330234617603
WordScorePoS
dollar0NN
world0.0124838525528648NN
bank0.0881366997038154NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.663692884279803
WordScorePoS
dollar0.048933054487825NN
world0.00418824502414673NN
bank0.036961556179878NN

This involves using three year average of exchange rates to smooth the effects of transitory exchange rate fluctuations

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.617569983035465
WordScorePoS
involve0.0488696285210061VB
average0.146608885563018NN
rate0.0172128079963482NN
effect0NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.444951370659528
WordScorePoS
involve0VB
average0.1656430212089NN
rate0NN
effect0NN

See the section on statistical methods below for further discussion of the Atlas method

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

GNI per capita is GNI divided by midyear population

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.879067659223857
WordScorePoS
gnus0.146799163463475NN
capita0NN
population0NN

It is converted into current U

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.585119272677246
WordScorePoS
current0.0335649154577099JJ

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.579021465891287
WordScorePoS
current0.0332151194779746JJ

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.567775993485773
WordScorePoS
current0.0325700316331562JJ

dollars by the Atlas method

Label: 17, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
dollar0.048933054487825NN

The World Bank uses GNI per capita in U

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.822573712016866
WordScorePoS
world0.00418824502414673NN
bank0.036961556179878NN
gnus0.146799163463475NN
capita0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.440373913851501
WordScorePoS
world0.0124838525528648NN
bank0.0881366997038154NN
gnus0NN
capita0NN

S dollars to classify economies for analytical purposes and to determine borrowing eligibility

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.532893426344597
WordScorePoS
dollar0NN
economy0.0839946104936743NN
determine0VB

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.52149824658536
WordScorePoS
dollar0NN
economy0.0821985033584295NN
determine0VB

PPP Gross national income which is GNI converted into international dollars using purchasing power parity PPP conversion factors is included because nominal exchange rates do not always reflect international differences in relative prices

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.581581180437147
WordScorePoS
gross0.0249900578719309JJ
national0.0134132459226336JJ
income0.017987180284335NN
gnus0.146799163463475NN
international0.00648516099948979JJ
dollar0.048933054487825NN
power0.036961556179878NN
parity0NN
include0VB
rate0NN
relative0JJ
price0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.392762382965017
WordScorePoS
gross0JJ
national0.00886732612541978JJ
income0.166475342664294NN
gnus0NN
international0.00571634317201755JJ
dollar0NN
power0NN
parity0NN
include0VB
rate0.0172128079963482NN
relative0JJ
price0NN

At the PPP rate one international dollar has the same purchasing power over domestic GNI that the U

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.853527123923383
WordScorePoS
rate0NN
international0.00648516099948979JJ
dollar0.048933054487825NN
power0.036961556179878NN
domestic0.0634082886861185JJ
gnus0.146799163463475NN

dollar has over U

Label: 17, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
dollar0.048933054487825NN

GNI

Label: 17, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
gnus0.146799163463475NN

PPP rates allow standard comparison of real price levels between countries just as conventional price indexes allow comparison of real values over time

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

The PPP conversion factors used here are derived from price surveys covering countries conducted by the International Comparison Program

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.828591854108504
WordScorePoS
price0NN
survey0.064698038783335NN
cover0NN
country0NN
conduct0.064698038783335NN
international0.00571634317201755JJ

For Organisation for Economic Co operation and Development OECD countries data come from the most recent round of surveys completed in the rest are either from the survey or data from the or ear Selected world development indicators lier round and extrapolated to the benchmark

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.233191811887063
WordScorePoS
economic0.128463821595706JJ
development0.0055149369084567NN
oecd0NN
country0NN
datum0NN
round0NN
survey0NN
complete0JJ
world0.00172202218602071NN

Estimates for countries not included in the surveys are derived from statistical models using available data

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.715568030657625
WordScorePoS
estimate0NN
country0NN
include0VB
survey0NN
statistical0.048933054487825JJ
datum0.0739231123597559NN

PPP GNI per capita is PPP GNI divided by midyear population

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.879067659223857
WordScorePoS
gnus0.146799163463475NN
capita0NN
population0NN

Gross domestic product GDP per capita growth is based on GDP measured in constant prices

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.744266360692069
WordScorePoS
gross0.0410992516792148JJ
domestic0.0695218668857431JJ
product0.0591643007226199NN
gdp0NN
capita0.049270765107907NN
growth0.208565600657229NN
base0NN
measure0.0347609334428716NN
price0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.322009371408427
WordScorePoS
gross0JJ
domestic0JJ
product0NN
gdp0NN
capita0NN
growth0.0519476926891779NN
base0.0442083771593746NN
measure0.103895385378356NN
price0NN

Growth in GDP is considered broad measure of the growth of an economy

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.819529382284752
WordScorePoS
growth0.208565600657229NN
gdp0NN
measure0.0347609334428716NN
economy0.0821985033584295NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.34304659878241
WordScorePoS
growth0.11178243319132NN
gdp0NN
measure0NN
economy0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.318842214878538
WordScorePoS
growth0.0519476926891779NN
gdp0NN
measure0.103895385378356NN
economy0NN

GDP in constant prices can be estimated by measuring the total quantity of goods and services produced in period valuing them at an agreed set of base year prices and subtracting the cost of intermediate inputs also in constant prices

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.688159911664657
WordScorePoS
gdp0NN
price0.0583416713841148NN
estimate0NN
measure0.0504000902222448NN
total0.0252000451111224NN
service0.0143446978608332NN
produce0.0357189919948307VB
period0.0440683498519077NN
value0NN
agree0.0504000902222448VB
set0NN
base0NN
cost0NN
input0.0583416713841148NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.331949726910632
WordScorePoS
gdp0NN
price0NN
estimate0.0199423462679015NN
measure0NN
total0.0468670845659596NN
service0.00666957305782837NN
produce0.0332151194779746VB
period0.0409791940864438NN
value0NN
agree0.0234335422829798VB
set0NN
base0.0199423462679015NN
cost0.0277064208763707NN
input0NN

See the section on statistical methods for details of the least squares growth rate

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.71460939994897
WordScorePoS
statistical0JJ
growth0.208565600657229NN
rate0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.441977064342883
WordScorePoS
statistical0JJ
growth0.11178243319132NN
rate0.0172128079963482NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.397249178953992
WordScorePoS
statistical0JJ
growth0.0519476926891779NN
rate0.0639932865717261NN

Life expectancy at birth is the number of years newborn infant would live if patterns of mortality prevailing at its birth were to stay the same throughout its life

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.89115351580049
WordScorePoS
life0.0250390290383647NN
expectancy0.0407408489778079NN
birth0.0748292956291867NN
newborn0.0407408489778079JJ
infant0NN
live0.0300513417930436VB
pattern0NN
mortality0.276962203701274NN

Adult literacy rate is the percentage of persons aged and above who can with understanding read and write short simple statement about their everyday life

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.880757357481069
WordScorePoS
adult0.163013873070017JJ
literacy0.244520809605025NN
rate0.0216847879059514NN
percentage0NN
person0.0299609328954485NN
aged0JJ
simple0JJ
life0.0125233923809486NN

Carbon dioxide CO emissions measures those emissions stemming from the burning of fossil fuels and the manufacture of cement

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.743903743758435
WordScorePoS
carbon0.0559964069957828NN
dioxide0.0414107553022249NN
emission0.19598742448524NN
measure0.0710409787438328NN
fossil0NN
fuel0NN
manufacture0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.319653081074554
WordScorePoS
carbon0NN
dioxide0NN
emission0NN
measure0NN
fossil0NN
fuel0NN
manufacture0.240811982686599NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.471170428482714
WordScorePoS
carbon0.0625160381065121NN
dioxide0NN
emission0.0625160381065121NN
measure0NN
fossil0.0924643738905717NN
fuel0.0749457204978913NN
manufacture0NN

These include carbon dioxide produced during consumption of solid liquid and gas fuels and from gas flaring

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.724130148615195
WordScorePoS
include0VB
carbon0NN
dioxide0NN
produce0.0332151194779746VB
consumption0.332151194779746NN
gas0.0332151194779746NN
fuel0.0332151194779746NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.23017774749688
WordScorePoS
include0VB
carbon0NN
dioxide0NN
produce0VB
consumption0.147812295323721NN
gas0NN
fuel0NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.447475036329928
WordScorePoS
include0VB
carbon0.0625160381065121NN
dioxide0NN
produce0VB
consumption0NN
gas0.0749457204978913NN
fuel0.0749457204978913NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.360758539274076
WordScorePoS
include0VB
carbon0.0559964069957828NN
dioxide0.0414107553022249NN
produce0VB
consumption0NN
gas0.0671298309154199NN
fuel0NN

The Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center CDIAC sponsored by the U

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.57147074187932
WordScorePoS
carbon0.0559964069957828NN
dioxide0.0414107553022249NN
information0NN

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.465200402195939
WordScorePoS
carbon0.0271683202880942NN
dioxide0.0401833161726777NN
information0.0119417512090511NN

Department of Energy calculates annual anthropogenic emissions of CO

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.880100958675997
WordScorePoS
energy0.494617163780726NN
emission0.0625160381065121NN

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.329041067664013
WordScorePoS
energy0.0123065238088614NN
emission0.19598742448524NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.29915303696188
WordScorePoS
energy0.133960988253756NN
emission0.0554128417527413NN

These calculations are derived from data on fossil fuel consumption based on the World Energy Data Set maintained by the UNSD and from data on world cement manufacturing based on the Cement Manufacturing Data Set maintained by the U

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.540893324518256
WordScorePoS
datum0.0454743001434393NN
fossil0NN
fuel0NN
consumption0NN
base0NN
world0.00257642711761688NN
energy0.0540565419125769NN
set0NN
maintain0VB
manufacture0.240811982686599NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.499383503718057
WordScorePoS
datum0NN
fossil0.0924643738905717NN
fuel0.0749457204978913NN
consumption0NN
base0NN
world0.00261936653839306NN
energy0.494617163780726NN
set0NN
maintain0VB
manufacture0NN

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.441166918656938
WordScorePoS
datum0NN
fossil0.0409791940864438NN
fuel0.0332151194779746NN
consumption0.332151194779746NN
base0.0199423462679015NN
world0.00464349782489754NN
energy0.133960988253756NN
set0NN
maintain0VB
manufacture0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.113200615448411
WordScorePoS
datum0NN
fossil0NN
fuel0NN
consumption0.147812295323721NN
base0NN
world0.00172202218602071NN
energy0NN
set0NN
maintain0VB
manufacture0NN

Bureau of Mines

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Each year the CDIAC recalculates the entire time series from to the present incorporating its most recent findings and the latest corrections to its database

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Estimates exclude fuels supplied to ships and aircraft engaged in international transportation because of the difficulty of apportioning these fuels among the countries benefiting from that transport

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.690590966249197
WordScorePoS
estimate0.0199423462679015NN
fuel0.0332151194779746NN
supply0.0703006268489394NN
engage0.0819583881728876VB
international0.0023966944644375JJ
transportation0.0332151194779746NN
country0NN
transport0.0277064208763707NN

Index Aarhus Convention absolute deprivation avoidance of accountability

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.820020601431087
WordScorePoS
convention0.0828215106044499NN
accountability0NN

See voice and accountability acquired immunodeficiency syndrome

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.60815204037176
WordScorePoS
voice0.064698038783335NN
accountability0NN
acquire0NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.578713407901114
WordScorePoS
voice0NN
accountability0NN
acquire0.0615662203253227NN

See HIV AIDS affluence and wealth business investment and inequalities in social distinctions and distribution of wealth Afghanistan health care reconstruction aid Africa aid to capital markets Commission for Africa customary systems development experiences education trends government policy effect on labor markets health services human rights regimes inequality trends infant mortality infrastructure intercountry inequality land relations life expectancy overall inequality levels programs for nonworking young schooling years trade credit see also specific countries agency enhancing inequalities of internalization of disadvantage and agriculture subsidies underinvestment aid aid orphans darlings debt cancellation debt forgiveness debt relief designing efficient and effective improving allocation of increasing levels of innovative funding mechanisms official development assistance providing assistance for endowments tax issues and voluntary contributions private assistance altruistic rewarding altruistic punishment Argentina Center for Financial Stability educational attainment achievement infrastructure legal approach to equity poor institutional quality squatters rights Aristotle Armenia health care payments My Rights television show stunting in children Asia crisis behavior and costs inequality trends infant mortality poverty trends programs for nonworking young schooling years see also specific countries and regions Asian Development Bank credit market report Australia educational attainment achievement means tested pensions Bangladesh absent health care providers Food for Education Program health care income inequality income information sharing within household inequality trends infrastructure land and safety net programs legal approach to equity means tested pensions microfinance WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT Bangladesh continued poverty trends teacher absenteeism women and household assets Basel Committee on Banking Supervision biases institutional and judicial Bolivia obstetric care pensions Bosnia legal institutions Botswana HIV AIDS pensions Brazil basic education Bolsa Escola educational attainment achievement health education health insurance inequality trends infant mortality land access legal approach to equity local government democratization pensions productivity gaps in agriculture stunting in children trade unions Bulgaria education Burkino Faso head of household education Cambodia health care payments labor standards programs for nonworking young spatial differences squatters rights stunting underweight in children voice rank Canada intergenerational mobility intergenerational transmission of inequality capacity to aspire capacity to engage capital markets see also financial markets human capital markets Caribbean

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.649729526472334
WordScorePoS
hiv0NN
aid0NN
business0NN
investment0.0202620733250388NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
social0.101310366625194JJ
health0.0405241466500776NN
care0NN
africa0IN
market0.0202620733250388NN
commission0NN
system0NN
development0.0177346522508396NN
experience0NN
education0.0121171980355011NN
government0NN
policy0.0848203862485078NN
effect0NN
service0.00795378154685591NN
human0JJ
rights0NNS
regime0NN
infant0NN
mortality0.0488696285210061NN
infrastructure0NN
land0NN
relation0.064698038783335NN
life0NN
expectancy0NN
level0NN
schooling0NN
trade0.0237821918091848NN
credit0NN
specific0JJ
country0NN
agency0NN
enhance0.00994073584907126VB
agriculture0NN
subsidy0NN
debt0NN
relief0NN
efficient0JJ
effective0.0145231653596925JJ
improve0.0121171980355011VB
increase0.00285817158600878NN
mechanism0NN
official0.0488696285210061NN
assistance0.0330412182586772NN
provide0VB
tax0NN
issue0NN
contribution0NN
private0JJ
financial0.0298222075472138JJ
stability0NN
educational0JJ
achievement0NN
legal0JJ
approach0NN
poor0JJ
institutional0JJ
quality0.0121171980355011NN
stunt0NN
child0.0242343960710022NN
asia0IN
cost0.0660824365173543NN
poverty0.05809266143877NN
region0NN
bank0NN
report0NN
means0NNS
provider0NN
food0NN
income0.166475342664294NN
information0NN
share0NN
household0.0330412182586772NN
safety0NN
microfinance0NN
world0.00276879546803864NN
continue0.0237821918091848VB
teacher0NN
woman0.0242343960710022NN
asset0.0488696285210061NN
banking0NN
institution0.0991236547760315NN
basic0JJ
insurance0NN
access0.00138439773401932NN
local0JJ
productivity0NN
gap0NN
standard0NN
voice0.064698038783335NN
mobility0.064698038783335NN
capacity0NN
engage0VB

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.449622521912832
WordScorePoS
hiv0.448149338755887NN
aid0.123094312756122NN
business0NN
investment0NN
inequality0.0307735781890304NN
social0JJ
health0.191387734041787NN
care0.104031537001265NN
africa0IN
market0NN
commission0NN
system0NN
development0.00837573444202498NN
experience0.0249430985430622NN
education0.0152605842304358NN
government0NN
policy0NN
effect0NN
service0.0100171139310145NN
human0JJ
rights0.0175975629039954NNS
regime0NN
infant0NN
mortality0.276962203701274NN
infrastructure0NN
land0NN
relation0NN
life0.0250390290383647NN
expectancy0.0407408489778079NN
level0NN
schooling0.0407408489778079NN
trade0.0149758277542848NN
credit0NN
specific0JJ
country0NN
agency0NN
enhance0VB
agriculture0NN
subsidy0NN
debt0NN
relief0NN
efficient0JJ
effective0.00914534810831654JJ
improve0VB
increase0.0143984997539974NN
mechanism0NN
official0NN
assistance0NN
provide0.0100171139310145VB
tax0NN
issue0.0249430985430622NN
contribution0NN
private0JJ
financial0.00625975725959118JJ
stability0NN
educational0JJ
achievement0NN
legal0JJ
approach0NN
poor0JJ
institutional0JJ
quality0.0152605842304358NN
stunt0NN
child0.10682408961305NN
asia0IN
cost0NN
poverty0.00914534810831654NN
region0.124837844401518NN
bank0NN
report0.0307735781890304NN
means0NNS
provider0NN
food0NN
income0NN
information0.00914534810831654NN
share0NN
household0NN
safety0NN
microfinance0NN
world0.00087176582269799NN
continue0VB
teacher0NN
woman0.0381514605760894NN
asset0NN
banking0NN
institution0NN
basic0JJ
insurance0NN
access0.00610236075888593NN
local0JJ
productivity0NN
gap0NN
standard0NN
voice0NN
mobility0NN
capacity0.00625975725959118NN
engage0VB

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.242671644562153
WordScorePoS
hiv0NN
aid0NN
business0NN
investment0.0766240489430275NN
inequality0NN
social0JJ
health0NN
care0NN
africa0IN
market0.030649619577211NN
commission0NN
system0.0211360962287062NN
development0.0469463607292177NN
experience0.0299586785922821NN
education0NN
government0.048933054487825NN
policy0.0641521854453136NN
effect0NN
service0NN
human0JJ
rights0NNS
regime0.048933054487825NN
infant0NN
mortality0NN
infrastructure0.0130185595639838NN
land0NN
relation0NN
life0NN
expectancy0NN
level0.0138997399903163NN
schooling0NN
trade0.0539615408530051NN
credit0NN
specific0JJ
country0NN
agency0NN
enhance0.0601477977507998VB
agriculture0NN
subsidy0NN
debt0.342531381414775NN
relief0.048933054487825NN
efficient0JJ
effective0.0219686053934784JJ
improve0.0183291958415182VB
increase0.00432344066632653NN
mechanism0.147846224719512NN
official0.0739231123597559NN
assistance0.0499801157438617NN
provide0.00601568197638796VB
tax0.036961556179878NN
issue0.0299586785922821NN
contribution0NN
private0.0898760357768464JJ
financial0.0150369494376999JJ
stability0.048933054487825NN
educational0JJ
achievement0.0299586785922821NN
legal0JJ
approach0NN
poor0.0153248097886055JJ
institutional0.036961556179878JJ
quality0.00916459792075908NN
stunt0NN
child0NN
asia0IN
cost0NN
poverty0.0109843026967392NN
region0NN
bank0.036961556179878NN
report0NN
means0NNS
provider0.048933054487825NN
food0NN
income0.017987180284335NN
information0.0219686053934784NN
share0.0766240489430275NN
household0NN
safety0NN
microfinance0NN
world0.00418824502414673NN
continue0VB
teacher0NN
woman0NN
asset0NN
banking0NN
institution0.0249900578719309NN
basic0JJ
insurance0NN
access0.00314118376811005NN
local0.0130185595639838JJ
productivity0NN
gap0NN
standard0NN
voice0NN
mobility0NN
capacity0.0451108483130998NN
engage0VB

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.232486884367559
WordScorePoS
hiv0NN
aid0NN
business0NN
investment0.0182713919265625NN
inequality0NN
social0JJ
health0NN
care0NN
africa0IN
market0.0913569596328122NN
commission0NN
system0.0756001353333673NN
development0.0159922815774215NN
experience0NN
education0NN
government0NN
policy0NN
effect0.0440683498519077NN
service0.0143446978608332NN
human0JJ
rights0NNS
regime0NN
infant0.0583416713841148NN
mortality0NN
infrastructure0.0155217067874935NN
land0.0465651203624806NN
relation0NN
life0NN
expectancy0NN
level0.00552410547653725NN
schooling0NN
trade0.0214456704626236NN
credit0NN
specific0JJ
country0NN
agency0NN
enhance0.0268922747178632VB
agriculture0.148975141598503NN
subsidy0.0357189919948307NN
debt0NN
relief0NN
efficient0JJ
effective0JJ
improve0.0218534471578307VB
increase0.0128868286091919NN
mechanism0NN
official0NN
assistance0NN
provide0.0215170467912497VB
tax0NN
issue0NN
contribution0NN
private0JJ
financial0.00896409157262106JJ
stability0NN
educational0JJ
achievement0NN
legal0JJ
approach0NN
poor0.0548141757796873JJ
institutional0JJ
quality0.0109267235789154NN
stunt0.11668334276823NN
child0.0546336178945768NN
asia0IN
cost0NN
poverty0.0261926252110933NN
region0.0297950283197006NN
bank0.0881366997038154NN
report0NN
means0NNS
provider0NN
food0.292342270824999NN
income0.0643370113878709NN
information0.0130963126055467NN
share0.0365427838531249NN
household0.0297950283197006NN
safety0NN
microfinance0NN
world0.0124838525528648NN
continue0VB
teacher0NN
woman0.0546336178945768NN
asset0NN
banking0NN
institution0NN
basic0JJ
insurance0NN
access0.00749031153171887NN
local0.0155217067874935JJ
productivity0.0595900566394012NN
gap0NN
standard0NN
voice0NN
mobility0NN
capacity0.0179281831452421NN
engage0VB

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.210772773405499
WordScorePoS
hiv0NN
aid0NN
business0.0909486002868787NN
investment0.0377086395700813NN
inequality0NN
social0.0188543197850406JJ
health0.0377086395700813NN
care0.030745604615229NN
africa0IN
market0.0377086395700813NN
commission0NN
system0NN
development0.0330049940546426NN
experience0NN
education0.022550656390892NN
government0NN
policy0.011275328195446NN
effect0.0454743001434393NN
service0.0148023490369527NN
human0.011275328195446JJ
rights0NNS
regime0NN
infant0NN
mortality0NN
infrastructure0.192202909044225NN
land0NN
relation0NN
life0NN
expectancy0NN
level0NN
schooling0NN
trade0NN
credit0.0602029956716497NN
specific0JJ
country0NN
agency0NN
enhance0.0185001613201543VB
agriculture0NN
subsidy0NN
debt0NN
relief0NN
efficient0JJ
effective0JJ
improve0VB
increase0.0159575617614215NN
mechanism0NN
official0NN
assistance0NN
provide0.00740117451847634VB
tax0NN
issue0NN
contribution0NN
private0.0368585655748969JJ
financial0.0185001613201543JJ
stability0NN
educational0JJ
achievement0.0368585655748969NN
legal0JJ
approach0NN
poor0JJ
institutional0JJ
quality0.022550656390892NN
stunt0NN
child0NN
asia0IN
cost0NN
poverty0NN
region0NN
bank0NN
report0NN
means0NNS
provider0NN
food0.0188543197850406NN
income0.110649350233433NN
information0.0675706773907211NN
share0.0377086395700813NN
household0NN
safety0NN
microfinance0NN
world0.00257642711761688NN
continue0VB
teacher0NN
woman0NN
asset0NN
banking0NN
institution0NN
basic0.0480507272610562JJ
insurance0NN
access0.0128821355880844NN
local0JJ
productivity0.0922368138456871NN
gap0.0602029956716497NN
standard0.0454743001434393NN
voice0NN
mobility0NN
capacity0NN
engage0.0454743001434393VB

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.209188823831074
WordScorePoS
hiv0NN
aid0NN
business0NN
investment0NN
inequality0NN
social0JJ
health0NN
care0.0416255041156371NN
africa0IN
market0NN
commission0NN
system0NN
development0.0279277626235394NN
experience0NN
education0.244244978014045NN
government0NN
policy0NN
effect0NN
service0NN
human0.0152653111258778JJ
rights0.0352060273355634NNS
regime0NN
infant0NN
mortality0NN
infrastructure0NN
land0NN
relation0NN
life0.0125233923809486NN
expectancy0NN
level0.0231525547935232NN
schooling0NN
trade0NN
credit0NN
specific0JJ
country0NN
agency0NN
enhance0VB
agriculture0NN
subsidy0NN
debt0NN
relief0NN
efficient0JJ
effective0.0365927233505197JJ
improve0.0305306222517556VB
increase0.0144029596227568NN
mechanism0NN
official0NN
assistance0NN
provide0.0100202166857628VB
tax0NN
issue0NN
contribution0.0499016491051341NN
private0JJ
financial0JJ
stability0NN
educational0JJ
achievement0NN
legal0JJ
approach0NN
poor0JJ
institutional0JJ
quality0.076326555629389NN
stunt0NN
child0.076326555629389NN
asia0IN
cost0NN
poverty0NN
region0NN
bank0NN
report0NN
means0NNS
provider0NN
food0NN
income0NN
information0.0182963616752599NN
share0NN
household0NN
safety0NN
microfinance0NN
world0.0017440716962658NN
continue0VB
teacher0.163013873070017NN
woman0.0610612445035112NN
asset0NN
banking0NN
institution0NN
basic0.0433695758119029JJ
insurance0NN
access0.00697628678506322NN
local0JJ
productivity0NN
gap0NN
standard0NN
voice0NN
mobility0NN
capacity0NN
engage0VB

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.2080884539081
WordScorePoS
hiv0NN
aid0NN
business0NN
investment0NN
inequality0NN
social0.0285529457667019JJ
health0.0571058915334038NN
care0.0931221694711702NN
africa0IN
market0NN
commission0NN
system0NN
development0.0124956749436837NN
experience0NN
education0.0512260062633133NN
government0NN
policy0.0341506708422088NN
effect0NN
service0.022416649027415NN
human0.0170753354211044JJ
rights0.078760887431929NNS
regime0NN
infant0NN
mortality0NN
infrastructure0.024255976440725NN
land0.024255976440725NN
relation0NN
life0.0140083044329373NN
expectancy0NN
level0.0172651853471334NN
schooling0NN
trade0NN
credit0NN
specific0JJ
country0NN
agency0NN
enhance0.0140083044329373VB
agriculture0.0465610847355851NN
subsidy0NN
debt0NN
relief0NN
efficient0JJ
effective0.02046578088155JJ
improve0VB
increase0.00402768349408688NN
mechanism0NN
official0NN
assistance0NN
provide0.0112083245137075VB
tax0NN
issue0NN
contribution0NN
private0.0558185411034276JJ
financial0.0140083044329373JJ
stability0NN
educational0JJ
achievement0NN
legal0JJ
approach0NN
poor0JJ
institutional0JJ
quality0NN
stunt0NN
child0.0170753354211044NN
asia0IN
cost0NN
poverty0NN
region0.0465610847355851NN
bank0NN
report0NN
means0NNS
provider0NN
food0NN
income0NN
information0.02046578088155NN
share0.0285529457667019NN
household0.0465610847355851NN
safety0NN
microfinance0NN
world0.00585260443759492NN
continue0.0335134328085675VB
teacher0NN
woman0.221979360474357NN
asset0NN
banking0NN
institution0NN
basic0JJ
insurance0NN
access0.00780347258345989NN
local0JJ
productivity0NN
gap0NN
standard0NN
voice0NN
mobility0NN
capacity0NN
engage0VB

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.20333378058219
WordScorePoS
hiv0NN
aid0NN
business0NN
investment0.0376648791150643NN
inequality0NN
social0.112994637345193JJ
health0NN
care0NN
africa0IN
market0NN
commission0NN
system0.0519476926891779NN
development0.0164833460638534NN
experience0NN
education0.0225244866060403NN
government0NN
policy0.0450489732120807NN
effect0NN
service0.0443555132287109NN
human0JJ
rights0.0519476926891779NNS
regime0NN
infant0NN
mortality0NN
infrastructure0NN
land0.0319966432858631NN
relation0NN
life0.0184786920895884NN
expectancy0NN
level0.0113874611101829NN
schooling0NN
trade0NN
credit0NN
specific0JJ
country0NN
agency0NN
enhance0.0184786920895884VB
agriculture0NN
subsidy0NN
debt0NN
relief0NN
efficient0JJ
effective0JJ
improve0VB
increase0NN
mechanism0NN
official0NN
assistance0NN
provide0.0295703421524739VB
tax0NN
issue0NN
contribution0NN
private0JJ
financial0.0184786920895884JJ
stability0NN
educational0JJ
achievement0.0736315832425121NN
legal0JJ
approach0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
institutional0JJ
quality0NN
stunt0NN
child0.0450489732120807NN
asia0IN
cost0NN
poverty0.269969049497485NN
region0.184259548107002NN
bank0NN
report0NN
means0.120266261535276NNS
provider0NN
food0NN
income0.0442083771593746NN
information0NN
share0NN
household0NN
safety0NN
microfinance0.120266261535276NN
world0.00257343720272548NN
continue0VB
teacher0NN
woman0.0450489732120807NN
asset0NN
banking0NN
institution0NN
basic0.0639932865717261JJ
insurance0NN
access0.00514687440545096NN
local0JJ
productivity0NN
gap0NN
standard0NN
voice0NN
mobility0NN
capacity0NN
engage0VB

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.160968240493195
WordScorePoS
hiv0NN
aid0NN
business0.0409791940864438NN
investment0NN
inequality0NN
social0.0169905820958638JJ
health0.0339811641917276NN
care0NN
africa0IN
market0.0169905820958638NN
commission0NN
system0NN
development0.022306853314744NN
experience0NN
education0.0101607690729067NN
government0NN
policy0.0203215381458133NN
effect0NN
service0.00666957305782837NN
human0.0101607690729067JJ
rights0NNS
regime0NN
infant0NN
mortality0NN
infrastructure0.028867295332595NN
land0.0144336476662975NN
relation0NN
life0.0250071479597636NN
expectancy0NN
level0.00513687014008325NN
schooling0NN
trade0NN
credit0NN
specific0.0542519672965169JJ
country0NN
agency0.0542519672965169NN
enhance0VB
agriculture0.0277064208763707NN
subsidy0.0664302389559493NN
debt0NN
relief0NN
efficient0.108503934593034JJ
effective0JJ
improve0VB
increase0.00958677785775002NN
mechanism0NN
official0NN
assistance0NN
provide0.0200087191734851VB
tax0NN
issue0NN
contribution0NN
private0JJ
financial0JJ
stability0NN
educational0JJ
achievement0NN
legal0JJ
approach0.0542519672965169NN
poor0.0339811641917276JJ
institutional0JJ
quality0.0203215381458133NN
stunt0NN
child0NN
asia0IN
cost0.0277064208763707NN
poverty0.0121782716594324NN
region0NN
bank0NN
report0.0409791940864438NN
means0NNS
provider0NN
food0.186896403054502NN
income0NN
information0.0365348149782971NN
share0NN
household0.0554128417527413NN
safety0NN
microfinance0NN
world0.00464349782489754NN
continue0.0199423462679015VB
teacher0NN
woman0NN
asset0NN
banking0NN
institution0NN
basic0.0144336476662975JJ
insurance0NN
access0.00232174891244877NN
local0.0144336476662975JJ
productivity0NN
gap0NN
standard0.0409791940864438NN
voice0NN
mobility0NN
capacity0.00833571598658786NN
engage0.0819583881728876VB

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.117115584289521
WordScorePoS
hiv0NN
aid0NN
business0NN
investment0NN
inequality0NN
social0JJ
health0NN
care0NN
africa0IN
market0NN
commission0NN
system0NN
development0.0368309542451156NN
experience0NN
education0.0201317944152378NN
government0NN
policy0.0201317944152378NN
effect0NN
service0NN
human0JJ
rights0NNS
regime0NN
infant0NN
mortality0NN
infrastructure0NN
land0NN
relation0NN
life0NN
expectancy0NN
level0.0610668815653026NN
schooling0NN
trade0NN
credit0NN
specific0JJ
country0NN
agency0NN
enhance0VB
agriculture0NN
subsidy0NN
debt0NN
relief0NN
efficient0JJ
effective0.0482582488828229JJ
improve0VB
increase0NN
mechanism0NN
official0NN
assistance0NN
provide0.013214597504793VB
tax0.0811931365363091NN
issue0NN
contribution0NN
private0JJ
financial0.016515769558553JJ
stability0NN
educational0JJ
achievement0NN
legal0.0811931365363091JJ
approach0NN
poor0JJ
institutional0JJ
quality0NN
stunt0NN
child0.0603953832457135NN
asia0IN
cost0.0548954478802642NN
poverty0NN
region0NN
bank0NN
report0NN
means0NNS
provider0NN
food0NN
income0NN
information0.0241291244414115NN
share0NN
household0NN
safety0NN
microfinance0NN
world0NN
continue0VB
teacher0NN
woman0NN
asset0.0811931365363091NN
banking0NN
institution0.274477239401321NN
basic0JJ
insurance0NN
access0.00690021170452351NN
local0JJ
productivity0NN
gap0NN
standard0NN
voice0NN
mobility0NN
capacity0.016515769558553NN
engage0VB

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.0805325471122969
WordScorePoS
hiv0NN
aid0NN
business0NN
investment0NN
inequality0NN
social0JJ
health0.0166605993001162NN
care0NN
africa0IN
market0.0333211986002325NN
commission0.0531983120572613NN
system0.0229784274580034NN
development0.0036456034155327NN
experience0NN
education0NN
government0NN
policy0NN
effect0NN
service0NN
human0.0199268631468397JJ
rights0NNS
regime0NN
infant0NN
mortality0NN
infrastructure0NN
land0.0141533244035107NN
relation0NN
life0.0081738237776987NN
expectancy0NN
level0.010074208709011NN
schooling0NN
trade0.0391100714971453NN
credit0NN
specific0JJ
country0NN
agency0NN
enhance0.0245214713330961VB
agriculture0NN
subsidy0.162850158165781NN
debt0NN
relief0NN
efficient0JJ
effective0.0119417512090511JJ
improve0.00996343157341984VB
increase0.00470029406779661NN
mechanism0NN
official0NN
assistance0NN
provide0.00654003986398914VB
tax0NN
issue0NN
contribution0.0325700316331562NN
private0JJ
financial0JJ
stability0NN
educational0JJ
achievement0NN
legal0.0401833161726777JJ
approach0NN
poor0JJ
institutional0JJ
quality0NN
stunt0NN
child0NN
asia0IN
cost0NN
poverty0NN
region0NN
bank0NN
report0NN
means0NNS
provider0NN
food0.0166605993001162NN
income0NN
information0.0119417512090511NN
share0NN
household0NN
safety0NN
microfinance0NN
world0.0045533140757086NN
continue0VB
teacher0NN
woman0NN
asset0NN
banking0NN
institution0NN
basic0JJ
insurance0NN
access0.00113832851892715NN
local0JJ
productivity0NN
gap0NN
standard0NN
voice0NN
mobility0NN
capacity0.0081738237776987NN
engage0VB

See Latin America and the Caribbean caste systems CBHI

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.741794688487528
WordScorePoS
system0.0756001353333673NN

See community based health insurance CBHI Center for Global Development Central America elites and taxes health education human rights regimes see also specific countries Central Asia education trends health care payments HIV AIDS inequality trends life expectancy Centre for Development Studies Trivandrum credit survey children disadvantaged health issues

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.723253166560221
WordScorePoS
community0NN
base0.0149758277542848NN
health0.191387734041787NN
insurance0NN
global0.013959557403375JJ
development0.00837573444202498NN
central0JJ
tax0NN
education0.0152605842304358NN
human0JJ
rights0.0175975629039954NNS
regime0NN
specific0JJ
country0NN
asia0IN
care0.104031537001265NN
hiv0.448149338755887NN
aid0.123094312756122NN
inequality0.0307735781890304NN
life0.0250390290383647NN
expectancy0.0407408489778079NN
centre0NN
study0NN
credit0NN
survey0NN
child0.10682408961305NN
disadvantaged0JJ
issue0.0249430985430622NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.444675118823132
WordScorePoS
community0.0202620733250388NN
base0NN
health0.0405241466500776NN
insurance0NN
global0.0133009891881297JJ
development0.0177346522508396NN
central0JJ
tax0NN
education0.0121171980355011NN
human0JJ
rights0NNS
regime0NN
specific0JJ
country0NN
asia0IN
care0NN
hiv0NN
aid0NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
life0NN
expectancy0NN
centre0.0396106020715138NN
study0NN
credit0NN
survey0.064698038783335NN
child0.0242343960710022NN
disadvantaged0.064698038783335JJ
issue0NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.299843441328948
WordScorePoS
community0NN
base0NN
health0NN
insurance0NN
global0.00558555252470789JJ
development0.0279277626235394NN
central0JJ
tax0NN
education0.244244978014045NN
human0.0152653111258778JJ
rights0.0352060273355634NNS
regime0NN
specific0JJ
country0NN
asia0IN
care0.0416255041156371NN
hiv0NN
aid0NN
inequality0NN
life0.0125233923809486NN
expectancy0NN
centre0NN
study0NN
credit0NN
survey0NN
child0.076326555629389NN
disadvantaged0JJ
issue0NN

See health and health care Chile bank privatization educational attainment achievement health insurance labor market reforms physician availability China accession to WTO and trade reforms economic growth gender equity health care payments income and expenditure inequality trends infrastructure institutional transitions and economic development labor market reforms land distribution life expectancy poverty trends voice rank see also specific provinces circumstances of birth and life

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.561900861886743
WordScorePoS
health0.0405241466500776NN
care0NN
bank0NN
educational0JJ
achievement0NN
insurance0NN
market0.0202620733250388NN
reform0NN
availability0NN
trade0.0237821918091848NN
economic0.103276847978089JJ
growth0.11178243319132NN
gender0NN
income0.166475342664294NN
expenditure0.064698038783335NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
infrastructure0NN
institutional0JJ
development0.0177346522508396NN
land0NN
life0NN
expectancy0NN
poverty0.05809266143877NN
voice0.064698038783335NN
specific0JJ
circumstance0NN
birth0.0396106020715138NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.43082333424252
WordScorePoS
health0.191387734041787NN
care0.104031537001265NN
bank0NN
educational0JJ
achievement0NN
insurance0NN
market0NN
reform0NN
availability0NN
trade0.0149758277542848NN
economic0JJ
growth0NN
gender0.0175975629039954NN
income0NN
expenditure0NN
inequality0.0307735781890304NN
infrastructure0NN
institutional0JJ
development0.00837573444202498NN
land0NN
life0.0250390290383647NN
expectancy0.0407408489778079NN
poverty0.00914534810831654NN
voice0NN
specific0JJ
circumstance0NN
birth0.0748292956291867NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.395342061708302
WordScorePoS
health0.0571058915334038NN
care0.0931221694711702NN
bank0NN
educational0JJ
achievement0NN
insurance0NN
market0NN
reform0.0911713013253052NN
availability0NN
trade0NN
economic0.0727679293221751JJ
growth0NN
gender0.196902218579822NN
income0NN
expenditure0NN
inequality0NN
infrastructure0.024255976440725NN
institutional0JJ
development0.0124956749436837NN
land0.024255976440725NN
life0.0140083044329373NN
expectancy0NN
poverty0NN
voice0NN
specific0JJ
circumstance0NN
birth0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.285060603351432
WordScorePoS
health0NN
care0NN
bank0NN
educational0JJ
achievement0NN
insurance0.0804764811724088NN
market0.0252035516550537NN
reform0NN
availability0NN
trade0.0591643007226199NN
economic0.128463821595706JJ
growth0.208565600657229NN
gender0NN
income0NN
expenditure0NN
inequality0NN
infrastructure0NN
institutional0JJ
development0.0055149369084567NN
land0NN
life0.0123650647908625NN
expectancy0NN
poverty0.0722601961736204NN
voice0NN
specific0JJ
circumstance0.049270765107907NN
birth0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.278024079525027
WordScorePoS
health0.0377086395700813NN
care0.030745604615229NN
bank0NN
educational0JJ
achievement0.0368585655748969NN
insurance0NN
market0.0377086395700813NN
reform0NN
availability0NN
trade0NN
economic0.0320338181740375JJ
growth0.0260040237236563NN
gender0NN
income0.110649350233433NN
expenditure0NN
inequality0NN
infrastructure0.192202909044225NN
institutional0JJ
development0.0330049940546426NN
land0NN
life0NN
expectancy0NN
poverty0NN
voice0NN
specific0JJ
circumstance0.0368585655748969NN
birth0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.271573908250847
WordScorePoS
health0NN
care0NN
bank0NN
educational0JJ
achievement0.0736315832425121NN
insurance0NN
market0NN
reform0NN
availability0NN
trade0NN
economic0.0959899298575892JJ
growth0.0519476926891779NN
gender0.0519476926891779NN
income0.0442083771593746NN
expenditure0NN
inequality0NN
infrastructure0NN
institutional0JJ
development0.0164833460638534NN
land0.0319966432858631NN
life0.0184786920895884NN
expectancy0NN
poverty0.269969049497485NN
voice0NN
specific0JJ
circumstance0NN
birth0NN

See predetermined characteristics circumstances of human beings CIS

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.515919534813716
WordScorePoS
characteristic0JJ
circumstance0.049270765107907NN
human0.0150723186962745JJ

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.481979008753682
WordScorePoS
characteristic0.0401833161726777JJ
circumstance0NN
human0.0199268631468397JJ

See Commonwealth of Independent States CIS civil law collective action Palanpur example Colombia education health insurance infant mortality infrastructure labor market reforms land rental markets PACES voucher program student achievement Commission for Real Property Claims of Displaced Persons and Refugees Commission on Macroeconomics and Health report Commitment to Development Index common law Commonwealth of Independent States CIS land transferability community based health insurance CBHI complementaries between equity and efficiency equity efficiency tradeoffs complementaries between equity and prosperity Core Principles for Banking Supervision corruption Index Côte Ivoire Côte Ivoire Living Standards Measurement Surveys trade credit credit markets crime violence domestic violence improved crime policies inequality traps and against women crises and crises resolution Cuba health care culture social networks and Czech Republic educational attainment achievement effects of regulation and disclosure in financial markets Dayton Agreement debt cancellation Declaration on the TRIPS Agreement and Public Health democracy in governance institutions Spanish transition to Demographic and Health Survey DHS Denmark voice rank developing countries advantage to backwardness catch up countries customary systems development long term regional inequality and lagging regions see also equity development relationship Development Agenda Framework Agreement development assistance

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.497719248980082
WordScorePoS
civil0JJ
law0.0330412182586772NN
action0.0145231653596925NN
education0.0121171980355011NN
health0.0405241466500776NN
insurance0NN
infant0NN
mortality0.0488696285210061NN
infrastructure0NN
market0.0202620733250388NN
reform0NN
land0NN
pace0NN
achievement0NN
commission0NN
property0NN
person0.0237821918091848NN
macroeconomic0JJ
report0NN
commitment0NN
development0.0177346522508396NN
common0JJ
community0.0202620733250388NN
base0NN
efficiency0NN
prosperity0NN
principle0.0977392570420122NN
banking0NN
corruption0NN
live0.0159075630937118VB
standard0NN
measurement0NN
survey0.064698038783335NN
trade0.0237821918091848NN
credit0NN
crime0NN
violence0NN
domestic0JJ
improve0.0121171980355011VB
policy0.0848203862485078NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
woman0.0242343960710022NN
care0NN
culture0NN
social0.101310366625194JJ
educational0JJ
effect0NN
regulation0.0977392570420122NN
financial0.0298222075472138JJ
agreement0.02794560829783NN
debt0NN
declaration0NN
trip0NN
public0.0172128079963482NN
governance0NN
institution0.0991236547760315NN
voice0.064698038783335NN
develop0VB
country0NN
system0NN
term0.0396106020715138NN
regional0JJ
region0NN
agenda0NN
framework0NN
assistance0.0330412182586772NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.404798634853888
WordScorePoS
civil0JJ
law0.164686343640793NN
action0NN
education0.0201317944152378NN
health0NN
insurance0NN
infant0NN
mortality0NN
infrastructure0NN
market0NN
reform0NN
land0NN
pace0NN
achievement0NN
commission0NN
property0NN
person0NN
macroeconomic0JJ
report0NN
commitment0NN
development0.0368309542451156NN
common0JJ
community0NN
base0NN
efficiency0NN
prosperity0NN
principle0NN
banking0NN
corruption0.322472475577062NN
live0.013214597504793VB
standard0NN
measurement0NN
survey0NN
trade0NN
credit0NN
crime0.214981650384708NN
violence0.164686343640793NN
domestic0JJ
improve0VB
policy0.0201317944152378NN
inequality0NN
woman0NN
care0NN
culture0NN
social0JJ
educational0JJ
effect0NN
regulation0NN
financial0.016515769558553JJ
agreement0.0464294830712827NN
debt0NN
declaration0NN
trip0NN
public0.0285977592242194NN
governance0.107490825192354NN
institution0.274477239401321NN
voice0NN
develop0VB
country0NN
system0NN
term0NN
regional0JJ
region0NN
agenda0.0811931365363091NN
framework0NN
assistance0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.403056231495333
WordScorePoS
civil0JJ
law0NN
action0NN
education0.0152605842304358NN
health0.191387734041787NN
insurance0NN
infant0NN
mortality0.276962203701274NN
infrastructure0NN
market0NN
reform0NN
land0NN
pace0.0307735781890304NN
achievement0NN
commission0NN
property0.0249430985430622NN
person0NN
macroeconomic0JJ
report0.0307735781890304NN
commitment0NN
development0.00837573444202498NN
common0.0615471563780609JJ
community0NN
base0.0149758277542848NN
efficiency0NN
prosperity0NN
principle0NN
banking0NN
corruption0NN
live0.0300513417930436VB
standard0NN
measurement0NN
survey0NN
trade0.0149758277542848NN
credit0NN
crime0NN
violence0.020806307400253NN
domestic0JJ
improve0VB
policy0NN
inequality0.0307735781890304NN
woman0.0381514605760894NN
care0.104031537001265NN
culture0NN
social0JJ
educational0JJ
effect0NN
regulation0NN
financial0.00625975725959118JJ
agreement0.0351951258079907NN
debt0NN
declaration0.0407408489778079NN
trip0.0407408489778079NN
public0.021678073222951NN
governance0NN
institution0NN
voice0NN
develop0VB
country0NN
system0NN
term0NN
regional0JJ
region0.124837844401518NN
agenda0NN
framework0.0108390366114755NN
assistance0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.312786872482957
WordScorePoS
civil0.0978661089756501JJ
law0NN
action0.0109843026967392NN
education0NN
health0NN
insurance0NN
infant0NN
mortality0NN
infrastructure0.0130185595639838NN
market0.030649619577211NN
reform0NN
land0NN
pace0NN
achievement0.0299586785922821NN
commission0NN
property0NN
person0NN
macroeconomic0.048933054487825JJ
report0NN
commitment0.0739231123597559NN
development0.0469463607292177NN
common0JJ
community0NN
base0.017987180284335NN
efficiency0NN
prosperity0NN
principle0.036961556179878NN
banking0NN
corruption0NN
live0VB
standard0NN
measurement0.048933054487825NN
survey0NN
trade0.0539615408530051NN
credit0NN
crime0NN
violence0NN
domestic0.0634082886861185JJ
improve0.0183291958415182VB
policy0.0641521854453136NN
inequality0NN
woman0NN
care0NN
culture0NN
social0JJ
educational0JJ
effect0NN
regulation0.036961556179878NN
financial0.0150369494376999JJ
agreement0NN
debt0.342531381414775NN
declaration0NN
trip0NN
public0.0390556786919513NN
governance0NN
institution0.0249900578719309NN
voice0NN
develop0VB
country0NN
system0.0211360962287062NN
term0.149793392961411NN
regional0.0422721924574123JJ
region0NN
agenda0.0739231123597559NN
framework0.0130185595639838NN
assistance0.0499801157438617NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.272686240483582
WordScorePoS
civil0JJ
law0.0465610847355851NN
action0.0409315617631NN
education0.0512260062633133NN
health0.0571058915334038NN
insurance0NN
infant0NN
mortality0NN
infrastructure0.024255976440725NN
market0NN
reform0.0911713013253052NN
land0.024255976440725NN
pace0NN
achievement0NN
commission0NN
property0.0558185411034276NN
person0NN
macroeconomic0JJ
report0NN
commitment0NN
development0.0124956749436837NN
common0JJ
community0NN
base0NN
efficiency0NN
prosperity0NN
principle0NN
banking0NN
corruption0NN
live0VB
standard0NN
measurement0NN
survey0NN
trade0NN
credit0NN
crime0NN
violence0.0931221694711702NN
domestic0.0393804437159645JJ
improve0VB
policy0.0341506708422088NN
inequality0NN
woman0.221979360474357NN
care0.0931221694711702NN
culture0NN
social0.0285529457667019JJ
educational0JJ
effect0NN
regulation0NN
financial0.0140083044329373JJ
agreement0NN
debt0NN
declaration0NN
trip0NN
public0.0727679293221751NN
governance0NN
institution0NN
voice0NN
develop0VB
country0NN
system0NN
term0NN
regional0JJ
region0.0465610847355851NN
agenda0NN
framework0NN
assistance0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.236851172835883
WordScorePoS
civil0JJ
law0NN
action0.0135141354781442NN
education0.022550656390892NN
health0.0377086395700813NN
insurance0NN
infant0NN
mortality0NN
infrastructure0.192202909044225NN
market0.0377086395700813NN
reform0NN
land0NN
pace0NN
achievement0.0368585655748969NN
commission0NN
property0NN
person0NN
macroeconomic0JJ
report0NN
commitment0NN
development0.0330049940546426NN
common0JJ
community0.0188543197850406NN
base0NN
efficiency0.0442597400933733NN
prosperity0NN
principle0NN
banking0NN
corruption0NN
live0.00740117451847634VB
standard0.0454743001434393NN
measurement0NN
survey0NN
trade0NN
credit0.0602029956716497NN
crime0NN
violence0NN
domestic0.0520080474473126JJ
improve0VB
policy0.011275328195446NN
inequality0NN
woman0NN
care0.030745604615229NN
culture0NN
social0.0188543197850406JJ
educational0JJ
effect0.0454743001434393NN
regulation0NN
financial0.0185001613201543JJ
agreement0NN
debt0NN
declaration0NN
trip0NN
public0.0160169090870187NN
governance0NN
institution0NN
voice0NN
develop0VB
country0NN
system0NN
term0NN
regional0.0260040237236563JJ
region0NN
agenda0NN
framework0NN
assistance0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.197587478438324
WordScorePoS
civil0JJ
law0NN
action0.0269969049497485NN
education0.0225244866060403NN
health0NN
insurance0NN
infant0NN
mortality0NN
infrastructure0NN
market0NN
reform0NN
land0.0319966432858631NN
pace0NN
achievement0.0736315832425121NN
commission0NN
property0.0736315832425121NN
person0.0442083771593746NN
macroeconomic0JJ
report0NN
commitment0NN
development0.0164833460638534NN
common0JJ
community0NN
base0.0442083771593746NN
efficiency0NN
prosperity0NN
principle0NN
banking0NN
corruption0NN
live0.0739258553811849VB
standard0NN
measurement0NN
survey0NN
trade0NN
credit0NN
crime0NN
violence0NN
domestic0JJ
improve0VB
policy0.0450489732120807NN
inequality0NN
woman0.0450489732120807NN
care0NN
culture0NN
social0.112994637345193JJ
educational0JJ
effect0NN
regulation0NN
financial0.0184786920895884JJ
agreement0NN
debt0NN
declaration0NN
trip0NN
public0NN
governance0NN
institution0NN
voice0NN
develop0VB
country0NN
system0.0519476926891779NN
term0NN
regional0.0519476926891779JJ
region0.184259548107002NN
agenda0NN
framework0.0319966432858631NN
assistance0NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.12931765169169
WordScorePoS
civil0JJ
law0NN
action0NN
education0.244244978014045NN
health0NN
insurance0NN
infant0NN
mortality0NN
infrastructure0NN
market0NN
reform0NN
land0NN
pace0NN
achievement0NN
commission0NN
property0NN
person0.0299609328954485NN
macroeconomic0JJ
report0NN
commitment0NN
development0.0279277626235394NN
common0JJ
community0NN
base0NN
efficiency0NN
prosperity0NN
principle0NN
banking0NN
corruption0NN
live0.0200404333715257VB
standard0NN
measurement0NN
survey0NN
trade0NN
credit0NN
crime0NN
violence0.0416255041156371NN
domestic0JJ
improve0.0305306222517556VB
policy0NN
inequality0NN
woman0.0610612445035112NN
care0.0416255041156371NN
culture0.0832510082312742NN
social0JJ
educational0JJ
effect0NN
regulation0NN
financial0JJ
agreement0NN
debt0NN
declaration0NN
trip0NN
public0NN
governance0NN
institution0NN
voice0NN
develop0VB
country0NN
system0NN
term0NN
regional0JJ
region0NN
agenda0NN
framework0NN
assistance0NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.0878084207411168
WordScorePoS
civil0JJ
law0NN
action0NN
education0NN
health0NN
insurance0NN
infant0NN
mortality0NN
infrastructure0.0651354046449052NN
market0NN
reform0NN
land0.0325677023224526NN
pace0NN
achievement0NN
commission0NN
property0NN
person0NN
macroeconomic0JJ
report0NN
commitment0NN
development0NN
common0JJ
community0NN
base0NN
efficiency0.134992154141495NN
prosperity0NN
principle0NN
banking0NN
corruption0NN
live0VB
standard0NN
measurement0NN
survey0NN
trade0NN
credit0NN
crime0NN
violence0NN
domestic0JJ
improve0.0229264916384433VB
policy0NN
inequality0NN
woman0NN
care0NN
culture0NN
social0JJ
educational0JJ
effect0NN
regulation0NN
financial0JJ
agreement0NN
debt0NN
declaration0NN
trip0NN
public0NN
governance0NN
institution0NN
voice0NN
develop0VB
country0NN
system0NN
term0.0749457204978913NN
regional0JJ
region0NN
agenda0NN
framework0NN
assistance0NN

See aid equity development relationship development community recent thinking and agreements of DHS

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.576315507620907
WordScorePoS
aid0.123094312756122NN
development0.00837573444202498NN
community0NN
agreement0.0351951258079907NN

See Demographic and Health Survey DHS Dictator Game directed credit disability and disabled persons discrimination and stereotyping analysis of missing women and girls gender discrimination explicit discrimination in justice systems displaced persons and refugees distributive justice distributive policies investment and growth using poverty reduction and redistributive policies Doha Round Declaration on the TRIPS Agreement and Public Health Development Agenda Framework Agreement early childhood development ECD benefits of early intervention designing programs earnings

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.559395942839798
WordScorePoS
health0.0571058915334038NN
survey0NN
direct0JJ
credit0NN
disability0NN
person0NN
discrimination0.111637082206855NN
woman0.221979360474357NN
girl0.393804437159645NN
gender0.196902218579822NN
justice0NN
system0NN
policy0.0341506708422088NN
investment0NN
growth0NN
poverty0NN
reduction0NN
doha0NN
round0NN
declaration0NN
trip0NN
agreement0NN
public0.0727679293221751NN
development0.0124956749436837NN
agenda0NN
framework0NN
childhood0NN
benefit0.0393804437159645NN
intervention0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.370922188705411
WordScorePoS
health0NN
survey0NN
direct0JJ
credit0NN
disability0NN
person0.0442083771593746NN
discrimination0.0736315832425121NN
woman0.0450489732120807NN
girl0NN
gender0.0519476926891779NN
justice0NN
system0.0519476926891779NN
policy0.0450489732120807NN
investment0.0376648791150643NN
growth0.0519476926891779NN
poverty0.269969049497485NN
reduction0NN
doha0NN
round0NN
declaration0NN
trip0NN
agreement0NN
public0NN
development0.0164833460638534NN
agenda0NN
framework0.0319966432858631NN
childhood0NN
benefit0NN
intervention0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.326770368168693
WordScorePoS
health0.191387734041787NN
survey0NN
direct0JJ
credit0NN
disability0NN
person0NN
discrimination0.0249430985430622NN
woman0.0381514605760894NN
girl0.0527926887119861NN
gender0.0175975629039954NN
justice0NN
system0NN
policy0NN
investment0NN
growth0NN
poverty0.00914534810831654NN
reduction0.0149758277542848NN
doha0.0249430985430622NN
round0NN
declaration0.0407408489778079NN
trip0.0407408489778079NN
agreement0.0351951258079907NN
public0.021678073222951NN
development0.00837573444202498NN
agenda0NN
framework0.0108390366114755NN
childhood0NN
benefit0NN
intervention0.0407408489778079NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.284621343410762
WordScorePoS
health0NN
survey0NN
direct0JJ
credit0NN
disability0NN
person0NN
discrimination0NN
woman0NN
girl0NN
gender0NN
justice0.214981650384708NN
system0NN
policy0.0201317944152378NN
investment0NN
growth0NN
poverty0NN
reduction0NN
doha0NN
round0NN
declaration0NN
trip0NN
agreement0.0464294830712827NN
public0.0285977592242194NN
development0.0368309542451156NN
agenda0.0811931365363091NN
framework0NN
childhood0NN
benefit0NN
intervention0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.224733075414204
WordScorePoS
health0NN
survey0NN
direct0JJ
credit0NN
disability0.0347609334428716NN
person0.0295821503613099NN
discrimination0NN
woman0.0452169560888236NN
girl0NN
gender0NN
justice0NN
system0NN
policy0.0452169560888236NN
investment0.0252035516550537NN
growth0.208565600657229NN
poverty0.0722601961736204NN
reduction0NN
doha0NN
round0NN
declaration0NN
trip0NN
agreement0NN
public0NN
development0.0055149369084567NN
agenda0NN
framework0.0428212738652355NN
childhood0NN
benefit0NN
intervention0NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.219297611402681
WordScorePoS
health0NN
survey0NN
direct0JJ
credit0NN
disability0.0704120546711269NN
person0.0299609328954485NN
discrimination0NN
woman0.0610612445035112NN
girl0.140824109342254NN
gender0.10561808200669NN
justice0NN
system0NN
policy0NN
investment0NN
growth0NN
poverty0NN
reduction0NN
doha0NN
round0NN
declaration0NN
trip0NN
agreement0NN
public0NN
development0.0279277626235394NN
agenda0NN
framework0NN
childhood0.0815069365350084NN
benefit0NN
intervention0NN

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.31604584842912
WordScorePoS
health0.0405241466500776NN
survey0.064698038783335NN
direct0.0396106020715138JJ
credit0NN
disability0.0558912165956601NN
person0.0237821918091848NN
discrimination0NN
woman0.0242343960710022NN
girl0NN
gender0NN
justice0NN
system0NN
policy0.0848203862485078NN
investment0.0202620733250388NN
growth0.11178243319132NN
poverty0.05809266143877NN
reduction0.0475643836183697NN
doha0NN
round0NN
declaration0NN
trip0NN
agreement0.02794560829783NN
public0.0172128079963482NN
development0.0177346522508396NN
agenda0NN
framework0NN
childhood0NN
benefit0NN
intervention0NN

See incomes assets and liabilities East Asia billionaire wealth development experiences East Asian crisis elite capture of financial policy and institutions income distribution dynamics inequality trends life expectancy poverty trends schooling years see also specific countries Eastern Europe education trends inequality trends see also specific countries ECD

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.899295481901669
WordScorePoS
income0.166475342664294NN
asset0.0488696285210061NN
asia0IN
development0.0177346522508396NN
experience0NN
capture0NN
financial0.0298222075472138JJ
policy0.0848203862485078NN
institution0.0991236547760315NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
life0NN
expectancy0NN
poverty0.05809266143877NN
schooling0NN
specific0JJ
country0NN
eastern0JJ
education0.0121171980355011NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.220619779641084
WordScorePoS
income0.0442083771593746NN
asset0NN
asia0IN
development0.0164833460638534NN
experience0NN
capture0NN
financial0.0184786920895884JJ
policy0.0450489732120807NN
institution0NN
inequality0NN
life0.0184786920895884NN
expectancy0NN
poverty0.269969049497485NN
schooling0NN
specific0JJ
country0NN
eastern0JJ
education0.0225244866060403NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.206758881467677
WordScorePoS
income0NN
asset0.0811931365363091NN
asia0IN
development0.0368309542451156NN
experience0NN
capture0NN
financial0.016515769558553JJ
policy0.0201317944152378NN
institution0.274477239401321NN
inequality0NN
life0NN
expectancy0NN
poverty0NN
schooling0NN
specific0JJ
country0NN
eastern0JJ
education0.0201317944152378NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.13101710248933
WordScorePoS
income0NN
asset0NN
asia0IN
development0.0279277626235394NN
experience0NN
capture0NN
financial0JJ
policy0NN
institution0NN
inequality0NN
life0.0125233923809486NN
expectancy0NN
poverty0NN
schooling0NN
specific0JJ
country0NN
eastern0JJ
education0.244244978014045NN

See early childhood development ECD economic inequalities between group shares of total inequality relationship between group differences and inequality spatial differences inequalities economic liberalization economic policies pathologies arising in pursuit of equity populist macropolicy Ecuador education test results Program for the Development of Indigenous and AfroEcuadorian Peoples Quichua people spatial differences teacher absenteeism education and educational attainment access to schooling access to teachers differences in disadvantaged students excluded groups global inequality improving gender equity inequalities in inequalities within countries male and female household heads reaching ethnic groups rural and urban household heads schooling and basic education strengthening accountability test results TIMSS data trends upgrading quality women and girls efficiency increased elderly social programs for nonworking elderly WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT elites capture and discrimination by El Salvador education system employment and occupations discrimination and stereotypes inequalities in women empowerment endowments development assistance unequal Enhanced HICP Initiative environment Aarhus Convention equal opportunity equal opportunity policy equity concepts of defined versus equality ethical and philosophical approaches to importance significance considerations legal institutions justice and equity and fairness concerns income inequality and poverty reduction income inequality and subjective well being intrinsic human behavior shared concern well being and see also complementaries between equity and prosperity equity development relationship equity development relationship contemporary evidence historical evidence Indonesian example institutional quality power distribution and institutional quality transitions to equitable institutions ethics codes of conduct ethical approaches to equity fair and ethical trade Ethiopia health education land transactions voice rank Europe basic education health care payments HIV AIDS human rights regimes income inequality and subjective well being income support for children inequality trends legal approach to equity life expectancy overall inequality levels programs for nonworking young see also specific countries European Union human rights norms and regimes extreme poverty extreme predation fair and ethical trade fairness equity and

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.819327708354492
WordScorePoS
childhood0NN
development0.0177346522508396NN
economic0.103276847978089JJ
inequality0.635305170773079NN
share0NN
total0NN
policy0.0848203862485078NN
arise0VB
education0.0121171980355011NN
result0NN
indigenous0JJ
people0.00571634317201755NNS
teacher0NN
educational0JJ
access0.00138439773401932NN
schooling0NN
disadvantaged0.064698038783335JJ
global0.0133009891881297JJ
improve0.0121171980355011VB
gender0NN
country0NN
female0NN
household0.0330412182586772NN
reach0NN
rural0.0330412182586772JJ
urban0.0488696285210061JJ
basic0JJ
strengthen0.00795378154685591VB
accountability0NN
datum0NN
upgrade0NN
quality0.0121171980355011NN
woman0.0242343960710022NN
girl0NN
efficiency0NN
increase0.00285817158600878NN
social0.101310366625194JJ
world0.00276879546803864NN
report0NN
capture0NN
discrimination0NN
system0NN
employment0NN
empowerment0NN
assistance0.0330412182586772NN
enhance0.00994073584907126VB
initiative0NN
environment0NN
convention0NN
equal0.0202620733250388JJ
opportunity0.029046330719385NN
equality0.0330412182586772NN
approach0NN
legal0JJ
institution0.0991236547760315NN
justice0NN
income0.166475342664294NN
poverty0.05809266143877NN
reduction0.0475643836183697NN
human0JJ
prosperity0NN
evidence0.12939607756667NN
historical0JJ
institutional0JJ
power0NN
equitable0JJ
conduct0.064698038783335NN
fair0JJ
trade0.0237821918091848NN
health0.0405241466500776NN
land0NN
transaction0.064698038783335NN
voice0.064698038783335NN
care0NN
hiv0NN
aid0NN
rights0NNS
regime0NN
support0NN
child0.0242343960710022NN
life0NN
expectancy0NN
level0NN
specific0JJ
extreme0JJ

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.256892751438238
WordScorePoS
childhood0NN
development0.0124956749436837NN
economic0.0727679293221751JJ
inequality0NN
share0.0285529457667019NN
total0NN
policy0.0341506708422088NN
arise0VB
education0.0512260062633133NN
result0NN
indigenous0JJ
people0NNS
teacher0NN
educational0JJ
access0.00780347258345989NN
schooling0NN
disadvantaged0JJ
global0JJ
improve0VB
gender0.196902218579822NN
country0NN
female0.0911713013253052NN
household0.0465610847355851NN
reach0NN
rural0JJ
urban0JJ
basic0JJ
strengthen0.0112083245137075VB
accountability0NN
datum0NN
upgrade0NN
quality0NN
woman0.221979360474357NN
girl0.393804437159645NN
efficiency0NN
increase0.00402768349408688NN
social0.0285529457667019JJ
world0.00585260443759492NN
report0NN
capture0NN
discrimination0.111637082206855NN
system0NN
employment0.0393804437159645NN
empowerment0.273513903975916NN
assistance0NN
enhance0.0140083044329373VB
initiative0NN
environment0NN
convention0NN
equal0.114211783066808JJ
opportunity0.02046578088155NN
equality0.18624433894234NN
approach0NN
legal0JJ
institution0NN
justice0NN
income0NN
poverty0NN
reduction0NN
human0.0170753354211044JJ
prosperity0NN
evidence0NN
historical0JJ
institutional0JJ
power0NN
equitable0JJ
conduct0NN
fair0JJ
trade0NN
health0.0571058915334038NN
land0.024255976440725NN
transaction0NN
voice0NN
care0.0931221694711702NN
hiv0NN
aid0NN
rights0.078760887431929NNS
regime0NN
support0NN
child0.0170753354211044NN
life0.0140083044329373NN
expectancy0NN
level0.0172651853471334NN
specific0JJ
extreme0JJ

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.255873260107813
WordScorePoS
childhood0.0815069365350084NN
development0.0279277626235394NN
economic0JJ
inequality0NN
share0NN
total0NN
policy0NN
arise0VB
education0.244244978014045NN
result0NN
indigenous0.0499016491051341JJ
people0.00720147981137839NNS
teacher0.163013873070017NN
educational0JJ
access0.00697628678506322NN
schooling0NN
disadvantaged0JJ
global0.00558555252470789JJ
improve0.0305306222517556VB
gender0.10561808200669NN
country0NN
female0NN
household0NN
reach0.0499016491051341NN
rural0JJ
urban0JJ
basic0.0433695758119029JJ
strengthen0VB
accountability0NN
datum0NN
upgrade0.0352060273355634NN
quality0.076326555629389NN
woman0.0610612445035112NN
girl0.140824109342254NN
efficiency0NN
increase0.0144029596227568NN
social0JJ
world0.0017440716962658NN
report0NN
capture0NN
discrimination0NN
system0NN
employment0.0352060273355634NN
empowerment0NN
assistance0NN
enhance0VB
initiative0NN
environment0.0299609328954485NN
convention0NN
equal0.051052537468787JJ
opportunity0NN
equality0.0832510082312742NN
approach0NN
legal0JJ
institution0NN
justice0NN
income0NN
poverty0NN
reduction0NN
human0.0152653111258778JJ
prosperity0NN
evidence0NN
historical0JJ
institutional0JJ
power0NN
equitable0.0299609328954485JJ
conduct0NN
fair0JJ
trade0NN
health0NN
land0NN
transaction0NN
voice0NN
care0.0416255041156371NN
hiv0NN
aid0NN
rights0.0352060273355634NNS
regime0NN
support0NN
child0.076326555629389NN
life0.0125233923809486NN
expectancy0NN
level0.0231525547935232NN
specific0JJ
extreme0JJ

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.217841027995058
WordScorePoS
childhood0NN
development0.0164833460638534NN
economic0.0959899298575892JJ
inequality0NN
share0NN
total0NN
policy0.0450489732120807NN
arise0VB
education0.0225244866060403NN
result0NN
indigenous0JJ
people0.0371911007748996NNS
teacher0NN
educational0JJ
access0.00514687440545096NN
schooling0NN
disadvantaged0JJ
global0JJ
improve0VB
gender0.0519476926891779NN
country0NN
female0NN
household0NN
reach0NN
rural0JJ
urban0JJ
basic0.0639932865717261JJ
strengthen0VB
accountability0NN
datum0NN
upgrade0NN
quality0NN
woman0.0450489732120807NN
girl0NN
efficiency0NN
increase0NN
social0.112994637345193JJ
world0.00257343720272548NN
report0NN
capture0NN
discrimination0.0736315832425121NN
system0.0519476926891779NN
employment0NN
empowerment0NN
assistance0NN
enhance0.0184786920895884VB
initiative0NN
environment0NN
convention0NN
equal0.0376648791150643JJ
opportunity0NN
equality0.0614198493690006NN
approach0NN
legal0JJ
institution0NN
justice0NN
income0.0442083771593746NN
poverty0.269969049497485NN
reduction0NN
human0JJ
prosperity0NN
evidence0NN
historical0JJ
institutional0JJ
power0NN
equitable0JJ
conduct0NN
fair0JJ
trade0NN
health0NN
land0.0319966432858631NN
transaction0NN
voice0NN
care0NN
hiv0NN
aid0NN
rights0.0519476926891779NNS
regime0NN
support0.0184786920895884NN
child0.0450489732120807NN
life0.0184786920895884NN
expectancy0NN
level0.0113874611101829NN
specific0JJ
extreme0.294526332970048JJ

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.170776373060478
WordScorePoS
childhood0NN
development0.00837573444202498NN
economic0JJ
inequality0.0307735781890304NN
share0NN
total0NN
policy0NN
arise0VB
education0.0152605842304358NN
result0NN
indigenous0JJ
people0.00539943740774902NNS
teacher0NN
educational0JJ
access0.00610236075888593NN
schooling0.0407408489778079NN
disadvantaged0JJ
global0.013959557403375JJ
improve0VB
gender0.0175975629039954NN
country0NN
female0NN
household0NN
reach0NN
rural0JJ
urban0JJ
basic0JJ
strengthen0.0150256708965218VB
accountability0NN
datum0NN
upgrade0NN
quality0.0152605842304358NN
woman0.0381514605760894NN
girl0.0527926887119861NN
efficiency0NN
increase0.0143984997539974NN
social0JJ
world0.00087176582269799NN
report0.0307735781890304NN
capture0NN
discrimination0.0249430985430622NN
system0NN
employment0NN
empowerment0NN
assistance0NN
enhance0VB
initiative0NN
environment0NN
convention0.0307735781890304NN
equal0JJ
opportunity0NN
equality0NN
approach0NN
legal0JJ
institution0NN
justice0NN
income0NN
poverty0.00914534810831654NN
reduction0.0149758277542848NN
human0JJ
prosperity0NN
evidence0NN
historical0JJ
institutional0JJ
power0NN
equitable0JJ
conduct0NN
fair0JJ
trade0.0149758277542848NN
health0.191387734041787NN
land0NN
transaction0NN
voice0NN
care0.104031537001265NN
hiv0.448149338755887NN
aid0.123094312756122NN
rights0.0175975629039954NNS
regime0NN
support0.00625975725959118NN
child0.10682408961305NN
life0.0250390290383647NN
expectancy0.0407408489778079NN
level0NN
specific0JJ
extreme0JJ

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.157028036657624
WordScorePoS
childhood0NN
development0.0055149369084567NN
economic0.128463821595706JJ
inequality0NN
share0.0252035516550537NN
total0NN
policy0.0452169560888236NN
arise0VB
education0.0150723186962745NN
result0NN
indigenous0JJ
people0.0106656521351091NNS
teacher0NN
educational0JJ
access0.00344404437204141NN
schooling0NN
disadvantaged0JJ
global0.0220597476338268JJ
improve0.0150723186962745VB
gender0NN
country0NN
female0NN
household0NN
reach0NN
rural0JJ
urban0JJ
basic0.0214106369326177JJ
strengthen0.00989353561471291VB
accountability0NN
datum0NN
upgrade0.0347609334428716NN
quality0.030144637392549NN
woman0.0452169560888236NN
girl0NN
efficiency0.0295821503613099NN
increase0.00711043475673939NN
social0.0504071033101074JJ
world0.00172202218602071NN
report0NN
capture0NN
discrimination0NN
system0NN
employment0.173804667214358NN
empowerment0NN
assistance0.0410992516792148NN
enhance0.0123650647908625VB
initiative0NN
environment0.0591643007226199NN
convention0NN
equal0.0504071033101074JJ
opportunity0.0361300980868102NN
equality0NN
approach0NN
legal0JJ
institution0.0410992516792148NN
justice0NN
income0NN
poverty0.0722601961736204NN
reduction0NN
human0.0150723186962745JJ
prosperity0NN
evidence0NN
historical0JJ
institutional0JJ
power0NN
equitable0JJ
conduct0NN
fair0JJ
trade0.0591643007226199NN
health0NN
land0NN
transaction0NN
voice0NN
care0NN
hiv0NN
aid0.0607878664258118NN
rights0.0347609334428716NNS
regime0NN
support0.024730129581725NN
child0.0452169560888236NN
life0.0123650647908625NN
expectancy0NN
level0.00761994916892276NN
specific0JJ
extreme0JJ

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.127657554800443
WordScorePoS
childhood0NN
development0.0159922815774215NN
economic0JJ
inequality0NN
share0.0365427838531249NN
total0.0252000451111224NN
policy0NN
arise0.0440683498519077VB
education0NN
result0NN
indigenous0.0357189919948307JJ
people0.0257736572183839NNS
teacher0NN
educational0JJ
access0.00749031153171887NN
schooling0NN
disadvantaged0JJ
global0.0119942111830662JJ
improve0.0218534471578307VB
gender0NN
country0NN
female0NN
household0.0297950283197006NN
reach0NN
rural0.148975141598503JJ
urban0JJ
basic0JJ
strengthen0.00717234893041658VB
accountability0NN
datum0NN
upgrade0NN
quality0.0109267235789154NN
woman0.0546336178945768NN
girl0.0252000451111224NN
efficiency0NN
increase0.0128868286091919NN
social0JJ
world0.0124838525528648NN
report0NN
capture0NN
discrimination0NN
system0.0756001353333673NN
employment0.0252000451111224NN
empowerment0NN
assistance0NN
enhance0.0268922747178632VB
initiative0NN
environment0.0214456704626236NN
convention0NN
equal0.0182713919265625JJ
opportunity0.0261926252110933NN
equality0NN
approach0NN
legal0JJ
institution0NN
justice0NN
income0.0643370113878709NN
poverty0.0261926252110933NN
reduction0NN
human0JJ
prosperity0NN
evidence0NN
historical0JJ
institutional0JJ
power0NN
equitable0.0214456704626236JJ
conduct0NN
fair0.0440683498519077JJ
trade0.0214456704626236NN
health0NN
land0.0465651203624806NN
transaction0NN
voice0NN
care0NN
hiv0NN
aid0NN
rights0NNS
regime0NN
support0.00896409157262106NN
child0.0546336178945768NN
life0NN
expectancy0NN
level0.00552410547653725NN
specific0JJ
extreme0.0714379839896614JJ

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.11902135495428
WordScorePoS
childhood0NN
development0.0368309542451156NN
economic0JJ
inequality0NN
share0NN
total0NN
policy0.0201317944152378NN
arise0VB
education0.0201317944152378NN
result0NN
indigenous0JJ
people0NNS
teacher0NN
educational0JJ
access0.00690021170452351NN
schooling0NN
disadvantaged0JJ
global0.00736619084902312JJ
improve0VB
gender0NN
country0NN
female0NN
household0NN
reach0.0658099748168827NN
rural0JJ
urban0JJ
basic0JJ
strengthen0.0396437925143789VB
accountability0NN
datum0NN
upgrade0NN
quality0NN
woman0NN
girl0NN
efficiency0NN
increase0NN
social0JJ
world0NN
report0NN
capture0NN
discrimination0NN
system0NN
employment0NN
empowerment0NN
assistance0NN
enhance0VB
initiative0NN
environment0NN
convention0NN
equal0.033663879505068JJ
opportunity0NN
equality0NN
approach0NN
legal0.0811931365363091JJ
institution0.274477239401321NN
justice0.214981650384708NN
income0NN
poverty0NN
reduction0NN
human0JJ
prosperity0NN
evidence0NN
historical0JJ
institutional0JJ
power0NN
equitable0JJ
conduct0NN
fair0JJ
trade0NN
health0NN
land0NN
transaction0NN
voice0NN
care0NN
hiv0NN
aid0NN
rights0NNS
regime0NN
support0NN
child0.0603953832457135NN
life0NN
expectancy0NN
level0.0610668815653026NN
specific0JJ
extreme0JJ

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.108050482776099
WordScorePoS
childhood0NN
development0.0100241617629471NN
economic0.0389167984372011JJ
inequality0NN
share0NN
total0NN
policy0.0136980135278128NN
arise0VB
education0NN
result0NN
indigenous0JJ
people0.0161552501392041NNS
teacher0NN
educational0JJ
access0.00626002771693937NN
schooling0NN
disadvantaged0JJ
global0.00501208088147356JJ
improve0.0273960270556257VB
gender0NN
country0NN
female0NN
household0NN
reach0NN
rural0.0373517915079663JJ
urban0.27622591898666JJ
basic0.0583751976558017JJ
strengthen0.0179828714372571VB
accountability0NN
datum0NN
upgrade0.0315914058171786NN
quality0.0136980135278128NN
woman0.0273960270556257NN
girl0NN
efficiency0.0537696560159885NN
increase0.00323105002784081NN
social0.0458109463416786JJ
world0.00626002771693937NN
report0NN
capture0NN
discrimination0NN
system0.0315914058171786NN
employment0NN
empowerment0NN
assistance0.0373517915079663NN
enhance0.0112376090361851VB
initiative0NN
environment0.0268848280079943NN
convention0NN
equal0JJ
opportunity0.0164178645080222NN
equality0NN
approach0NN
legal0JJ
institution0NN
justice0NN
income0NN
poverty0.0164178645080222NN
reduction0.0268848280079943NN
human0.0273960270556257JJ
prosperity0.0731385760866977NN
evidence0NN
historical0JJ
institutional0JJ
power0NN
equitable0JJ
conduct0NN
fair0JJ
trade0NN
health0.0229054731708393NN
land0.0389167984372011NN
transaction0NN
voice0NN
care0NN
hiv0NN
aid0NN
rights0NNS
regime0NN
support0.0224752180723703NN
child0.0273960270556257NN
life0.0112376090361851NN
expectancy0NN
level0.00692515656684925NN
specific0JJ
extreme0JJ

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.0666127163751793
WordScorePoS
childhood0NN
development0NN
economic0JJ
inequality0NN
share0.0383371018038178NN
total0.0528748274225028NN
policy0NN
arise0VB
education0NN
result0NN
indigenous0JJ
people0.0108156764915259NNS
teacher0NN
educational0JJ
access0.0157161992303584NN
schooling0NN
disadvantaged0JJ
global0.0251662980592747JJ
improve0.0229264916384433VB
gender0NN
country0NN
female0NN
household0NN
reach0NN
rural0JJ
urban0JJ
basic0JJ
strengthen0VB
accountability0NN
datum0NN
upgrade0.0528748274225028NN
quality0NN
woman0NN
girl0NN
efficiency0.134992154141495NN
increase0.0162235147372888NN
social0JJ
world0.00261936653839306NN
report0NN
capture0NN
discrimination0NN
system0NN
employment0NN
empowerment0NN
assistance0NN
enhance0.0188084899376888VB
initiative0.0924643738905717NN
environment0NN
convention0NN
equal0JJ
opportunity0.0549574626423028NN
equality0NN
approach0NN
legal0JJ
institution0NN
justice0NN
income0.0449973847138318NN
poverty0NN
reduction0NN
human0JJ
prosperity0NN
evidence0NN
historical0JJ
institutional0JJ
power0NN
equitable0JJ
conduct0NN
fair0JJ
trade0NN
health0NN
land0.0325677023224526NN
transaction0NN
voice0NN
care0NN
hiv0NN
aid0NN
rights0NNS
regime0NN
support0.0188084899376888NN
child0NN
life0.0188084899376888NN
expectancy0NN
level0NN
specific0JJ
extreme0JJ

See equity and fairness concerns in markets financial markets accountability and achieving equity and efficiency in Basel II Capital Accord bias in competition in Core Principles for Banking Supervision elite influence capture Financial Stability Forum foreign direct investment global standards liberalization liberalization paradox ROSC segmentation technical design issues unequal access considerations Financial Stability Forum Finland educational attainment achievement institutional transitions intergenerational mobility intergenerational transmission of inequality Foreign Policy magazine France financial liberalization reading levels Gambia health care GATS

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.700453270112084
WordScorePoS
market0.0202620733250388NN
financial0.0298222075472138JJ
accountability0NN
achieve0.018377882320743VB
efficiency0NN
principle0.0977392570420122NN
banking0NN
influence0NN
capture0NN
stability0NN
forum0NN
foreign0.0488696285210061JJ
direct0.0396106020715138JJ
investment0.0202620733250388NN
global0.0133009891881297JJ
standard0NN
technical0JJ
issue0NN
access0.00138439773401932NN
educational0JJ
achievement0NN
institutional0JJ
mobility0.064698038783335NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
policy0.0848203862485078NN
level0NN
health0.0405241466500776NN
care0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.220047844186455
WordScorePoS
market0NN
financial0.00625975725959118JJ
accountability0NN
achieve0.00385756426954823VB
efficiency0NN
principle0NN
banking0NN
influence0NN
capture0NN
stability0NN
forum0NN
foreign0JJ
direct0JJ
investment0NN
global0.013959557403375JJ
standard0NN
technical0JJ
issue0.0249430985430622NN
access0.00610236075888593NN
educational0JJ
achievement0NN
institutional0JJ
mobility0NN
inequality0.0307735781890304NN
policy0NN
level0NN
health0.191387734041787NN
care0.104031537001265NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.117814264630565
WordScorePoS
market0NN
financial0JJ
accountability0NN
achieve0VB
efficiency0.134992154141495NN
principle0NN
banking0NN
influence0NN
capture0NN
stability0NN
forum0NN
foreign0JJ
direct0JJ
investment0.0383371018038178NN
global0.0251662980592747JJ
standard0NN
technical0JJ
issue0NN
access0.0157161992303584NN
educational0JJ
achievement0NN
institutional0JJ
mobility0NN
inequality0NN
policy0NN
level0NN
health0NN
care0NN

See General Agreement in Trade and Services GATS gender differences inequalities gender discrimination improving equity in education infrastructure investments and gender equity redressing General Agreement in Trade and Services GATS Mode IV Ghana infrastructure opportunities for women trade unions global equity achievement analysis and research citizen mobilization greater global equity policies international organizations and making global markets work more equitably providing development assistance for endowments Index summary transitions to greater equity global governance global inequity and well being catch up countries and education examples and concepts future of global income inequality health three competing concepts of trends global markets see also markets specific markets governance deepening and extending democracy in institutions global inequalities of power and Greece educational attainment achievement Group of Twenty Four groups and group differences individual behavior performance and group identity local group participation and empowerment marginal groups membership and initial circumstances political inequality between groups relationship between group differences and inequality social programs for special vulnerable groups trends Guatemala basic education between group differences in inequality stunting in children Guyana development experiences health and health care access to immunization cognitive development in children community based health insurance differences in disability enhancing provider incentives expanding access to expanding knowledge of financing affordable care high impact health services inequalities in inequalities within countries infant and child mortality life expectancy social inequalities damaging health stunting trends Highly Indebted Poor Countries HIPC Enhanced HICP Initiative HIPC

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.778187468807647
WordScorePoS
agreement0.02794560829783NN
trade0.0237821918091848NN
service0.00795378154685591NN
gender0NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
discrimination0NN
improve0.0121171980355011VB
education0.0121171980355011NN
infrastructure0NN
investment0.0202620733250388NN
opportunity0.029046330719385NN
woman0.0242343960710022NN
global0.0133009891881297JJ
achievement0NN
research0NN
mobilization0NN
policy0.0848203862485078NN
international0.00571634317201755JJ
organization0.02794560829783NN
market0.0202620733250388NN
provide0VB
development0.0177346522508396NN
assistance0.0330412182586772NN
governance0NN
country0NN
future0NN
income0.166475342664294NN
health0.0405241466500776NN
specific0JJ
extend0.064698038783335VB
institution0.0991236547760315NN
power0NN
educational0JJ
individual0.064698038783335JJ
performance0.064698038783335NN
identity0NN
local0JJ
participation0NN
empowerment0NN
circumstance0NN
political0.0792212041430275JJ
social0.101310366625194JJ
special0.0330412182586772JJ
vulnerable0.0202620733250388JJ
basic0JJ
stunt0NN
child0.0242343960710022NN
experience0NN
care0NN
access0.00138439773401932NN
community0.0202620733250388NN
base0NN
insurance0NN
disability0.0558912165956601NN
enhance0.00994073584907126VB
provider0NN
incentive0NN
expand0VB
knowledge0NN
financing0NN
affordable0JJ
impact0NN
infant0NN
mortality0.0488696285210061NN
life0NN
expectancy0NN
highly0RB
indebted0JJ
poor0JJ
initiative0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.294723750710575
WordScorePoS
agreement0.0351951258079907NN
trade0.0149758277542848NN
service0.0100171139310145NN
gender0.0175975629039954NN
inequality0.0307735781890304NN
discrimination0.0249430985430622NN
improve0VB
education0.0152605842304358NN
infrastructure0NN
investment0NN
opportunity0NN
woman0.0381514605760894NN
global0.013959557403375JJ
achievement0NN
research0.0175975629039954NN
mobilization0NN
policy0NN
international0JJ
organization0.0175975629039954NN
market0NN
provide0.0100171139310145VB
development0.00837573444202498NN
assistance0NN
governance0NN
country0NN
future0NN
income0NN
health0.191387734041787NN
specific0JJ
extend0VB
institution0NN
power0NN
educational0JJ
individual0JJ
performance0NN
identity0NN
local0JJ
participation0NN
empowerment0NN
circumstance0NN
political0JJ
social0JJ
special0JJ
vulnerable0JJ
basic0JJ
stunt0NN
child0.10682408961305NN
experience0.0249430985430622NN
care0.104031537001265NN
access0.00610236075888593NN
community0NN
base0.0149758277542848NN
insurance0NN
disability0NN
enhance0VB
provider0NN
incentive0NN
expand0VB
knowledge0NN
financing0.0307735781890304NN
affordable0.025518364538905JJ
impact0NN
infant0NN
mortality0.276962203701274NN
life0.0250390290383647NN
expectancy0.0407408489778079NN
highly0RB
indebted0JJ
poor0JJ
initiative0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.247228636580199
WordScorePoS
agreement0NN
trade0NN
service0.022416649027415NN
gender0.196902218579822NN
inequality0NN
discrimination0.111637082206855NN
improve0VB
education0.0512260062633133NN
infrastructure0.024255976440725NN
investment0NN
opportunity0.02046578088155NN
woman0.221979360474357NN
global0JJ
achievement0NN
research0NN
mobilization0NN
policy0.0341506708422088NN
international0.00402768349408688JJ
organization0NN
market0NN
provide0.0112083245137075VB
development0.0124956749436837NN
assistance0NN
governance0NN
country0NN
future0NN
income0NN
health0.0571058915334038NN
specific0JJ
extend0VB
institution0NN
power0NN
educational0JJ
individual0JJ
performance0NN
identity0NN
local0JJ
participation0.0465610847355851NN
empowerment0.273513903975916NN
circumstance0NN
political0.111637082206855JJ
social0.0285529457667019JJ
special0JJ
vulnerable0JJ
basic0JJ
stunt0NN
child0.0170753354211044NN
experience0NN
care0.0931221694711702NN
access0.00780347258345989NN
community0NN
base0NN
insurance0NN
disability0NN
enhance0.0140083044329373VB
provider0NN
incentive0NN
expand0VB
knowledge0NN
financing0NN
affordable0JJ
impact0NN
infant0NN
mortality0NN
life0.0140083044329373NN
expectancy0NN
highly0RB
indebted0JJ
poor0JJ
initiative0NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.194906765249279
WordScorePoS
agreement0NN
trade0NN
service0NN
gender0.10561808200669NN
inequality0NN
discrimination0NN
improve0.0305306222517556VB
education0.244244978014045NN
infrastructure0NN
investment0NN
opportunity0NN
woman0.0610612445035112NN
global0.00558555252470789JJ
achievement0NN
research0NN
mobilization0NN
policy0NN
international0.00360073990568919JJ
organization0NN
market0NN
provide0.0100202166857628VB
development0.0279277626235394NN
assistance0NN
governance0NN
country0NN
future0NN
income0NN
health0NN
specific0JJ
extend0VB
institution0NN
power0NN
educational0JJ
individual0JJ
performance0NN
identity0NN
local0JJ
participation0NN
empowerment0NN
circumstance0NN
political0JJ
social0JJ
special0JJ
vulnerable0.051052537468787JJ
basic0.0433695758119029JJ
stunt0NN
child0.076326555629389NN
experience0NN
care0.0416255041156371NN
access0.00697628678506322NN
community0NN
base0NN
insurance0NN
disability0.0704120546711269NN
enhance0VB
provider0NN
incentive0NN
expand0.0299609328954485VB
knowledge0.0416255041156371NN
financing0NN
affordable0.0255262687343935JJ
impact0NN
infant0NN
mortality0NN
life0.0125233923809486NN
expectancy0NN
highly0RB
indebted0JJ
poor0JJ
initiative0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.181747522601257
WordScorePoS
agreement0NN
trade0NN
service0.0443555132287109NN
gender0.0519476926891779NN
inequality0NN
discrimination0.0736315832425121NN
improve0VB
education0.0225244866060403NN
infrastructure0NN
investment0.0376648791150643NN
opportunity0NN
woman0.0450489732120807NN
global0JJ
achievement0.0736315832425121NN
research0NN
mobilization0.0908430554521382NN
policy0.0450489732120807NN
international0.00531301439641424JJ
organization0NN
market0NN
provide0.0295703421524739VB
development0.0164833460638534NN
assistance0NN
governance0NN
country0NN
future0NN
income0.0442083771593746NN
health0NN
specific0JJ
extend0VB
institution0NN
power0NN
educational0JJ
individual0JJ
performance0NN
identity0NN
local0JJ
participation0.0614198493690006NN
empowerment0NN
circumstance0NN
political0JJ
social0.112994637345193JJ
special0JJ
vulnerable0.112994637345193JJ
basic0.0639932865717261JJ
stunt0NN
child0.0450489732120807NN
experience0NN
care0NN
access0.00514687440545096NN
community0NN
base0.0442083771593746NN
insurance0NN
disability0NN
enhance0.0184786920895884VB
provider0NN
incentive0NN
expand0VB
knowledge0NN
financing0NN
affordable0JJ
impact0NN
infant0NN
mortality0NN
life0.0184786920895884NN
expectancy0NN
highly0RB
indebted0JJ
poor0.150659516460257JJ
initiative0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.178639547429067
WordScorePoS
agreement0NN
trade0NN
service0.0148023490369527NN
gender0NN
inequality0NN
discrimination0NN
improve0VB
education0.022550656390892NN
infrastructure0.192202909044225NN
investment0.0377086395700813NN
opportunity0.0135141354781442NN
woman0NN
global0JJ
achievement0.0368585655748969NN
research0.104016094894625NN
mobilization0NN
policy0.011275328195446NN
international0.00265959362690358JJ
organization0NN
market0.0377086395700813NN
provide0.00740117451847634VB
development0.0330049940546426NN
assistance0NN
governance0NN
country0NN
future0NN
income0.110649350233433NN
health0.0377086395700813NN
specific0JJ
extend0VB
institution0NN
power0.0454743001434393NN
educational0JJ
individual0JJ
performance0NN
identity0NN
local0JJ
participation0NN
empowerment0NN
circumstance0.0368585655748969NN
political0.0368585655748969JJ
social0.0188543197850406JJ
special0JJ
vulnerable0JJ
basic0.0480507272610562JJ
stunt0NN
child0NN
experience0NN
care0.030745604615229NN
access0.0128821355880844NN
community0.0188543197850406NN
base0NN
insurance0NN
disability0NN
enhance0.0185001613201543VB
provider0NN
incentive0NN
expand0VB
knowledge0NN
financing0NN
affordable0.0565629593551219JJ
impact0.0160169090870187NN
infant0NN
mortality0NN
life0NN
expectancy0NN
highly0RB
indebted0JJ
poor0JJ
initiative0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.12734344933702
WordScorePoS
agreement0.0464294830712827NN
trade0NN
service0NN
gender0NN
inequality0NN
discrimination0NN
improve0VB
education0.0201317944152378NN
infrastructure0NN
investment0NN
opportunity0NN
woman0NN
global0.00736619084902312JJ
achievement0NN
research0NN
mobilization0NN
policy0.0201317944152378NN
international0.0189945307832458JJ
organization0NN
market0NN
provide0.013214597504793VB
development0.0368309542451156NN
assistance0NN
governance0.107490825192354NN
country0NN
future0NN
income0NN
health0NN
specific0JJ
extend0VB
institution0.274477239401321NN
power0NN
educational0JJ
individual0JJ
performance0NN
identity0.107490825192354NN
local0JJ
participation0.0548954478802642NN
empowerment0NN
circumstance0NN
political0JJ
social0JJ
special0JJ
vulnerable0JJ
basic0JJ
stunt0NN
child0.0603953832457135NN
experience0NN
care0NN
access0.00690021170452351NN
community0NN
base0NN
insurance0NN
disability0NN
enhance0VB
provider0NN
incentive0NN
expand0VB
knowledge0NN
financing0NN
affordable0JJ
impact0.0285977592242194NN
infant0NN
mortality0NN
life0NN
expectancy0NN
highly0RB
indebted0JJ
poor0JJ
initiative0NN

See Highly Indebted Poor Countries HIPC history and historical perspective evidence regarding development and political power HIV AIDS Honduras gender discrimination Hong Kong China inequality trends households domestic violence gender inequality and function of human behavior conditioned by group identity discrimination stereotype effects on equity and fairness concerns human capacities considerations early childhood development health and health care schooling and basic education social protection systems risk management summary human capital markets underinvestment Human Development Report of the United Nations Development Programme human immunodeficiency virus

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.563782341255733
WordScorePoS
highly0RB
indebted0JJ
poor0JJ
country0NN
history0NN
historical0JJ
perspective0NN
evidence0.12939607756667NN
development0.0177346522508396NN
political0.0792212041430275JJ
power0NN
hiv0NN
aid0NN
gender0NN
discrimination0NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
household0.0330412182586772NN
domestic0JJ
violence0NN
function0NN
human0JJ
condition0NN
identity0NN
effect0NN
capacity0NN
childhood0NN
health0.0405241466500776NN
care0NN
schooling0NN
basic0JJ
education0.0121171980355011NN
social0.101310366625194JJ
protection0.0660824365173543NN
system0NN
risk0NN
management0NN
market0.0202620733250388NN
report0NN
unite0VB
nation0.0396106020715138NN
programme0.029046330719385NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.427390537059095
WordScorePoS
highly0RB
indebted0JJ
poor0JJ
country0NN
history0NN
historical0JJ
perspective0NN
evidence0NN
development0.00837573444202498NN
political0JJ
power0NN
hiv0.448149338755887NN
aid0.123094312756122NN
gender0.0175975629039954NN
discrimination0.0249430985430622NN
inequality0.0307735781890304NN
household0NN
domestic0JJ
violence0.020806307400253NN
function0NN
human0JJ
condition0NN
identity0NN
effect0NN
capacity0.00625975725959118NN
childhood0NN
health0.191387734041787NN
care0.104031537001265NN
schooling0.0407408489778079NN
basic0JJ
education0.0152605842304358NN
social0JJ
protection0.020806307400253NN
system0NN
risk0.0703902516159815NN
management0.0127591822694525NN
market0NN
report0.0307735781890304NN
unite0VB
nation0NN
programme0.00914534810831654NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.407599304481552
WordScorePoS
highly0RB
indebted0JJ
poor0JJ
country0NN
history0NN
historical0JJ
perspective0NN
evidence0NN
development0.0124956749436837NN
political0.111637082206855JJ
power0NN
hiv0NN
aid0NN
gender0.196902218579822NN
discrimination0.111637082206855NN
inequality0NN
household0.0465610847355851NN
domestic0.0393804437159645JJ
violence0.0931221694711702NN
function0NN
human0.0170753354211044JJ
condition0NN
identity0NN
effect0NN
capacity0NN
childhood0NN
health0.0571058915334038NN
care0.0931221694711702NN
schooling0NN
basic0JJ
education0.0512260062633133NN
social0.0285529457667019JJ
protection0.0465610847355851NN
system0NN
risk0NN
management0NN
market0NN
report0NN
unite0VB
nation0NN
programme0.02046578088155NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.268663162744673
WordScorePoS
highly0RB
indebted0JJ
poor0.150659516460257JJ
country0NN
history0NN
historical0JJ
perspective0NN
evidence0NN
development0.0164833460638534NN
political0JJ
power0NN
hiv0NN
aid0NN
gender0.0519476926891779NN
discrimination0.0736315832425121NN
inequality0NN
household0NN
domestic0JJ
violence0NN
function0NN
human0JJ
condition0NN
identity0NN
effect0NN
capacity0NN
childhood0NN
health0NN
care0NN
schooling0NN
basic0.0639932865717261JJ
education0.0225244866060403NN
social0.112994637345193JJ
protection0.122839698738001NN
system0.0519476926891779NN
risk0.0519476926891779NN
management0NN
market0NN
report0NN
unite0VB
nation0NN
programme0.0269969049497485NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.253770457207453
WordScorePoS
highly0RB
indebted0JJ
poor0JJ
country0NN
history0NN
historical0JJ
perspective0NN
evidence0NN
development0.0279277626235394NN
political0JJ
power0NN
hiv0NN
aid0NN
gender0.10561808200669NN
discrimination0NN
inequality0NN
household0NN
domestic0JJ
violence0.0416255041156371NN
function0NN
human0.0152653111258778JJ
condition0NN
identity0NN
effect0NN
capacity0NN
childhood0.0815069365350084NN
health0NN
care0.0416255041156371NN
schooling0NN
basic0.0433695758119029JJ
education0.244244978014045NN
social0JJ
protection0NN
system0NN
risk0NN
management0NN
market0NN
report0NN
unite0VB
nation0NN
programme0.0182963616752599NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.133062827350181
WordScorePoS
highly0RB
indebted0JJ
poor0JJ
country0NN
history0NN
historical0JJ
perspective0NN
evidence0NN
development0.0368309542451156NN
political0JJ
power0NN
hiv0NN
aid0NN
gender0NN
discrimination0NN
inequality0NN
household0NN
domestic0JJ
violence0.164686343640793NN
function0NN
human0JJ
condition0NN
identity0.107490825192354NN
effect0NN
capacity0.016515769558553NN
childhood0NN
health0NN
care0NN
schooling0NN
basic0JJ
education0.0201317944152378NN
social0JJ
protection0NN
system0NN
risk0NN
management0NN
market0NN
report0NN
unite0VB
nation0NN
programme0NN

See HIV AIDS human rights protection IBRD

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.914941209763007
WordScorePoS
hiv0.448149338755887NN
aid0.123094312756122NN
human0JJ
rights0.0175975629039954NNS
protection0.020806307400253NN

See International Bank for Reconstruction and Development IBRD ICOR

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.653266423805409
WordScorePoS
international0.00515473144367677JJ
bank0.0881366997038154NN
development0.0159922815774215NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.54034367308463
WordScorePoS
international0.00648516099948979JJ
bank0.036961556179878NN
development0.0469463607292177NN

See incremental capital output ratio ICOR ICRISAT

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.745617614204109
WordScorePoS
ratio0.0688661930304451NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.666374049156007
WordScorePoS
ratio0.0615471563780609NN

See International Crop Research Institute in the SemiArid Tropics ICRISAT IFF

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.695005059139325
WordScorePoS
international0.00265959362690358JJ
crop0NN
research0.104016094894625NN

See International Financing Facility IFF ILO

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.823291884101658
WordScorePoS
international0.00360073990568919JJ
financing0NN
facility0.0815069365350084NN

See International Labour Office ILO immunization access to imperfect markets

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.973264228471372
WordScorePoS
international0.00355521737836969JJ
labour0.563335368206862NN
access0.00344404437204141NN
market0.0252035516550537NN

See markets incomes assets and liabilities income inequality and incentives income inequality and poverty reduction income inequality and subjective well being inequalities in redistribution of women incremental capital output ratio ICOR India affirmative action programs billionaire wealth capital markets caste system credit markets economic growth education effects of government intervention in labor markets gender equity Gounders health care health care payments ICOR estimates WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT India continued ICRISAT household insurance data improved marketing channels and technology income and expenditure inequality trends infant and child mortality infrastructure Integrated Rural Development Program loans lack of voice land and safety net programs land rights of rent collecting intermediaries legal approach to equity local government democratization means tested pensions misallocation of capital Operation Barga poverty trends priority sector lending product licensing restrictions product market reforms remedial education program Self Employed Women Association stereotypes and behavior teacher absenteeism voice rank worker organizations trade unions indigenous peoples ILO Covenant Quichua people individuals differences in opportunities for responsibility for own welfare Indonesia development experiences elite influence capture financial markets growth equity and poverty reduction in health insurance infant mortality Kecamatan Development Project microfinance physician availability reading levels school enrollment problems teacher absenteeism wealth inequality industry and trade underinvestment inefficient inequalities inequalities interaction of various macroeconomic instability as cause and consequence of mobility and three competing concepts of views on see also global inequity and well being inefficient inequalities inequity within countries specific areas of inequality inequality traps between group differences crime violence related Palanpur example for women within countries inequity within countries economic inequalities in education examples in various countries group differences and in health inequalities of power

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.852189824902694
WordScorePoS
market0.0202620733250388NN
income0.166475342664294NN
asset0.0488696285210061NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
incentive0NN
poverty0.05809266143877NN
reduction0.0475643836183697NN
woman0.0242343960710022NN
ratio0NN
action0.0145231653596925NN
system0NN
credit0NN
economic0.103276847978089JJ
growth0.11178243319132NN
education0.0121171980355011NN
effect0NN
government0NN
intervention0NN
gender0NN
health0.0405241466500776NN
care0NN
estimate0NN
world0.00276879546803864NN
development0.0177346522508396NN
report0NN
continue0.0237821918091848VB
household0.0330412182586772NN
insurance0NN
datum0NN
improve0.0121171980355011VB
technology0NN
expenditure0.064698038783335NN
infant0NN
child0.0242343960710022NN
mortality0.0488696285210061NN
infrastructure0NN
integrate0VB
rural0.0330412182586772JJ
lack0NN
voice0.064698038783335NN
land0NN
safety0NN
rights0NNS
legal0JJ
approach0NN
local0JJ
means0NNS
priority0NN
sector0NN
product0NN
restriction0NN
reform0NN
employ0VB
teacher0NN
worker0NN
organization0.02794560829783NN
trade0.0237821918091848NN
indigenous0JJ
people0.00571634317201755NNS
individual0.064698038783335JJ
opportunity0.029046330719385NN
responsibility0NN
welfare0NN
experience0NN
influence0NN
capture0NN
financial0.0298222075472138JJ
project0NN
microfinance0NN
availability0NN
level0NN
school0NN
industry0NN
inefficient0JJ
macroeconomic0JJ
mobility0.064698038783335NN
view0NN
global0.0133009891881297JJ
country0NN
specific0JJ
crime0NN
violence0NN
related0JJ
power0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.204902194437507
WordScorePoS
market0NN
income0NN
asset0NN
inequality0.0307735781890304NN
incentive0NN
poverty0.00914534810831654NN
reduction0.0149758277542848NN
woman0.0381514605760894NN
ratio0.0615471563780609NN
action0NN
system0NN
credit0NN
economic0JJ
growth0NN
education0.0152605842304358NN
effect0NN
government0NN
intervention0.0407408489778079NN
gender0.0175975629039954NN
health0.191387734041787NN
care0.104031537001265NN
estimate0.059903311017139NN
world0.00087176582269799NN
development0.00837573444202498NN
report0.0307735781890304NN
continue0VB
household0NN
insurance0NN
datum0NN
improve0VB
technology0NN
expenditure0NN
infant0NN
child0.10682408961305NN
mortality0.276962203701274NN
infrastructure0NN
integrate0VB
rural0JJ
lack0NN
voice0NN
land0NN
safety0NN
rights0.0175975629039954NNS
legal0JJ
approach0NN
local0JJ
means0NNS
priority0NN
sector0NN
product0NN
restriction0NN
reform0NN
employ0VB
teacher0NN
worker0NN
organization0.0175975629039954NN
trade0.0149758277542848NN
indigenous0JJ
people0.00539943740774902NNS
individual0JJ
opportunity0NN
responsibility0NN
welfare0NN
experience0.0249430985430622NN
influence0NN
capture0NN
financial0.00625975725959118JJ
project0NN
microfinance0NN
availability0NN
level0NN
school0NN
industry0NN
inefficient0JJ
macroeconomic0JJ
mobility0NN
view0NN
global0.013959557403375JJ
country0NN
specific0JJ
crime0NN
violence0.020806307400253NN
related0.0125195145191824JJ
power0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.193927114785844
WordScorePoS
market0NN
income0NN
asset0NN
inequality0NN
incentive0NN
poverty0NN
reduction0NN
woman0.221979360474357NN
ratio0.0688661930304451NN
action0.0409315617631NN
system0NN
credit0NN
economic0.0727679293221751JJ
growth0NN
education0.0512260062633133NN
effect0NN
government0NN
intervention0NN
gender0.196902218579822NN
health0.0571058915334038NN
care0.0931221694711702NN
estimate0NN
world0.00585260443759492NN
development0.0124956749436837NN
report0NN
continue0.0335134328085675VB
household0.0465610847355851NN
insurance0NN
datum0NN
improve0VB
technology0.0409315617631NN
expenditure0NN
infant0NN
child0.0170753354211044NN
mortality0NN
infrastructure0.024255976440725NN
integrate0VB
rural0JJ
lack0NN
voice0NN
land0.024255976440725NN
safety0NN
rights0.078760887431929NNS
legal0JJ
approach0NN
local0JJ
means0NNS
priority0NN
sector0.0571058915334038NN
product0NN
restriction0NN
reform0.0911713013253052NN
employ0VB
teacher0NN
worker0NN
organization0NN
trade0NN
indigenous0JJ
people0NNS
individual0JJ
opportunity0.02046578088155NN
responsibility0.0911713013253052NN
welfare0NN
experience0NN
influence0NN
capture0NN
financial0.0140083044329373JJ
project0NN
microfinance0NN
availability0NN
level0.0172651853471334NN
school0.0931221694711702NN
industry0NN
inefficient0JJ
macroeconomic0JJ
mobility0NN
view0NN
global0JJ
country0NN
specific0JJ
crime0NN
violence0.0931221694711702NN
related0JJ
power0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.183053649564297
WordScorePoS
market0.0377086395700813NN
income0.110649350233433NN
asset0NN
inequality0NN
incentive0NN
poverty0NN
reduction0NN
woman0NN
ratio0NN
action0.0135141354781442NN
system0NN
credit0.0602029956716497NN
economic0.0320338181740375JJ
growth0.0260040237236563NN
education0.022550656390892NN
effect0.0454743001434393NN
government0NN
intervention0NN
gender0NN
health0.0377086395700813NN
care0.030745604615229NN
estimate0.0221298700466866NN
world0.00257642711761688NN
development0.0330049940546426NN
report0NN
continue0VB
household0NN
insurance0NN
datum0.0454743001434393NN
improve0VB
technology0.0810848128688654NN
expenditure0NN
infant0NN
child0NN
mortality0NN
infrastructure0.192202909044225NN
integrate0VB
rural0JJ
lack0.0565629593551219NN
voice0NN
land0NN
safety0NN
rights0NNS
legal0JJ
approach0NN
local0JJ
means0NNS
priority0NN
sector0.0565629593551219NN
product0.0442597400933733NN
restriction0NN
reform0NN
employ0.0454743001434393VB
teacher0NN
worker0.0454743001434393NN
organization0NN
trade0NN
indigenous0JJ
people0.0186171553883251NNS
individual0JJ
opportunity0.0135141354781442NN
responsibility0NN
welfare0NN
experience0NN
influence0NN
capture0NN
financial0.0185001613201543JJ
project0NN
microfinance0NN
availability0NN
level0NN
school0NN
industry0.181897200573757NN
inefficient0JJ
macroeconomic0JJ
mobility0NN
view0NN
global0JJ
country0NN
specific0JJ
crime0NN
violence0NN
related0.00925008066007716JJ
power0.0454743001434393NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.182035406167727
WordScorePoS
market0NN
income0.0442083771593746NN
asset0NN
inequality0NN
incentive0NN
poverty0.269969049497485NN
reduction0NN
woman0.0450489732120807NN
ratio0NN
action0.0269969049497485NN
system0.0519476926891779NN
credit0NN
economic0.0959899298575892JJ
growth0.0519476926891779NN
education0.0225244866060403NN
effect0NN
government0NN
intervention0NN
gender0.0519476926891779NN
health0NN
care0NN
estimate0NN
world0.00257343720272548NN
development0.0164833460638534NN
report0NN
continue0VB
household0NN
insurance0NN
datum0NN
improve0VB
technology0.0269969049497485NN
expenditure0NN
infant0NN
child0.0450489732120807NN
mortality0NN
infrastructure0NN
integrate0VB
rural0JJ
lack0.0753297582301286NN
voice0NN
land0.0319966432858631NN
safety0NN
rights0.0519476926891779NNS
legal0JJ
approach0NN
local0JJ
means0.120266261535276NNS
priority0NN
sector0NN
product0NN
restriction0NN
reform0NN
employ0VB
teacher0NN
worker0NN
organization0NN
trade0NN
indigenous0JJ
people0.0371911007748996NNS
individual0JJ
opportunity0NN
responsibility0NN
welfare0NN
experience0NN
influence0NN
capture0NN
financial0.0184786920895884JJ
project0NN
microfinance0.120266261535276NN
availability0NN
level0.0113874611101829NN
school0NN
industry0NN
inefficient0JJ
macroeconomic0JJ
mobility0NN
view0NN
global0JJ
country0NN
specific0JJ
crime0NN
violence0NN
related0.0184786920895884JJ
power0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.167407978683701
WordScorePoS
market0.0913569596328122NN
income0.0643370113878709NN
asset0NN
inequality0NN
incentive0NN
poverty0.0261926252110933NN
reduction0NN
woman0.0546336178945768NN
ratio0NN
action0NN
system0.0756001353333673NN
credit0NN
economic0JJ
growth0.0252000451111224NN
education0NN
effect0.0440683498519077NN
government0NN
intervention0NN
gender0NN
health0NN
care0NN
estimate0NN
world0.0124838525528648NN
development0.0159922815774215NN
report0NN
continue0VB
household0.0297950283197006NN
insurance0NN
datum0NN
improve0.0218534471578307VB
technology0.0130963126055467NN
expenditure0NN
infant0.0583416713841148NN
child0.0546336178945768NN
mortality0NN
infrastructure0.0155217067874935NN
integrate0VB
rural0.148975141598503JJ
lack0NN
voice0NN
land0.0465651203624806NN
safety0NN
rights0NNS
legal0JJ
approach0NN
local0.0155217067874935JJ
means0NNS
priority0NN
sector0.0182713919265625NN
product0NN
restriction0.0583416713841148NN
reform0NN
employ0VB
teacher0NN
worker0NN
organization0NN
trade0.0214456704626236NN
indigenous0.0357189919948307JJ
people0.0257736572183839NNS
individual0JJ
opportunity0.0261926252110933NN
responsibility0NN
welfare0NN
experience0NN
influence0NN
capture0NN
financial0.00896409157262106JJ
project0NN
microfinance0NN
availability0NN
level0.00552410547653725NN
school0.0297950283197006NN
industry0NN
inefficient0JJ
macroeconomic0JJ
mobility0NN
view0NN
global0.0119942111830662JJ
country0NN
specific0JJ
crime0NN
violence0NN
related0.00896409157262106JJ
power0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.167179867895568
WordScorePoS
market0.0252035516550537NN
income0NN
asset0NN
inequality0NN
incentive0NN
poverty0.0722601961736204NN
reduction0NN
woman0.0452169560888236NN
ratio0NN
action0NN
system0NN
credit0NN
economic0.128463821595706JJ
growth0.208565600657229NN
education0.0150723186962745NN
effect0NN
government0NN
intervention0NN
gender0NN
health0NN
care0NN
estimate0NN
world0.00172202218602071NN
development0.0055149369084567NN
report0NN
continue0.0295821503613099VB
household0NN
insurance0.0804764811724088NN
datum0NN
improve0.0150723186962745VB
technology0NN
expenditure0NN
infant0NN
child0.0452169560888236NN
mortality0NN
infrastructure0NN
integrate0.0295821503613099VB
rural0JJ
lack0.0252035516550537NN
voice0NN
land0NN
safety0NN
rights0.0347609334428716NNS
legal0JJ
approach0NN
local0.0214106369326177JJ
means0NNS
priority0NN
sector0.0252035516550537NN
product0.0591643007226199NN
restriction0NN
reform0NN
employ0VB
teacher0NN
worker0.121575732851624NN
organization0.0347609334428716NN
trade0.0591643007226199NN
indigenous0JJ
people0.0106656521351091NNS
individual0JJ
opportunity0.0361300980868102NN
responsibility0NN
welfare0NN
experience0NN
influence0NN
capture0NN
financial0.0370951943725875JJ
project0NN
microfinance0NN
availability0NN
level0.00761994916892276NN
school0NN
industry0NN
inefficient0JJ
macroeconomic0JJ
mobility0NN
view0NN
global0.0220597476338268JJ
country0NN
specific0JJ
crime0NN
violence0NN
related0.0123650647908625JJ
power0NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.162513862694963
WordScorePoS
market0NN
income0NN
asset0NN
inequality0NN
incentive0NN
poverty0NN
reduction0NN
woman0.0610612445035112NN
ratio0NN
action0NN
system0NN
credit0NN
economic0JJ
growth0NN
education0.244244978014045NN
effect0NN
government0NN
intervention0NN
gender0.10561808200669NN
health0NN
care0.0416255041156371NN
estimate0.0299609328954485NN
world0.0017440716962658NN
development0.0279277626235394NN
report0NN
continue0VB
household0NN
insurance0NN
datum0NN
improve0.0305306222517556VB
technology0.0182963616752599NN
expenditure0NN
infant0NN
child0.076326555629389NN
mortality0NN
infrastructure0NN
integrate0VB
rural0JJ
lack0.0255262687343935NN
voice0NN
land0NN
safety0NN
rights0.0352060273355634NNS
legal0JJ
approach0NN
local0JJ
means0NNS
priority0NN
sector0NN
product0NN
restriction0NN
reform0NN
employ0VB
teacher0.163013873070017NN
worker0NN
organization0NN
trade0NN
indigenous0.0499016491051341JJ
people0.00720147981137839NNS
individual0JJ
opportunity0NN
responsibility0NN
welfare0NN
experience0NN
influence0NN
capture0NN
financial0JJ
project0NN
microfinance0NN
availability0NN
level0.0231525547935232NN
school0.208127520578185NN
industry0NN
inefficient0JJ
macroeconomic0JJ
mobility0NN
view0NN
global0.00558555252470789JJ
country0NN
specific0JJ
crime0NN
violence0.0416255041156371NN
related0JJ
power0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.0746936922522399
WordScorePoS
market0NN
income0NN
asset0.0811931365363091NN
inequality0NN
incentive0NN
poverty0NN
reduction0NN
woman0NN
ratio0NN
action0NN
system0NN
credit0NN
economic0JJ
growth0NN
education0.0201317944152378NN
effect0NN
government0NN
intervention0NN
gender0NN
health0NN
care0NN
estimate0NN
world0NN
development0.0368309542451156NN
report0NN
continue0VB
household0NN
insurance0NN
datum0NN
improve0VB
technology0NN
expenditure0NN
infant0NN
child0.0603953832457135NN
mortality0NN
infrastructure0NN
integrate0VB
rural0JJ
lack0NN
voice0NN
land0NN
safety0NN
rights0NNS
legal0.0811931365363091JJ
approach0NN
local0JJ
means0NNS
priority0NN
sector0NN
product0NN
restriction0NN
reform0NN
employ0VB
teacher0NN
worker0NN
organization0NN
trade0NN
indigenous0JJ
people0NNS
individual0JJ
opportunity0NN
responsibility0NN
welfare0NN
experience0NN
influence0NN
capture0NN
financial0.016515769558553JJ
project0NN
microfinance0NN
availability0NN
level0.0610668815653026NN
school0.0548954478802642NN
industry0NN
inefficient0JJ
macroeconomic0JJ
mobility0NN
view0NN
global0.00736619084902312JJ
country0NN
specific0JJ
crime0.214981650384708NN
violence0.164686343640793NN
related0.016515769558553JJ
power0NN

see also agency power and influence inequality traps for women intergenerational transmission of inequality regional disparities inequalities infrastructure access to accountability and corruption and equitable provision of privatization service affordability strengthening governance voice accountability of inheritance and inheritance laws gender inequalities and institutional quality power distribution and institutions and institutional development colonial origins of contemporary institutions contemporary evidence perspective democratic governance institutions historical evidence perspective inequalities of power and inequitable exclusionary transitions to more equitable insurance markets intellectual property rights protection intergenerational transmission of inequality International Bank for Reconstruction and Development IBRD membership and voting shares International Chirstelijk Steunfonds Africa learning experiments International Conference on Financing for Development International Crop Research Institute in the Semi Arid Tropics ICRISAT International Development Association International Financing Facility IFF international inequity

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.845047109259377
WordScorePoS
agency0NN
power0NN
influence0NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
woman0.0242343960710022NN
regional0JJ
disparity0.0488696285210061NN
infrastructure0NN
access0.00138439773401932NN
accountability0NN
corruption0NN
equitable0JJ
provision0NN
service0.00795378154685591NN
strengthen0.00795378154685591VB
governance0NN
voice0.064698038783335NN
inheritance0NN
law0.0330412182586772NN
gender0NN
institutional0JJ
quality0.0121171980355011NN
institution0.0991236547760315NN
development0.0177346522508396NN
origin0.0488696285210061NN
evidence0.12939607756667NN
perspective0NN
democratic0JJ
historical0JJ
insurance0NN
market0.0202620733250388NN
intellectual0JJ
property0NN
rights0NNS
protection0.0660824365173543NN
international0.00571634317201755JJ
bank0NN
share0NN
africa0IN
learn0VB
conference0NN
financing0NN
crop0NN
research0NN
facility0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.336692968437981
WordScorePoS
agency0NN
power0NN
influence0NN
inequality0NN
woman0NN
regional0JJ
disparity0NN
infrastructure0NN
access0.00690021170452351NN
accountability0NN
corruption0.322472475577062NN
equitable0JJ
provision0.0658099748168827NN
service0NN
strengthen0.0396437925143789VB
governance0.107490825192354NN
voice0NN
inheritance0NN
law0.164686343640793NN
gender0NN
institutional0JJ
quality0NN
institution0.274477239401321NN
development0.0368309542451156NN
origin0NN
evidence0NN
perspective0NN
democratic0JJ
historical0JJ
insurance0NN
market0NN
intellectual0JJ
property0NN
rights0NNS
protection0NN
international0.0189945307832458JJ
bank0NN
share0NN
africa0IN
learn0VB
conference0NN
financing0NN
crop0NN
research0NN
facility0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.209732455266729
WordScorePoS
agency0NN
power0NN
influence0NN
inequality0NN
woman0.221979360474357NN
regional0JJ
disparity0NN
infrastructure0.024255976440725NN
access0.00780347258345989NN
accountability0NN
corruption0NN
equitable0JJ
provision0.0558185411034276NN
service0.022416649027415NN
strengthen0.0112083245137075VB
governance0NN
voice0NN
inheritance0.0688661930304451NN
law0.0465610847355851NN
gender0.196902218579822NN
institutional0JJ
quality0NN
institution0NN
development0.0124956749436837NN
origin0NN
evidence0NN
perspective0NN
democratic0JJ
historical0JJ
insurance0NN
market0NN
intellectual0JJ
property0.0558185411034276NN
rights0.078760887431929NNS
protection0.0465610847355851NN
international0.00402768349408688JJ
bank0NN
share0.0285529457667019NN
africa0IN
learn0VB
conference0.18234260265061NN
financing0NN
crop0NN
research0NN
facility0NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.152639578991113
WordScorePoS
agency0NN
power0NN
influence0NN
inequality0NN
woman0.0610612445035112NN
regional0JJ
disparity0.0615662203253227NN
infrastructure0NN
access0.00697628678506322NN
accountability0NN
corruption0NN
equitable0.0299609328954485JJ
provision0NN
service0NN
strengthen0VB
governance0NN
voice0NN
inheritance0NN
law0NN
gender0.10561808200669NN
institutional0JJ
quality0.076326555629389NN
institution0NN
development0.0279277626235394NN
origin0NN
evidence0NN
perspective0NN
democratic0JJ
historical0JJ
insurance0NN
market0NN
intellectual0JJ
property0NN
rights0.0352060273355634NNS
protection0NN
international0.00360073990568919JJ
bank0NN
share0NN
africa0IN
learn0.244520809605025VB
conference0NN
financing0NN
crop0NN
research0NN
facility0.0815069365350084NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.136767777869545
WordScorePoS
agency0NN
power0.0454743001434393NN
influence0NN
inequality0NN
woman0NN
regional0.0260040237236563JJ
disparity0NN
infrastructure0.192202909044225NN
access0.0128821355880844NN
accountability0NN
corruption0NN
equitable0.0221298700466866JJ
provision0NN
service0.0148023490369527NN
strengthen0VB
governance0NN
voice0NN
inheritance0NN
law0NN
gender0NN
institutional0JJ
quality0.022550656390892NN
institution0NN
development0.0330049940546426NN
origin0NN
evidence0NN
perspective0NN
democratic0JJ
historical0JJ
insurance0NN
market0.0377086395700813NN
intellectual0JJ
property0NN
rights0NNS
protection0NN
international0.00265959362690358JJ
bank0NN
share0.0377086395700813NN
africa0IN
learn0VB
conference0NN
financing0NN
crop0NN
research0.104016094894625NN
facility0NN

See global inequity and well being International Labour Office ILO Covenant on indigenous peoples international law global markets and human rights intellectual property rights protection International Monetary Fund ICOR estimates Index International Organization for Migration International Social Survey Program Inter university Consortium for Political and Social Research investment and investment opportunity inequalities and microcredit underinvestment see also markets specific markets Iraq reconstruction aid Ireland educational attainment achievement labor market reforms voice rank Islamic law justice and equity in Israel hyperinflation voice rank Italy banking segmentation means tested pensions Jamaica child development study value added tax exemptions Japan educational attainment achievement life expectancy Jewish law justice and equity in Joint United Nations Programme on HIV AIDS Jordan infant mortality stunting in children Jubilee campaign justice and justice systems access to building equitable systems combating discriminatory norms and practices combating elite capture and discrimination compatibility of state and customary systems enhancing judicial independence and accountability equity and legal institutions improved crime policies improved personal safety policies legal institution establishment to level the playing field theories of Kazakhstan stunting in children Kecamatan Development Project KDP Kenya land reform learning experiments trade credit Kyoto Protocol labor markets achieving equity and efficiency in addressing links with unequal power improved design of interaction between product markets and international labor mobility reasons to intervene reforming poor institutions worker organizations trade unions lagging regions land access to formal land titling sharecropping squatters rights transferability women inheritance rights land distribution cost effective land markets land reform experience with Laos People Democratic Republic head of household education Latin America and the Caribbean billionaire wealth colonization example crises behavior and costs education trends financial liberalization income distribution dynamics income inequality and subjective well being inequality trends infant mortality infrastructure investments land reform legal approach to equity means tested pensions means tests overall inequality levels product and labor market interaction programs for nonworking young schooling years trade liberalization see also specific countries legal institutions equity and establishment leveling the economic and political playing field justice and justice systems and pathologies making uneven playing field role of public action

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.535645251512103
WordScorePoS
global0.0133009891881297JJ
international0.00571634317201755JJ
labour0NN
indigenous0JJ
people0.00571634317201755NNS
law0.0330412182586772NN
market0.0202620733250388NN
human0JJ
rights0NNS
intellectual0JJ
property0NN
protection0.0660824365173543NN
fund0NN
estimate0NN
organization0.02794560829783NN
migration0.12939607756667NN
social0.101310366625194JJ
survey0.064698038783335NN
inter0NN
university0NN
political0.0792212041430275JJ
research0NN
investment0.0202620733250388NN
opportunity0.029046330719385NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
specific0JJ
aid0NN
educational0JJ
achievement0NN
reform0NN
voice0.064698038783335NN
justice0NN
banking0NN
means0NNS
child0.0242343960710022NN
development0.0177346522508396NN
study0NN
add0VB
tax0NN
life0NN
expectancy0NN
unite0VB
nation0.0396106020715138NN
programme0.029046330719385NN
hiv0NN
infant0NN
mortality0.0488696285210061NN
stunt0NN
system0NN
access0.00138439773401932NN
building0NN
equitable0JJ
combate0NN
discriminatory0.0396106020715138JJ
practice0.02794560829783NN
capture0NN
discrimination0NN
enhance0.00994073584907126VB
accountability0NN
legal0JJ
institution0.0991236547760315NN
improve0.0121171980355011VB
crime0NN
policy0.0848203862485078NN
personal0JJ
safety0NN
level0NN
field0NN
project0NN
land0NN
learn0VB
trade0.0237821918091848NN
credit0NN
achieve0.018377882320743VB
efficiency0NN
address0.064698038783335NN
power0NN
product0NN
mobility0.064698038783335NN
poor0JJ
worker0NN
region0NN
woman0.0242343960710022NN
inheritance0NN
cost0.0660824365173543NN
effective0.0145231653596925JJ
experience0NN
democratic0JJ
household0.0330412182586772NN
education0.0121171980355011NN
financial0.0298222075472138JJ
income0.166475342664294NN
infrastructure0NN
approach0NN
schooling0NN
country0NN
economic0.103276847978089JJ
uneven0JJ
public0.0172128079963482NN
action0.0145231653596925NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.428874728283158
WordScorePoS
global0.00736619084902312JJ
international0.0189945307832458JJ
labour0NN
indigenous0JJ
people0NNS
law0.164686343640793NN
market0NN
human0JJ
rights0NNS
intellectual0JJ
property0NN
protection0NN
fund0NN
estimate0NN
organization0NN
migration0NN
social0JJ
survey0NN
inter0NN
university0NN
political0JJ
research0NN
investment0NN
opportunity0NN
inequality0NN
specific0JJ
aid0NN
educational0JJ
achievement0NN
reform0NN
voice0NN
justice0.214981650384708NN
banking0NN
means0NNS
child0.0603953832457135NN
development0.0368309542451156NN
study0NN
add0VB
tax0.0811931365363091NN
life0NN
expectancy0NN
unite0VB
nation0NN
programme0NN
hiv0NN
infant0NN
mortality0NN
stunt0NN
system0NN
access0.00690021170452351NN
building0.109790895760528NN
equitable0JJ
combate0NN
discriminatory0.0658099748168827JJ
practice0NN
capture0NN
discrimination0NN
enhance0VB
accountability0NN
legal0.0811931365363091JJ
institution0.274477239401321NN
improve0VB
crime0.214981650384708NN
policy0.0201317944152378NN
personal0JJ
safety0NN
level0.0610668815653026NN
field0NN
project0NN
land0NN
learn0VB
trade0NN
credit0NN
achieve0VB
efficiency0NN
address0NN
power0NN
product0NN
mobility0NN
poor0JJ
worker0NN
region0NN
woman0NN
inheritance0NN
cost0.0548954478802642NN
effective0.0482582488828229JJ
experience0NN
democratic0JJ
household0NN
education0.0201317944152378NN
financial0.016515769558553JJ
income0NN
infrastructure0NN
approach0NN
schooling0NN
country0NN
economic0JJ
uneven0JJ
public0.0285977592242194NN
action0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.281978525027667
WordScorePoS
global0JJ
international0.00531301439641424JJ
labour0NN
indigenous0JJ
people0.0371911007748996NNS
law0NN
market0NN
human0JJ
rights0.0519476926891779NNS
intellectual0JJ
property0.0736315832425121NN
protection0.122839698738001NN
fund0NN
estimate0NN
organization0NN
migration0NN
social0.112994637345193JJ
survey0NN
inter0NN
university0NN
political0JJ
research0NN
investment0.0376648791150643NN
opportunity0NN
inequality0NN
specific0JJ
aid0NN
educational0JJ
achievement0.0736315832425121NN
reform0NN
voice0NN
justice0NN
banking0NN
means0.120266261535276NNS
child0.0450489732120807NN
development0.0164833460638534NN
study0NN
add0VB
tax0NN
life0.0184786920895884NN
expectancy0NN
unite0VB
nation0NN
programme0.0269969049497485NN
hiv0NN
infant0NN
mortality0NN
stunt0NN
system0.0519476926891779NN
access0.00514687440545096NN
building0NN
equitable0JJ
combate0NN
discriminatory0JJ
practice0NN
capture0NN
discrimination0.0736315832425121NN
enhance0.0184786920895884VB
accountability0NN
legal0JJ
institution0NN
improve0VB
crime0NN
policy0.0450489732120807NN
personal0JJ
safety0NN
level0.0113874611101829NN
field0NN
project0NN
land0.0319966432858631NN
learn0VB
trade0NN
credit0NN
achieve0.0113874611101829VB
efficiency0NN
address0NN
power0NN
product0NN
mobility0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
worker0NN
region0.184259548107002NN
woman0.0450489732120807NN
inheritance0.0908430554521382NN
cost0NN
effective0JJ
experience0NN
democratic0JJ
household0NN
education0.0225244866060403NN
financial0.0184786920895884JJ
income0.0442083771593746NN
infrastructure0NN
approach0NN
schooling0NN
country0NN
economic0.0959899298575892JJ
uneven0JJ
public0NN
action0.0269969049497485NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.280579191556644
WordScorePoS
global0.0220597476338268JJ
international0.00355521737836969JJ
labour0.563335368206862NN
indigenous0JJ
people0.0106656521351091NNS
law0NN
market0.0252035516550537NN
human0.0150723186962745JJ
rights0.0347609334428716NNS
intellectual0JJ
property0NN
protection0NN
fund0NN
estimate0NN
organization0.0347609334428716NN
migration0NN
social0.0504071033101074JJ
survey0NN
inter0NN
university0NN
political0JJ
research0NN
investment0.0252035516550537NN
opportunity0.0361300980868102NN
inequality0NN
specific0JJ
aid0.0607878664258118NN
educational0JJ
achievement0NN
reform0NN
voice0NN
justice0NN
banking0.0804764811724088NN
means0NNS
child0.0452169560888236NN
development0.0055149369084567NN
study0NN
add0.0804764811724088VB
tax0NN
life0.0123650647908625NN
expectancy0NN
unite0VB
nation0NN
programme0.0180650490434051NN
hiv0NN
infant0NN
mortality0NN
stunt0NN
system0NN
access0.00344404437204141NN
building0NN
equitable0JJ
combate0NN
discriminatory0JJ
practice0NN
capture0NN
discrimination0NN
enhance0.0123650647908625VB
accountability0NN
legal0JJ
institution0.0410992516792148NN
improve0.0150723186962745VB
crime0NN
policy0.0452169560888236NN
personal0JJ
safety0NN
level0.00761994916892276NN
field0NN
project0NN
land0NN
learn0VB
trade0.0591643007226199NN
credit0NN
achieve0.0152398983378455VB
efficiency0.0295821503613099NN
address0NN
power0NN
product0.0591643007226199NN
mobility0NN
poor0JJ
worker0.121575732851624NN
region0NN
woman0.0452169560888236NN
inheritance0NN
cost0NN
effective0.0180650490434051JJ
experience0NN
democratic0.0804764811724088JJ
household0NN
education0.0150723186962745NN
financial0.0370951943725875JJ
income0NN
infrastructure0NN
approach0NN
schooling0NN
country0NN
economic0.128463821595706JJ
uneven0.0804764811724088JJ
public0NN
action0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.254321758867854
WordScorePoS
global0JJ
international0.00402768349408688JJ
labour0NN
indigenous0JJ
people0NNS
law0.0465610847355851NN
market0NN
human0.0170753354211044JJ
rights0.078760887431929NNS
intellectual0JJ
property0.0558185411034276NN
protection0.0465610847355851NN
fund0NN
estimate0NN
organization0NN
migration0NN
social0.0285529457667019JJ
survey0NN
inter0NN
university0NN
political0.111637082206855JJ
research0NN
investment0NN
opportunity0.02046578088155NN
inequality0NN
specific0JJ
aid0NN
educational0JJ
achievement0NN
reform0.0911713013253052NN
voice0NN
justice0NN
banking0NN
means0NNS
child0.0170753354211044NN
development0.0124956749436837NN
study0NN
add0VB
tax0NN
life0.0140083044329373NN
expectancy0NN
unite0VB
nation0NN
programme0.02046578088155NN
hiv0NN
infant0NN
mortality0NN
stunt0NN
system0NN
access0.00780347258345989NN
building0NN
equitable0JJ
combate0NN
discriminatory0JJ
practice0.0393804437159645NN
capture0NN
discrimination0.111637082206855NN
enhance0.0140083044329373VB
accountability0NN
legal0JJ
institution0NN
improve0VB
crime0NN
policy0.0341506708422088NN
personal0JJ
safety0NN
level0.0172651853471334NN
field0NN
project0NN
land0.024255976440725NN
learn0VB
trade0NN
credit0NN
achieve0.0258977780207001VB
efficiency0NN
address0NN
power0NN
product0NN
mobility0NN
poor0JJ
worker0NN
region0.0465610847355851NN
woman0.221979360474357NN
inheritance0.0688661930304451NN
cost0NN
effective0.02046578088155JJ
experience0NN
democratic0JJ
household0.0465610847355851NN
education0.0512260062633133NN
financial0.0140083044329373JJ
income0NN
infrastructure0.024255976440725NN
approach0NN
schooling0NN
country0NN
economic0.0727679293221751JJ
uneven0JJ
public0.0727679293221751NN
action0.0409315617631NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.233573328573546
WordScorePoS
global0.013959557403375JJ
international0JJ
labour0NN
indigenous0JJ
people0.00539943740774902NNS
law0NN
market0NN
human0JJ
rights0.0175975629039954NNS
intellectual0.0407408489778079JJ
property0.0249430985430622NN
protection0.020806307400253NN
fund0NN
estimate0.059903311017139NN
organization0.0175975629039954NN
migration0NN
social0JJ
survey0NN
inter0NN
university0NN
political0JJ
research0.0175975629039954NN
investment0NN
opportunity0NN
inequality0.0307735781890304NN
specific0JJ
aid0.123094312756122NN
educational0JJ
achievement0NN
reform0NN
voice0NN
justice0NN
banking0NN
means0NNS
child0.10682408961305NN
development0.00837573444202498NN
study0NN
add0VB
tax0NN
life0.0250390290383647NN
expectancy0.0407408489778079NN
unite0VB
nation0NN
programme0.00914534810831654NN
hiv0.448149338755887NN
infant0NN
mortality0.276962203701274NN
stunt0NN
system0NN
access0.00610236075888593NN
building0NN
equitable0JJ
combate0NN
discriminatory0JJ
practice0NN
capture0NN
discrimination0.0249430985430622NN
enhance0VB
accountability0NN
legal0JJ
institution0NN
improve0VB
crime0NN
policy0NN
personal0JJ
safety0NN
level0NN
field0NN
project0NN
land0NN
learn0VB
trade0.0149758277542848NN
credit0NN
achieve0.00385756426954823VB
efficiency0NN
address0NN
power0NN
product0NN
mobility0NN
poor0JJ
worker0NN
region0.124837844401518NN
woman0.0381514605760894NN
inheritance0NN
cost0NN
effective0.00914534810831654JJ
experience0.0249430985430622NN
democratic0JJ
household0NN
education0.0152605842304358NN
financial0.00625975725959118JJ
income0NN
infrastructure0NN
approach0NN
schooling0.0407408489778079NN
country0NN
economic0JJ
uneven0JJ
public0.021678073222951NN
action0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.193412227025454
WordScorePoS
global0.0201198688839505JJ
international0.00648516099948979JJ
labour0NN
indigenous0JJ
people0.00432344066632653NNS
law0NN
market0.030649619577211NN
human0JJ
rights0NNS
intellectual0JJ
property0NN
protection0NN
fund0NN
estimate0NN
organization0.0422721924574123NN
migration0NN
social0JJ
survey0NN
inter0NN
university0NN
political0JJ
research0NN
investment0.0766240489430275NN
opportunity0NN
inequality0NN
specific0JJ
aid0NN
educational0JJ
achievement0.0299586785922821NN
reform0NN
voice0NN
justice0NN
banking0NN
means0NNS
child0NN
development0.0469463607292177NN
study0NN
add0VB
tax0.036961556179878NN
life0NN
expectancy0NN
unite0.036961556179878VB
nation0.0299586785922821NN
programme0NN
hiv0NN
infant0NN
mortality0NN
stunt0NN
system0.0211360962287062NN
access0.00314118376811005NN
building0.149940347231585NN
equitable0.017987180284335JJ
combate0NN
discriminatory0.0299586785922821JJ
practice0NN
capture0NN
discrimination0NN
enhance0.0601477977507998VB
accountability0.048933054487825NN
legal0JJ
institution0.0249900578719309NN
improve0.0183291958415182VB
crime0NN
policy0.0641521854453136NN
personal0JJ
safety0NN
level0.0138997399903163NN
field0NN
project0NN
land0NN
learn0VB
trade0.0539615408530051NN
credit0NN
achieve0.00463324666343875VB
efficiency0NN
address0NN
power0.036961556179878NN
product0.017987180284335NN
mobility0NN
poor0.0153248097886055JJ
worker0NN
region0NN
woman0NN
inheritance0NN
cost0NN
effective0.0219686053934784JJ
experience0.0299586785922821NN
democratic0JJ
household0NN
education0NN
financial0.0150369494376999JJ
income0.017987180284335NN
infrastructure0.0130185595639838NN
approach0NN
schooling0NN
country0NN
economic0JJ
uneven0JJ
public0.0390556786919513NN
action0.0109843026967392NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.17496423721318
WordScorePoS
global0JJ
international0.00265959362690358JJ
labour0NN
indigenous0JJ
people0.0186171553883251NNS
law0NN
market0.0377086395700813NN
human0.011275328195446JJ
rights0NNS
intellectual0JJ
property0NN
protection0NN
fund0NN
estimate0.0221298700466866NN
organization0NN
migration0NN
social0.0188543197850406JJ
survey0NN
inter0.0602029956716497NN
university0NN
political0.0368585655748969JJ
research0.104016094894625NN
investment0.0377086395700813NN
opportunity0.0135141354781442NN
inequality0NN
specific0JJ
aid0NN
educational0JJ
achievement0.0368585655748969NN
reform0NN
voice0NN
justice0NN
banking0NN
means0NNS
child0NN
development0.0330049940546426NN
study0NN
add0VB
tax0NN
life0NN
expectancy0NN
unite0VB
nation0NN
programme0NN
hiv0NN
infant0NN
mortality0NN
stunt0NN
system0NN
access0.0128821355880844NN
building0NN
equitable0.0221298700466866JJ
combate0NN
discriminatory0JJ
practice0NN
capture0NN
discrimination0NN
enhance0.0185001613201543VB
accountability0NN
legal0JJ
institution0NN
improve0VB
crime0NN
policy0.011275328195446NN
personal0JJ
safety0NN
level0NN
field0NN
project0NN
land0NN
learn0VB
trade0NN
credit0.0602029956716497NN
achieve0.0114006914853063VB
efficiency0.0442597400933733NN
address0NN
power0.0454743001434393NN
product0.0442597400933733NN
mobility0NN
poor0JJ
worker0.0454743001434393NN
region0NN
woman0NN
inheritance0NN
cost0NN
effective0JJ
experience0NN
democratic0JJ
household0NN
education0.022550656390892NN
financial0.0185001613201543JJ
income0.110649350233433NN
infrastructure0.192202909044225NN
approach0NN
schooling0NN
country0NN
economic0.0320338181740375JJ
uneven0JJ
public0.0160169090870187NN
action0.0135141354781442NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.164915868703886
WordScorePoS
global0.00558555252470789JJ
international0.00360073990568919JJ
labour0NN
indigenous0.0499016491051341JJ
people0.00720147981137839NNS
law0NN
market0NN
human0.0152653111258778JJ
rights0.0352060273355634NNS
intellectual0JJ
property0NN
protection0NN
fund0NN
estimate0.0299609328954485NN
organization0NN
migration0NN
social0JJ
survey0NN
inter0NN
university0.0815069365350084NN
political0JJ
research0NN
investment0NN
opportunity0NN
inequality0NN
specific0JJ
aid0NN
educational0JJ
achievement0NN
reform0NN
voice0NN
justice0NN
banking0NN
means0NNS
child0.076326555629389NN
development0.0279277626235394NN
study0NN
add0VB
tax0NN
life0.0125233923809486NN
expectancy0NN
unite0VB
nation0NN
programme0.0182963616752599NN
hiv0NN
infant0NN
mortality0NN
stunt0NN
system0NN
access0.00697628678506322NN
building0NN
equitable0.0299609328954485JJ
combate0NN
discriminatory0JJ
practice0NN
capture0NN
discrimination0NN
enhance0VB
accountability0NN
legal0JJ
institution0NN
improve0.0305306222517556VB
crime0NN
policy0NN
personal0JJ
safety0NN
level0.0231525547935232NN
field0NN
project0NN
land0NN
learn0.244520809605025VB
trade0NN
credit0NN
achieve0.0308700730580309VB
efficiency0NN
address0NN
power0NN
product0NN
mobility0NN
poor0JJ
worker0NN
region0NN
woman0.0610612445035112NN
inheritance0NN
cost0NN
effective0.0365927233505197JJ
experience0NN
democratic0JJ
household0NN
education0.244244978014045NN
financial0JJ
income0NN
infrastructure0NN
approach0NN
schooling0NN
country0NN
economic0JJ
uneven0JJ
public0NN
action0NN

Label: 7, with a score of: 0.095417071447952
WordScorePoS
global0.0251662980592747JJ
international0.00540783824576293JJ
labour0NN
indigenous0JJ
people0.0108156764915259NNS
law0NN
market0NN
human0JJ
rights0NNS
intellectual0JJ
property0NN
protection0NN
fund0NN
estimate0NN
organization0NN
migration0NN
social0JJ
survey0NN
inter0NN
university0NN
political0JJ
research0.0528748274225028NN
investment0.0383371018038178NN
opportunity0.0549574626423028NN
inequality0NN
specific0JJ
aid0NN
educational0JJ
achievement0NN
reform0NN
voice0NN
justice0NN
banking0NN
means0NNS
child0NN
development0NN
study0NN
add0VB
tax0NN
life0.0188084899376888NN
expectancy0NN
unite0VB
nation0NN
programme0.0274787313211514NN
hiv0NN
infant0NN
mortality0NN
stunt0NN
system0NN
access0.0157161992303584NN
building0NN
equitable0JJ
combate0NN
discriminatory0JJ
practice0NN
capture0NN
discrimination0NN
enhance0.0188084899376888VB
accountability0NN
legal0JJ
institution0NN
improve0.0229264916384433VB
crime0NN
policy0NN
personal0JJ
safety0NN
level0NN
field0NN
project0NN
land0.0325677023224526NN
learn0VB
trade0NN
credit0NN
achieve0VB
efficiency0.134992154141495NN
address0NN
power0NN
product0NN
mobility0NN
poor0JJ
worker0NN
region0NN
woman0NN
inheritance0NN
cost0NN
effective0JJ
experience0NN
democratic0JJ
household0NN
education0NN
financial0JJ
income0.0449973847138318NN
infrastructure0.0651354046449052NN
approach0NN
schooling0NN
country0NN
economic0JJ
uneven0JJ
public0NN
action0NN

see also specific focal points e

Label: 12, with a score of: 1
WordScorePoS
specific0.0542519672965169JJ

human capacities markets etc

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.588282958661555
WordScorePoS
human0JJ
capacity0.0179281831452421NN
market0.0913569596328122NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.407819316214003
WordScorePoS
human0JJ
capacity0.0451108483130998NN
market0.030649619577211NN

Label: 14, with a score of: 0.330634591533329
WordScorePoS
human0.0199268631468397JJ
capacity0.0081738237776987NN
market0.0333211986002325NN

life chances macroeconomy accountability structures and macroeconomic policies WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT macroeconomy continued macroeconomic stability instability policy design considerations Madagascar health care spatial differences Malaysia financial markets inequality trends obstetric care productivity gaps in agriculture wealth inequality Mali head of household education inequality contrasted to United States infant mortality voice rank marginal products markets access to barriers to fairness in imperfect markets and market failures inequality traps and market failures making global markets work more equitably possibilities for change relating to equity see also specific markets e

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.82142186636685
WordScorePoS
life0NN
chance0NN
accountability0NN
structure0NN
macroeconomic0JJ
policy0.0848203862485078NN
world0.00276879546803864NN
development0.0177346522508396NN
report0NN
continue0.0237821918091848VB
stability0NN
health0.0405241466500776NN
care0NN
financial0.0298222075472138JJ
market0.0202620733250388NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
productivity0NN
gap0NN
agriculture0NN
household0.0330412182586772NN
education0.0121171980355011NN
unite0VB
infant0NN
mortality0.0488696285210061NN
voice0.064698038783335NN
product0NN
access0.00138439773401932NN
barrier0NN
global0.0133009891881297JJ
change0NN
specific0JJ

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.288853906703632
WordScorePoS
life0NN
chance0NN
accountability0NN
structure0NN
macroeconomic0JJ
policy0NN
world0.0124838525528648NN
development0.0159922815774215NN
report0NN
continue0VB
stability0NN
health0NN
care0NN
financial0.00896409157262106JJ
market0.0913569596328122NN
inequality0NN
productivity0.0595900566394012NN
gap0NN
agriculture0.148975141598503NN
household0.0297950283197006NN
education0NN
unite0VB
infant0.0583416713841148NN
mortality0NN
voice0NN
product0NN
access0.00749031153171887NN
barrier0.0357189919948307NN
global0.0119942111830662JJ
change0.0756001353333673NN
specific0JJ

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.236992334694415
WordScorePoS
life0.0250390290383647NN
chance0NN
accountability0NN
structure0NN
macroeconomic0JJ
policy0NN
world0.00087176582269799NN
development0.00837573444202498NN
report0.0307735781890304NN
continue0VB
stability0NN
health0.191387734041787NN
care0.104031537001265NN
financial0.00625975725959118JJ
market0NN
inequality0.0307735781890304NN
productivity0NN
gap0NN
agriculture0NN
household0NN
education0.0152605842304358NN
unite0VB
infant0NN
mortality0.276962203701274NN
voice0NN
product0NN
access0.00610236075888593NN
barrier0NN
global0.013959557403375JJ
change0NN
specific0JJ

Label: 13, with a score of: 0.172832197529601
WordScorePoS
life0.00842350130803634NN
chance0.0548233071065585NN
accountability0NN
structure0NN
macroeconomic0JJ
policy0.0102677744436108NN
world0.00351929966767313NN
development0NN
report0NN
continue0.0403047273067529VB
stability0NN
health0NN
care0NN
financial0JJ
market0NN
inequality0NN
productivity0NN
gap0NN
agriculture0NN
household0NN
education0.0102677744436108NN
unite0.0828215106044499VB
infant0NN
mortality0NN
voice0NN
product0NN
access0NN
barrier0NN
global0.0375696197697663JJ
change0.402565546215053NN
specific0JJ

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.0999735961214203
WordScorePoS
life0.0125233923809486NN
chance0NN
accountability0NN
structure0NN
macroeconomic0JJ
policy0NN
world0.0017440716962658NN
development0.0279277626235394NN
report0NN
continue0VB
stability0NN
health0NN
care0.0416255041156371NN
financial0JJ
market0NN
inequality0NN
productivity0NN
gap0NN
agriculture0NN
household0NN
education0.244244978014045NN
unite0VB
infant0NN
mortality0NN
voice0NN
product0NN
access0.00697628678506322NN
barrier0NN
global0.00558555252470789JJ
change0NN
specific0JJ

credit markets financial markets etc

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.655290902647643
WordScorePoS
credit0NN
market0.0913569596328122NN
financial0.00896409157262106JJ

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.526892569824255
WordScorePoS
credit0.0602029956716497NN
market0.0377086395700813NN
financial0.0185001613201543JJ

marriage and kinship systems gender inequalities and Mauritius development experiences economic inequality pensions medicine markets drug access example Mexico banking system evolution bank privatization capital markets crises educational attainment achievement financial markets financial system reform inequality trends legal approach to equity Oportuniades PROGRESA program physician availability Procampo property rights reforms safety nets and social security spending trade liberalization trade unions Middle East education trends inequality trends life expectancy schooling years see also specific countries Millennium Declaration Millennium Development Goals Millennium Summit mobility anomie and facilitating inequalities and international labor mobility women Mongolia product market reforms Monterrey Consensus Morocco academic achievement education immunization school enrollment problems spatial differences student achievement trade liberalization Mozambique infant mortality product markets and trade reform spatial differences Multi Fiber Agreement phaseout NAFTA

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.784173126826723
WordScorePoS
marriage0NN
system0NN
gender0NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
development0.0177346522508396NN
experience0NN
economic0.103276847978089JJ
medicine0NN
market0.0202620733250388NN
drug0NN
access0.00138439773401932NN
banking0NN
bank0NN
educational0JJ
achievement0NN
financial0.0298222075472138JJ
reform0NN
legal0JJ
approach0NN
availability0NN
property0NN
rights0NNS
safety0NN
social0.101310366625194JJ
security0NN
spending0NN
trade0.0237821918091848NN
middle0JJ
education0.0121171980355011NN
life0NN
expectancy0NN
schooling0NN
specific0JJ
country0NN
millennium0JJ
declaration0NN
goal0NN
mobility0.064698038783335NN
facilitate0.02794560829783VB
international0.00571634317201755JJ
woman0.0242343960710022NN
product0NN
consensus0.064698038783335NN
school0NN
infant0NN
mortality0.0488696285210061NN
multus0NN
agreement0.02794560829783NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.322964955454306
WordScorePoS
marriage0.0911713013253052NN
system0NN
gender0.196902218579822NN
inequality0NN
development0.0124956749436837NN
experience0NN
economic0.0727679293221751JJ
medicine0NN
market0NN
drug0NN
access0.00780347258345989NN
banking0NN
bank0NN
educational0JJ
achievement0NN
financial0.0140083044329373JJ
reform0.0911713013253052NN
legal0JJ
approach0NN
availability0NN
property0.0558185411034276NN
rights0.078760887431929NNS
safety0NN
social0.0285529457667019JJ
security0NN
spending0NN
trade0NN
middle0JJ
education0.0512260062633133NN
life0.0140083044329373NN
expectancy0NN
schooling0NN
specific0JJ
country0NN
millennium0.0911713013253052JJ
declaration0NN
goal0NN
mobility0NN
facilitate0VB
international0.00402768349408688JJ
woman0.221979360474357NN
product0NN
consensus0NN
school0.0931221694711702NN
infant0NN
mortality0NN
multus0NN
agreement0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.19981703475644
WordScorePoS
marriage0NN
system0NN
gender0.0175975629039954NN
inequality0.0307735781890304NN
development0.00837573444202498NN
experience0.0249430985430622NN
economic0JJ
medicine0.123094312756122NN
market0NN
drug0.0407408489778079NN
access0.00610236075888593NN
banking0NN
bank0NN
educational0JJ
achievement0NN
financial0.00625975725959118JJ
reform0NN
legal0JJ
approach0NN
availability0NN
property0.0249430985430622NN
rights0.0175975629039954NNS
safety0NN
social0JJ
security0NN
spending0NN
trade0.0149758277542848NN
middle0JJ
education0.0152605842304358NN
life0.0250390290383647NN
expectancy0.0407408489778079NN
schooling0.0407408489778079NN
specific0JJ
country0NN
millennium0JJ
declaration0.0407408489778079NN
goal0NN
mobility0NN
facilitate0VB
international0JJ
woman0.0381514605760894NN
product0NN
consensus0NN
school0NN
infant0NN
mortality0.276962203701274NN
multus0NN
agreement0.0351951258079907NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.190335161243678
WordScorePoS
marriage0NN
system0NN
gender0.10561808200669NN
inequality0NN
development0.0279277626235394NN
experience0NN
economic0JJ
medicine0NN
market0NN
drug0NN
access0.00697628678506322NN
banking0NN
bank0NN
educational0JJ
achievement0NN
financial0JJ
reform0NN
legal0JJ
approach0NN
availability0NN
property0NN
rights0.0352060273355634NNS
safety0NN
social0JJ
security0NN
spending0NN
trade0NN
middle0JJ
education0.244244978014045NN
life0.0125233923809486NN
expectancy0NN
schooling0NN
specific0JJ
country0NN
millennium0JJ
declaration0NN
goal0NN
mobility0NN
facilitate0VB
international0.00360073990568919JJ
woman0.0610612445035112NN
product0NN
consensus0NN
school0.208127520578185NN
infant0NN
mortality0NN
multus0NN
agreement0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.185973198301151
WordScorePoS
marriage0NN
system0NN
gender0NN
inequality0NN
development0.0055149369084567NN
experience0NN
economic0.128463821595706JJ
medicine0NN
market0.0252035516550537NN
drug0NN
access0.00344404437204141NN
banking0.0804764811724088NN
bank0NN
educational0JJ
achievement0NN
financial0.0370951943725875JJ
reform0NN
legal0JJ
approach0NN
availability0NN
property0NN
rights0.0347609334428716NNS
safety0NN
social0.0504071033101074JJ
security0NN
spending0NN
trade0.0591643007226199NN
middle0JJ
education0.0150723186962745NN
life0.0123650647908625NN
expectancy0NN
schooling0NN
specific0JJ
country0NN
millennium0JJ
declaration0NN
goal0NN
mobility0NN
facilitate0VB
international0.00355521737836969JJ
woman0.0452169560888236NN
product0.0591643007226199NN
consensus0NN
school0NN
infant0NN
mortality0NN
multus0NN
agreement0NN

See North American Free Trade Agreement NAFTA Namibia health insurance pensions Nash equilibrium equity and fairness and National Institute of Public Finance and Policy credit market report natural resources rectifying inequities in use of Nepal inequality trends the Netherlands labor market reforms New Zealand labor market reforms means tested pensions Niger infant mortality infrastructure legal approach to equity Nigeria poverty trends North America basic education colonization example human rights regimes see also Canada Mexico United States North American Free Trade Agreement NAFTA safety nets and Norway educational attainment achievement official development assistance opportunity equal

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.494500387790794
WordScorePoS
north0RB
free0JJ
trade0.0237821918091848NN
agreement0.02794560829783NN
health0.0405241466500776NN
insurance0NN
national0.00886732612541978JJ
public0.0172128079963482NN
finance0NN
policy0.0848203862485078NN
credit0NN
market0.0202620733250388NN
report0NN
natural0JJ
resource0NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
reform0NN
means0NNS
infant0NN
mortality0.0488696285210061NN
infrastructure0NN
legal0JJ
approach0NN
poverty0.05809266143877NN
basic0JJ
education0.0121171980355011NN
human0JJ
rights0NNS
regime0NN
unite0VB
safety0NN
educational0JJ
achievement0NN
official0.0488696285210061NN
development0.0177346522508396NN
assistance0.0330412182586772NN
opportunity0.029046330719385NN
equal0.0202620733250388JJ

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.336531697736586
WordScorePoS
north0RB
free0JJ
trade0NN
agreement0NN
health0NN
insurance0NN
national0.0164833460638534JJ
public0NN
finance0NN
policy0.0450489732120807NN
credit0NN
market0NN
report0NN
natural0.0376648791150643JJ
resource0.0739147683583536NN
inequality0NN
reform0NN
means0.120266261535276NNS
infant0NN
mortality0NN
infrastructure0NN
legal0JJ
approach0NN
poverty0.269969049497485NN
basic0.0639932865717261JJ
education0.0225244866060403NN
human0JJ
rights0.0519476926891779NNS
regime0NN
unite0VB
safety0NN
educational0JJ
achievement0.0736315832425121NN
official0NN
development0.0164833460638534NN
assistance0NN
opportunity0NN
equal0.0376648791150643JJ

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.287157955284626
WordScorePoS
north0RB
free0JJ
trade0.0149758277542848NN
agreement0.0351951258079907NN
health0.191387734041787NN
insurance0NN
national0.00558382296134999JJ
public0.021678073222951NN
finance0NN
policy0NN
credit0NN
market0NN
report0.0307735781890304NN
natural0JJ
resource0NN
inequality0.0307735781890304NN
reform0NN
means0NNS
infant0NN
mortality0.276962203701274NN
infrastructure0NN
legal0JJ
approach0NN
poverty0.00914534810831654NN
basic0JJ
education0.0152605842304358NN
human0JJ
rights0.0175975629039954NNS
regime0NN
unite0VB
safety0NN
educational0JJ
achievement0NN
official0NN
development0.00837573444202498NN
assistance0NN
opportunity0NN
equal0JJ

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.250864765119184
WordScorePoS
north0RB
free0JJ
trade0NN
agreement0NN
health0.0377086395700813NN
insurance0NN
national0.00412562425683033JJ
public0.0160169090870187NN
finance0NN
policy0.011275328195446NN
credit0.0602029956716497NN
market0.0377086395700813NN
report0NN
natural0JJ
resource0.0185001613201543NN
inequality0NN
reform0NN
means0NNS
infant0NN
mortality0NN
infrastructure0.192202909044225NN
legal0JJ
approach0NN
poverty0NN
basic0.0480507272610562JJ
education0.022550656390892NN
human0.011275328195446JJ
rights0NNS
regime0NN
unite0VB
safety0NN
educational0JJ
achievement0.0368585655748969NN
official0NN
development0.0330049940546426NN
assistance0NN
opportunity0.0135141354781442NN
equal0JJ

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.209672768568578
WordScorePoS
north0RB
free0.0499016491051341JJ
trade0NN
agreement0NN
health0NN
insurance0NN
national0JJ
public0NN
finance0NN
policy0NN
credit0NN
market0NN
report0NN
natural0JJ
resource0NN
inequality0NN
reform0NN
means0NNS
infant0NN
mortality0NN
infrastructure0NN
legal0JJ
approach0NN
poverty0NN
basic0.0433695758119029JJ
education0.244244978014045NN
human0.0152653111258778JJ
rights0.0352060273355634NNS
regime0NN
unite0VB
safety0NN
educational0JJ
achievement0NN
official0NN
development0.0279277626235394NN
assistance0NN
opportunity0NN
equal0.051052537468787JJ

See equal opportunity Index opportunity disparities inequalities see also specific aspects and scope e

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.935346589563798
WordScorePoS
equal0.0202620733250388JJ
opportunity0.029046330719385NN
disparity0.0488696285210061NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
specific0JJ
aspect0NN

global inequity and well being inequity within countries etc

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

outcomes significance and importance of Pakistan credit market financial markets inequality trends infrastructure poverty trends productivity gaps in agriculture stunting in children voice rank Palanpur India inequality traps example Paraguay between group differences in inequality pensions programs for nonworking elderly South Africa personal safety protection Peru gender discrimination labor shares and crises teacher absenteeism pharmaceutical patents intellectual property rights issue the Philippines education opportunities for women student achievement wealth inequality philosophical approaches to equity Plato Poland effects of regulation and disclosure in trade unions voice rank policy design costs of policies growth and equity policy dichotomy oligarchic dominance and two types of pathologies in see also leveling the economic and political playing field policy implementation policy tradeoffs short term versus long term political inequality between groups political power contemporary evidence regarding development and government intervention in labor markets and institutional quality and distribution of poor people negative terms of recognition social programs for working poor Portugal educational attainment achievement poverty group based inequalities and

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.826730855719266
WordScorePoS
outcome0.0330412182586772NN
credit0NN
market0.0202620733250388NN
financial0.0298222075472138JJ
inequality0.635305170773079NN
infrastructure0NN
poverty0.05809266143877NN
productivity0NN
gap0NN
agriculture0NN
stunt0NN
child0.0242343960710022NN
voice0.064698038783335NN
south0RB
africa0IN
personal0JJ
safety0NN
protection0.0660824365173543NN
gender0NN
discrimination0NN
share0NN
teacher0NN
intellectual0JJ
property0NN
rights0NNS
issue0NN
education0.0121171980355011NN
opportunity0.029046330719385NN
woman0.0242343960710022NN
achievement0NN
approach0NN
effect0NN
regulation0.0977392570420122NN
trade0.0237821918091848NN
policy0.0848203862485078NN
cost0.0660824365173543NN
growth0.11178243319132NN
type0NN
level0NN
economic0.103276847978089JJ
political0.0792212041430275JJ
field0NN
implementation0.0475643836183697NN
term0.0396106020715138NN
power0NN
evidence0.12939607756667NN
development0.0177346522508396NN
government0NN
intervention0NN
institutional0JJ
quality0.0121171980355011NN
poor0JJ
people0.00571634317201755NNS
social0.101310366625194JJ
educational0JJ
base0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.296046078223737
WordScorePoS
outcome0NN
credit0NN
market0NN
financial0.0184786920895884JJ
inequality0NN
infrastructure0NN
poverty0.269969049497485NN
productivity0NN
gap0NN
agriculture0NN
stunt0NN
child0.0450489732120807NN
voice0NN
south0RB
africa0IN
personal0JJ
safety0NN
protection0.122839698738001NN
gender0.0519476926891779NN
discrimination0.0736315832425121NN
share0NN
teacher0NN
intellectual0JJ
property0.0736315832425121NN
rights0.0519476926891779NNS
issue0NN
education0.0225244866060403NN
opportunity0NN
woman0.0450489732120807NN
achievement0.0736315832425121NN
approach0NN
effect0NN
regulation0NN
trade0NN
policy0.0450489732120807NN
cost0NN
growth0.0519476926891779NN
type0NN
level0.0113874611101829NN
economic0.0959899298575892JJ
political0JJ
field0NN
implementation0NN
term0NN
power0NN
evidence0NN
development0.0164833460638534NN
government0NN
intervention0NN
institutional0JJ
quality0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
people0.0371911007748996NNS
social0.112994637345193JJ
educational0JJ
base0.0442083771593746NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.236089268104948
WordScorePoS
outcome0.0465610847355851NN
credit0NN
market0NN
financial0.0140083044329373JJ
inequality0NN
infrastructure0.024255976440725NN
poverty0NN
productivity0NN
gap0NN
agriculture0.0465610847355851NN
stunt0NN
child0.0170753354211044NN
voice0NN
south0RB
africa0IN
personal0JJ
safety0NN
protection0.0465610847355851NN
gender0.196902218579822NN
discrimination0.111637082206855NN
share0.0285529457667019NN
teacher0NN
intellectual0JJ
property0.0558185411034276NN
rights0.078760887431929NNS
issue0NN
education0.0512260062633133NN
opportunity0.02046578088155NN
woman0.221979360474357NN
achievement0NN
approach0NN
effect0NN
regulation0NN
trade0NN
policy0.0341506708422088NN
cost0NN
growth0NN
type0.0688661930304451NN
level0.0172651853471334NN
economic0.0727679293221751JJ
political0.111637082206855JJ
field0NN
implementation0NN
term0NN
power0NN
evidence0NN
development0.0124956749436837NN
government0NN
intervention0NN
institutional0JJ
quality0NN
poor0JJ
people0NNS
social0.0285529457667019JJ
educational0JJ
base0NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.20611849458685
WordScorePoS
outcome0NN
credit0NN
market0.030649619577211NN
financial0.0150369494376999JJ
inequality0NN
infrastructure0.0130185595639838NN
poverty0.0109843026967392NN
productivity0NN
gap0NN
agriculture0NN
stunt0NN
child0NN
voice0NN
south0RB
africa0IN
personal0JJ
safety0NN
protection0NN
gender0.0211360962287062NN
discrimination0NN
share0.0766240489430275NN
teacher0NN
intellectual0JJ
property0NN
rights0NNS
issue0.0299586785922821NN
education0NN
opportunity0NN
woman0NN
achievement0.0299586785922821NN
approach0NN
effect0NN
regulation0.036961556179878NN
trade0.0539615408530051NN
policy0.0641521854453136NN
cost0NN
growth0NN
type0NN
level0.0138997399903163NN
economic0JJ
political0JJ
field0NN
implementation0.017987180284335NN
term0.149793392961411NN
power0.036961556179878NN
evidence0NN
development0.0469463607292177NN
government0.048933054487825NN
intervention0NN
institutional0.036961556179878JJ
quality0.00916459792075908NN
poor0.0153248097886055JJ
people0.00432344066632653NNS
social0JJ
educational0JJ
base0.017987180284335NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.17381797775469
WordScorePoS
outcome0NN
credit0NN
market0.0252035516550537NN
financial0.0370951943725875JJ
inequality0NN
infrastructure0NN
poverty0.0722601961736204NN
productivity0.0410992516792148NN
gap0NN
agriculture0NN
stunt0NN
child0.0452169560888236NN
voice0NN
south0RB
africa0IN
personal0JJ
safety0NN
protection0NN
gender0NN
discrimination0NN
share0.0252035516550537NN
teacher0NN
intellectual0JJ
property0NN
rights0.0347609334428716NNS
issue0NN
education0.0150723186962745NN
opportunity0.0361300980868102NN
woman0.0452169560888236NN
achievement0NN
approach0NN
effect0NN
regulation0NN
trade0.0591643007226199NN
policy0.0452169560888236NN
cost0NN
growth0.208565600657229NN
type0NN
level0.00761994916892276NN
economic0.128463821595706JJ
political0JJ
field0NN
implementation0NN
term0NN
power0NN
evidence0NN
development0.0055149369084567NN
government0NN
intervention0NN
institutional0JJ
quality0.030144637392549NN
poor0JJ
people0.0106656521351091NNS
social0.0504071033101074JJ
educational0JJ
base0NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.16510791010795
WordScorePoS
outcome0NN
credit0NN
market0.0913569596328122NN
financial0.00896409157262106JJ
inequality0NN
infrastructure0.0155217067874935NN
poverty0.0261926252110933NN
productivity0.0595900566394012NN
gap0NN
agriculture0.148975141598503NN
stunt0.11668334276823NN
child0.0546336178945768NN
voice0NN
south0RB
africa0IN
personal0JJ
safety0NN
protection0NN
gender0NN
discrimination0NN
share0.0365427838531249NN
teacher0NN
intellectual0JJ
property0NN
rights0NNS
issue0NN
education0NN
opportunity0.0261926252110933NN
woman0.0546336178945768NN
achievement0NN
approach0NN
effect0.0440683498519077NN
regulation0NN
trade0.0214456704626236NN
policy0NN
cost0NN
growth0.0252000451111224NN
type0NN
level0.00552410547653725NN
economic0JJ
political0JJ
field0.0583416713841148NN
implementation0NN
term0NN
power0NN
evidence0NN
development0.0159922815774215NN
government0NN
intervention0NN
institutional0JJ
quality0.0109267235789154NN
poor0.0548141757796873JJ
people0.0257736572183839NNS
social0JJ
educational0JJ
base0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.15923818046794
WordScorePoS
outcome0.030745604615229NN
credit0.0602029956716497NN
market0.0377086395700813NN
financial0.0185001613201543JJ
inequality0NN
infrastructure0.192202909044225NN
poverty0NN
productivity0.0922368138456871NN
gap0.0602029956716497NN
agriculture0NN
stunt0NN
child0NN
voice0NN
south0RB
africa0IN
personal0JJ
safety0NN
protection0NN
gender0NN
discrimination0NN
share0.0377086395700813NN
teacher0NN
intellectual0JJ
property0NN
rights0NNS
issue0NN
education0.022550656390892NN
opportunity0.0135141354781442NN
woman0NN
achievement0.0368585655748969NN
approach0NN
effect0.0454743001434393NN
regulation0NN
trade0NN
policy0.011275328195446NN
cost0NN
growth0.0260040237236563NN
type0NN
level0NN
economic0.0320338181740375JJ
political0.0368585655748969JJ
field0NN
implementation0NN
term0NN
power0.0454743001434393NN
evidence0NN
development0.0330049940546426NN
government0NN
intervention0NN
institutional0JJ
quality0.022550656390892NN
poor0JJ
people0.0186171553883251NNS
social0.0188543197850406JJ
educational0JJ
base0NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.122113968678784
WordScorePoS
outcome0.0416255041156371NN
credit0NN
market0NN
financial0JJ
inequality0NN
infrastructure0NN
poverty0NN
productivity0NN
gap0NN
agriculture0NN
stunt0NN
child0.076326555629389NN
voice0NN
south0RB
africa0IN
personal0JJ
safety0NN
protection0NN
gender0.10561808200669NN
discrimination0NN
share0NN
teacher0.163013873070017NN
intellectual0JJ
property0NN
rights0.0352060273355634NNS
issue0NN
education0.244244978014045NN
opportunity0NN
woman0.0610612445035112NN
achievement0NN
approach0NN
effect0NN
regulation0NN
trade0NN
policy0NN
cost0NN
growth0NN
type0NN
level0.0231525547935232NN
economic0JJ
political0JJ
field0NN
implementation0NN
term0NN
power0NN
evidence0NN
development0.0279277626235394NN
government0NN
intervention0NN
institutional0JJ
quality0.076326555629389NN
poor0JJ
people0.00720147981137839NNS
social0JJ
educational0JJ
base0NN

see also agency poor people poverty reduction income inequality and Indonesian example redistributive policies and power and influence global inequalities institutional quality and distribution of see also agency political power predetermined characteristics circumstances of human beings product markets design of reform domestic product markets and equity drug access example elite influence capture interaction between labor markets and safety nets trade reform and Program for the Development of Indigenous and Afro Ecuadorian Peoples property rights access to finance and weak rights gender inequalities and protection and security prosperity

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.770340799386046
WordScorePoS
agency0NN
poor0JJ
people0.00571634317201755NNS
poverty0.05809266143877NN
reduction0.0475643836183697NN
income0.166475342664294NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
policy0.0848203862485078NN
power0NN
influence0NN
global0.0133009891881297JJ
institutional0JJ
quality0.0121171980355011NN
political0.0792212041430275JJ
characteristic0JJ
circumstance0NN
human0JJ
product0NN
market0.0202620733250388NN
reform0NN
domestic0JJ
drug0NN
access0.00138439773401932NN
capture0NN
safety0NN
trade0.0237821918091848NN
development0.0177346522508396NN
indigenous0JJ
property0NN
rights0NNS
finance0NN
gender0NN
protection0.0660824365173543NN
security0NN
prosperity0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.291014759194233
WordScorePoS
agency0NN
poor0.150659516460257JJ
people0.0371911007748996NNS
poverty0.269969049497485NN
reduction0NN
income0.0442083771593746NN
inequality0NN
policy0.0450489732120807NN
power0NN
influence0NN
global0JJ
institutional0JJ
quality0NN
political0JJ
characteristic0JJ
circumstance0NN
human0JJ
product0NN
market0NN
reform0NN
domestic0JJ
drug0NN
access0.00514687440545096NN
capture0NN
safety0NN
trade0NN
development0.0164833460638534NN
indigenous0JJ
property0.0736315832425121NN
rights0.0519476926891779NNS
finance0NN
gender0.0519476926891779NN
protection0.122839698738001NN
security0NN
prosperity0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.262659053848252
WordScorePoS
agency0NN
poor0JJ
people0NNS
poverty0NN
reduction0NN
income0NN
inequality0NN
policy0.0341506708422088NN
power0NN
influence0NN
global0JJ
institutional0JJ
quality0NN
political0.111637082206855JJ
characteristic0JJ
circumstance0NN
human0.0170753354211044JJ
product0NN
market0NN
reform0.0911713013253052NN
domestic0.0393804437159645JJ
drug0NN
access0.00780347258345989NN
capture0NN
safety0NN
trade0NN
development0.0124956749436837NN
indigenous0JJ
property0.0558185411034276NN
rights0.078760887431929NNS
finance0NN
gender0.196902218579822NN
protection0.0465610847355851NN
security0NN
prosperity0NN

See complementaries between equity and prosperity protection of rights see also specific rights Quichua people reforms equity enhancing religion and religious faiths beliefs equity and fairness concerns relocation assistance Repeated Public Good Game with Punishment Reports on the Observance of Standards and Codes ROSC Republic of Korea chaebols development experiences educational attainment achievement financial markets gender equity inequality trends labor market reforms trade unions Republic of Yemen stunting in children voice rank resource allocation distribution arguments and principles of rectifying natural resource use inequities resource flows Roosevelt Franklin D

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.573870456343726
WordScorePoS
prosperity0NN
protection0.0660824365173543NN
rights0NNS
specific0JJ
people0.00571634317201755NNS
reform0NN
enhance0.00994073584907126VB
religion0.064698038783335NN
assistance0.0330412182586772NN
public0.0172128079963482NN
report0NN
standard0NN
development0.0177346522508396NN
experience0NN
educational0JJ
achievement0NN
financial0.0298222075472138JJ
market0.0202620733250388NN
gender0NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
trade0.0237821918091848NN
stunt0NN
child0.0242343960710022NN
voice0.064698038783335NN
resource0NN
principle0.0977392570420122NN
natural0JJ
flow0.0488696285210061NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.402052411630127
WordScorePoS
prosperity0NN
protection0.0465610847355851NN
rights0.078760887431929NNS
specific0JJ
people0NNS
reform0.0911713013253052NN
enhance0.0140083044329373VB
religion0NN
assistance0NN
public0.0727679293221751NN
report0NN
standard0NN
development0.0124956749436837NN
experience0NN
educational0JJ
achievement0NN
financial0.0140083044329373JJ
market0NN
gender0.196902218579822NN
inequality0NN
trade0NN
stunt0NN
child0.0170753354211044NN
voice0NN
resource0.0280166088658745NN
principle0NN
natural0.0285529457667019JJ
flow0NN

WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT ROSC

Label: 12, with a score of: 0.557885995940362
WordScorePoS
world0.00464349782489754NN
development0.022306853314744NN
report0.0409791940864438NN

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.419953944381463
WordScorePoS
world0.00418824502414673NN
development0.0469463607292177NN
report0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.3286817118747
WordScorePoS
world0.00087176582269799NN
development0.00837573444202498NN
report0.0307735781890304NN

See Reports on the Observance of Standards and Codes ROSC Russian Federation bank privatization crisis of financial markets voice rank safety nets product markets and risk management and Scandinavia labor markets tax design see also specific countries schooling

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

See education and educational attainment specific countries and regions secular philosophical traditions equity and Senegal growth incidence curve and infrastructure means tested pensions Serbian Poverty Reduction Strategy disability report Singapore inequality trends wealth inequality Slovak Republic labor market reforms Smith Adam social distinctions distribution of wealth and social inequalities damaging health social justice social networks social protection systems risk management contributory schemes general tax funded transfers program choice variance by country programs for nonworking elderly programs for nonworking youth programs for special vulnerable groups programs for working poor social assistance programs Somalia health care South Africa billionaire wealth customary systems development experiences health insurance HIV AIDS infant and child mortality land access land reform means tested pensions pensions voice rank women and household assets worker organizations trade unions South America human rights regimes see also specific countries South Asia education trends inequality trends life expectancy poverty trends schooling years see also specific countries Soviet Union former inequality trends Spain equity and development Latin America colonization trade unions Sri Lanka inequality trends microfinance obstetric care Sudan land rental markets Sumatra opportunities for women Summary Report on Informal Credit Markets in India sustainable development Sweden institutional transitions intergenerational mobility intergenerational transmission of inequality Taiwan China development experiences inequality trends Tanzania infrastructure trade credit taxes and tax policies tenure land Thailand health education health insurance insurance land titling physician availability worker organizations trade unions Third International Mathematics and Science Study TIMSS th General Review of IMF Quotas TIMSS

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.744322236219886
WordScorePoS
education0.0121171980355011NN
educational0JJ
specific0JJ
country0NN
region0NN
growth0.11178243319132NN
incidence0NN
infrastructure0NN
means0NNS
poverty0.05809266143877NN
reduction0.0475643836183697NN
strategy0NN
disability0.0558912165956601NN
report0NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
market0.0202620733250388NN
reform0NN
social0.101310366625194JJ
health0.0405241466500776NN
justice0NN
protection0.0660824365173543NN
system0NN
risk0NN
management0NN
tax0NN
fund0NN
transfer0NN
choice0NN
youth0NN
special0.0330412182586772JJ
vulnerable0.0202620733250388JJ
poor0JJ
assistance0.0330412182586772NN
care0NN
south0RB
africa0IN
development0.0177346522508396NN
experience0NN
insurance0NN
hiv0NN
aid0NN
infant0NN
child0.0242343960710022NN
mortality0.0488696285210061NN
land0NN
access0.00138439773401932NN
voice0.064698038783335NN
woman0.0242343960710022NN
household0.0330412182586772NN
asset0.0488696285210061NN
worker0NN
organization0.02794560829783NN
trade0.0237821918091848NN
human0JJ
rights0NNS
regime0NN
asia0IN
life0NN
expectancy0NN
schooling0NN
microfinance0NN
opportunity0.029046330719385NN
credit0NN
sustainable0.00138439773401932JJ
institutional0JJ
mobility0.064698038783335NN
policy0.0848203862485078NN
availability0NN
international0.00571634317201755JJ
science0NN
study0NN
review0NN
quota0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.330699666645724
WordScorePoS
education0.0152605842304358NN
educational0JJ
specific0JJ
country0NN
region0.124837844401518NN
growth0NN
incidence0.0407408489778079NN
infrastructure0NN
means0NNS
poverty0.00914534810831654NN
reduction0.0149758277542848NN
strategy0.0149758277542848NN
disability0NN
report0.0307735781890304NN
inequality0.0307735781890304NN
market0NN
reform0NN
social0JJ
health0.191387734041787NN
justice0NN
protection0.020806307400253NN
system0NN
risk0.0703902516159815NN
management0.0127591822694525NN
tax0NN
fund0NN
transfer0NN
choice0NN
youth0NN
special0JJ
vulnerable0JJ
poor0JJ
assistance0NN
care0.104031537001265NN
south0RB
africa0IN
development0.00837573444202498NN
experience0.0249430985430622NN
insurance0NN
hiv0.448149338755887NN
aid0.123094312756122NN
infant0NN
child0.10682408961305NN
mortality0.276962203701274NN
land0NN
access0.00610236075888593NN
voice0NN
woman0.0381514605760894NN
household0NN
asset0NN
worker0NN
organization0.0175975629039954NN
trade0.0149758277542848NN
human0JJ
rights0.0175975629039954NNS
regime0NN
asia0IN
life0.0250390290383647NN
expectancy0.0407408489778079NN
schooling0.0407408489778079NN
microfinance0NN
opportunity0NN
credit0NN
sustainable0.00087176582269799JJ
institutional0JJ
mobility0NN
policy0NN
availability0NN
international0JJ
science0NN
study0NN
review0NN
quota0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.308213925868893
WordScorePoS
education0.0225244866060403NN
educational0JJ
specific0JJ
country0NN
region0.184259548107002NN
growth0.0519476926891779NN
incidence0NN
infrastructure0NN
means0.120266261535276NNS
poverty0.269969049497485NN
reduction0NN
strategy0.0442083771593746NN
disability0NN
report0NN
inequality0NN
market0NN
reform0NN
social0.112994637345193JJ
health0NN
justice0NN
protection0.122839698738001NN
system0.0519476926891779NN
risk0.0519476926891779NN
management0NN
tax0NN
fund0NN
transfer0NN
choice0NN
youth0NN
special0JJ
vulnerable0.112994637345193JJ
poor0.150659516460257JJ
assistance0NN
care0NN
south0RB
africa0IN
development0.0164833460638534NN
experience0NN
insurance0NN
hiv0NN
aid0NN
infant0NN
child0.0450489732120807NN
mortality0NN
land0.0319966432858631NN
access0.00514687440545096NN
voice0NN
woman0.0450489732120807NN
household0NN
asset0NN
worker0NN
organization0NN
trade0NN
human0JJ
rights0.0519476926891779NNS
regime0NN
asia0IN
life0.0184786920895884NN
expectancy0NN
schooling0NN
microfinance0.120266261535276NN
opportunity0NN
credit0NN
sustainable0.00514687440545096JJ
institutional0JJ
mobility0NN
policy0.0450489732120807NN
availability0NN
international0.00531301439641424JJ
science0NN
study0NN
review0NN
quota0NN

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.221772603082162
WordScorePoS
education0.0150723186962745NN
educational0JJ
specific0JJ
country0NN
region0NN
growth0.208565600657229NN
incidence0NN
infrastructure0NN
means0NNS
poverty0.0722601961736204NN
reduction0NN
strategy0.0295821503613099NN
disability0.0347609334428716NN
report0NN
inequality0NN
market0.0252035516550537NN
reform0NN
social0.0504071033101074JJ
health0NN
justice0NN
protection0NN
system0NN
risk0NN
management0NN
tax0NN
fund0NN
transfer0NN
choice0NN
youth0.0821985033584295NN
special0JJ
vulnerable0JJ
poor0JJ
assistance0.0410992516792148NN
care0NN
south0RB
africa0IN
development0.0055149369084567NN
experience0NN
insurance0.0804764811724088NN
hiv0NN
aid0.0607878664258118NN
infant0NN
child0.0452169560888236NN
mortality0NN
land0NN
access0.00344404437204141NN
voice0NN
woman0.0452169560888236NN
household0NN
asset0NN
worker0.121575732851624NN
organization0.0347609334428716NN
trade0.0591643007226199NN
human0.0150723186962745JJ
rights0.0347609334428716NNS
regime0NN
asia0IN
life0.0123650647908625NN
expectancy0NN
schooling0NN
microfinance0NN
opportunity0.0361300980868102NN
credit0NN
sustainable0.00688808874408283JJ
institutional0JJ
mobility0NN
policy0.0452169560888236NN
availability0NN
international0.00355521737836969JJ
science0NN
study0NN
review0NN
quota0NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.213235112924005
WordScorePoS
education0.0512260062633133NN
educational0JJ
specific0JJ
country0NN
region0.0465610847355851NN
growth0NN
incidence0NN
infrastructure0.024255976440725NN
means0NNS
poverty0NN
reduction0NN
strategy0NN
disability0NN
report0NN
inequality0NN
market0NN
reform0.0911713013253052NN
social0.0285529457667019JJ
health0.0571058915334038NN
justice0NN
protection0.0465610847355851NN
system0NN
risk0NN
management0NN
tax0NN
fund0NN
transfer0NN
choice0NN
youth0NN
special0JJ
vulnerable0JJ
poor0JJ
assistance0NN
care0.0931221694711702NN
south0RB
africa0IN
development0.0124956749436837NN
experience0NN
insurance0NN
hiv0NN
aid0NN
infant0NN
child0.0170753354211044NN
mortality0NN
land0.024255976440725NN
access0.00780347258345989NN
voice0NN
woman0.221979360474357NN
household0.0465610847355851NN
asset0NN
worker0NN
organization0NN
trade0NN
human0.0170753354211044JJ
rights0.078760887431929NNS
regime0NN
asia0IN
life0.0140083044329373NN
expectancy0NN
schooling0NN
microfinance0NN
opportunity0.02046578088155NN
credit0NN
sustainable0.00390173629172995JJ
institutional0JJ
mobility0NN
policy0.0341506708422088NN
availability0NN
international0.00402768349408688JJ
science0NN
study0NN
review0.0688661930304451NN
quota0NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.15142064240939
WordScorePoS
education0.244244978014045NN
educational0JJ
specific0JJ
country0NN
region0NN
growth0NN
incidence0NN
infrastructure0NN
means0NNS
poverty0NN
reduction0NN
strategy0NN
disability0.0704120546711269NN
report0NN
inequality0NN
market0NN
reform0NN
social0JJ
health0NN
justice0NN
protection0NN
system0NN
risk0NN
management0NN
tax0NN
fund0NN
transfer0NN
choice0NN
youth0.124876512346911NN
special0JJ
vulnerable0.051052537468787JJ
poor0JJ
assistance0NN
care0.0416255041156371NN
south0RB
africa0IN
development0.0279277626235394NN
experience0NN
insurance0NN
hiv0NN
aid0NN
infant0NN
child0.076326555629389NN
mortality0NN
land0NN
access0.00697628678506322NN
voice0NN
woman0.0610612445035112NN
household0NN
asset0NN
worker0NN
organization0NN
trade0NN
human0.0152653111258778JJ
rights0.0352060273355634NNS
regime0NN
asia0IN
life0.0125233923809486NN
expectancy0NN
schooling0NN
microfinance0NN
opportunity0NN
credit0NN
sustainable0.00872035848132902JJ
institutional0JJ
mobility0NN
policy0NN
availability0NN
international0.00360073990568919JJ
science0NN
study0NN
review0NN
quota0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.141383457060166
WordScorePoS
education0.022550656390892NN
educational0JJ
specific0JJ
country0NN
region0NN
growth0.0260040237236563NN
incidence0NN
infrastructure0.192202909044225NN
means0NNS
poverty0NN
reduction0NN
strategy0NN
disability0NN
report0NN
inequality0NN
market0.0377086395700813NN
reform0NN
social0.0188543197850406JJ
health0.0377086395700813NN
justice0NN
protection0NN
system0NN
risk0NN
management0NN
tax0NN
fund0NN
transfer0NN
choice0NN
youth0NN
special0JJ
vulnerable0JJ
poor0JJ
assistance0NN
care0.030745604615229NN
south0RB
africa0IN
development0.0330049940546426NN
experience0NN
insurance0NN
hiv0NN
aid0NN
infant0NN
child0NN
mortality0NN
land0NN
access0.0128821355880844NN
voice0NN
woman0NN
household0NN
asset0NN
worker0.0454743001434393NN
organization0NN
trade0NN
human0.011275328195446JJ
rights0NNS
regime0NN
asia0IN
life0NN
expectancy0NN
schooling0NN
microfinance0NN
opportunity0.0135141354781442NN
credit0.0602029956716497NN
sustainable0.00901749491165909JJ
institutional0JJ
mobility0NN
policy0.011275328195446NN
availability0NN
international0.00265959362690358JJ
science0NN
study0NN
review0NN
quota0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.0898352718311099
WordScorePoS
education0.0201317944152378NN
educational0JJ
specific0JJ
country0NN
region0NN
growth0NN
incidence0NN
infrastructure0NN
means0NNS
poverty0NN
reduction0NN
strategy0NN
disability0NN
report0NN
inequality0NN
market0NN
reform0NN
social0JJ
health0NN
justice0.214981650384708NN
protection0NN
system0NN
risk0NN
management0NN
tax0.0811931365363091NN
fund0NN
transfer0NN
choice0NN
youth0NN
special0JJ
vulnerable0JJ
poor0JJ
assistance0NN
care0NN
south0RB
africa0IN
development0.0368309542451156NN
experience0NN
insurance0NN
hiv0NN
aid0NN
infant0NN
child0.0603953832457135NN
mortality0NN
land0NN
access0.00690021170452351NN
voice0NN
woman0NN
household0NN
asset0.0811931365363091NN
worker0NN
organization0NN
trade0NN
human0JJ
rights0NNS
regime0NN
asia0IN
life0NN
expectancy0NN
schooling0NN
microfinance0NN
opportunity0NN
credit0NN
sustainable0.00920028227269801JJ
institutional0JJ
mobility0NN
policy0.0201317944152378NN
availability0NN
international0.0189945307832458JJ
science0NN
study0NN
review0NN
quota0NN

See Third International Mathematics and Science Study TIMSS trade liberalization capture by vested interests and trade reform codes of conduct in fair and ethical trade product markets and Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights TRIPS Index Trinidad and Tobago land security stunting in children TRIPS

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.509716140606684
WordScorePoS
international0.00515473144367677JJ
science0NN
study0NN
trade0.0214456704626236NN
capture0NN
reform0NN
conduct0NN
fair0.0440683498519077JJ
product0NN
market0.0913569596328122NN
related0.00896409157262106JJ
aspect0NN
intellectual0JJ
property0NN
rights0NNS
trip0NN
land0.0465651203624806NN
security0.0893850849591018NN
stunt0.11668334276823NN
child0.0546336178945768NN

See Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights TRIPS Tunisia growth incidence curve and health care Turkey educational attainment achievement school enrollment problems Kyoto Protocol and labor markets migrant labor reconstruction aid safety nets sharecropping voice rank Uruguay disabled children education grants health insurance utilitarianism Uganda basic education health care user fees health education ICOR estimates teacher absenteeism Ultimatum Game Ultimatum Game with Multiple Proposers U

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.60689819764482
WordScorePoS
trade0.0149758277542848NN
related0.0125195145191824JJ
aspect0.0307735781890304NN
intellectual0.0407408489778079JJ
property0.0249430985430622NN
rights0.0175975629039954NNS
trip0.0407408489778079NN
growth0NN
incidence0.0407408489778079NN
health0.191387734041787NN
care0.104031537001265NN
educational0JJ
achievement0NN
school0NN
market0NN
migrant0NN
aid0.123094312756122NN
safety0NN
voice0NN
child0.10682408961305NN
education0.0152605842304358NN
insurance0NN
basic0JJ
user0NN
estimate0.059903311017139NN
teacher0NN
multiple0JJ

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.543422243299345
WordScorePoS
trade0NN
related0JJ
aspect0NN
intellectual0JJ
property0NN
rights0.0352060273355634NNS
trip0NN
growth0NN
incidence0NN
health0NN
care0.0416255041156371NN
educational0JJ
achievement0NN
school0.208127520578185NN
market0NN
migrant0NN
aid0NN
safety0NN
voice0NN
child0.076326555629389NN
education0.244244978014045NN
insurance0NN
basic0.0433695758119029JJ
user0NN
estimate0.0299609328954485NN
teacher0.163013873070017NN
multiple0JJ

Label: 8, with a score of: 0.283098062477042
WordScorePoS
trade0.0591643007226199NN
related0.0123650647908625JJ
aspect0NN
intellectual0JJ
property0NN
rights0.0347609334428716NNS
trip0NN
growth0.208565600657229NN
incidence0NN
health0NN
care0NN
educational0JJ
achievement0NN
school0NN
market0.0252035516550537NN
migrant0.121575732851624NN
aid0.0607878664258118NN
safety0NN
voice0NN
child0.0452169560888236NN
education0.0150723186962745NN
insurance0.0804764811724088NN
basic0.0214106369326177JJ
user0NN
estimate0NN
teacher0NN
multiple0JJ

Charter underachievement perpetuating underinvestment agriculture human capital industry and trade UN ECE Convention on Access to Information Public Participation in Decision making and Access to Justice in Environmental Matters Aarhus Convention unequal power perpetuation of inequality and United Kingdom Britain institutional transitions Ethical Trading Initiative income inequality inequality trends intergenerational mobility elasticity intergenerational transmission of inequality women and household assets United Nations Commission for Africa Kyoto Protocol membership U

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.921324651038334
WordScorePoS
agriculture0NN
human0JJ
industry0NN
trade0.0237821918091848NN
convention0NN
access0.00138439773401932NN
information0NN
public0.0172128079963482NN
participation0NN
decision0.02794560829783NN
justice0NN
environmental0.0237821918091848JJ
power0NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
unite0VB
institutional0JJ
trading0NN
initiative0NN
income0.166475342664294NN
mobility0.064698038783335NN
woman0.0242343960710022NN
household0.0330412182586772NN
asset0.0488696285210061NN
nation0.0396106020715138NN
commission0NN
africa0IN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.161100901127496
WordScorePoS
agriculture0.0465610847355851NN
human0.0170753354211044JJ
industry0NN
trade0NN
convention0NN
access0.00780347258345989NN
information0.02046578088155NN
public0.0727679293221751NN
participation0.0465610847355851NN
decision0.0393804437159645NN
justice0NN
environmental0JJ
power0NN
inequality0NN
unite0VB
institutional0JJ
trading0NN
initiative0NN
income0NN
mobility0NN
woman0.221979360474357NN
household0.0465610847355851NN
asset0NN
nation0NN
commission0NN
africa0IN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.146982491627041
WordScorePoS
agriculture0NN
human0.011275328195446JJ
industry0.181897200573757NN
trade0NN
convention0NN
access0.0128821355880844NN
information0.0675706773907211NN
public0.0160169090870187NN
participation0NN
decision0NN
justice0NN
environmental0.0221298700466866JJ
power0.0454743001434393NN
inequality0NN
unite0VB
institutional0JJ
trading0NN
initiative0NN
income0.110649350233433NN
mobility0NN
woman0NN
household0NN
asset0NN
nation0NN
commission0NN
africa0IN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.141861444416954
WordScorePoS
agriculture0NN
human0JJ
industry0NN
trade0NN
convention0NN
access0.00690021170452351NN
information0.0241291244414115NN
public0.0285977592242194NN
participation0.0548954478802642NN
decision0.0464294830712827NN
justice0.214981650384708NN
environmental0JJ
power0NN
inequality0NN
unite0VB
institutional0JJ
trading0NN
initiative0NN
income0NN
mobility0NN
woman0NN
household0NN
asset0.0811931365363091NN
nation0NN
commission0NN
africa0IN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.106164696504876
WordScorePoS
agriculture0.148975141598503NN
human0JJ
industry0NN
trade0.0214456704626236NN
convention0NN
access0.00749031153171887NN
information0.0130963126055467NN
public0NN
participation0NN
decision0NN
justice0NN
environmental0JJ
power0NN
inequality0NN
unite0VB
institutional0JJ
trading0NN
initiative0NN
income0.0643370113878709NN
mobility0NN
woman0.0546336178945768NN
household0.0297950283197006NN
asset0NN
nation0NN
commission0NN
africa0IN

Charter U

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

Convention on the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Their Families United States affirmative action programs banking system evolution educational attainment achievement Fair Labor Association health insurance income inequality income inequality and subjective well being inequality contrasted to Mali inequality trends intergenerational mobility elasticity intergenerational transmission of inequality values and norms anomie and World Value Survey Vietnam health insurance inequality trends infrastructure land distribution land titling program Poverty Reduction Strategy women land rights violence

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.921437639816404
WordScorePoS
convention0NN
rights0NNS
migrant0.0488696285210061NN
worker0NN
family0NN
unite0VB
action0.0145231653596925NN
banking0NN
system0NN
educational0JJ
achievement0NN
fair0JJ
health0.0405241466500776NN
insurance0NN
income0.166475342664294NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
mobility0.064698038783335NN
value0NN
world0.00276879546803864NN
survey0.064698038783335NN
infrastructure0NN
land0NN
poverty0.05809266143877NN
reduction0.0475643836183697NN
strategy0NN
woman0.0242343960710022NN
violence0NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.16250767847822
WordScorePoS
convention0NN
rights0.0519476926891779NNS
migrant0NN
worker0NN
family0NN
unite0VB
action0.0269969049497485NN
banking0NN
system0.0519476926891779NN
educational0JJ
achievement0.0736315832425121NN
fair0JJ
health0NN
insurance0NN
income0.0442083771593746NN
inequality0NN
mobility0NN
value0NN
world0.00257343720272548NN
survey0NN
infrastructure0NN
land0.0319966432858631NN
poverty0.269969049497485NN
reduction0NN
strategy0.0442083771593746NN
woman0.0450489732120807NN
violence0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.160898756575695
WordScorePoS
convention0.0307735781890304NN
rights0.0175975629039954NNS
migrant0NN
worker0NN
family0.0624189222007589NN
unite0VB
action0NN
banking0NN
system0NN
educational0JJ
achievement0NN
fair0JJ
health0.191387734041787NN
insurance0NN
income0NN
inequality0.0307735781890304NN
mobility0NN
value0NN
world0.00087176582269799NN
survey0NN
infrastructure0NN
land0NN
poverty0.00914534810831654NN
reduction0.0149758277542848NN
strategy0.0149758277542848NN
woman0.0381514605760894NN
violence0.020806307400253NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.157350324438919
WordScorePoS
convention0NN
rights0.078760887431929NNS
migrant0NN
worker0NN
family0.0465610847355851NN
unite0VB
action0.0409315617631NN
banking0NN
system0NN
educational0JJ
achievement0NN
fair0JJ
health0.0571058915334038NN
insurance0NN
income0NN
inequality0NN
mobility0NN
value0NN
world0.00585260443759492NN
survey0NN
infrastructure0.024255976440725NN
land0.024255976440725NN
poverty0NN
reduction0NN
strategy0NN
woman0.221979360474357NN
violence0.0931221694711702NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.118911476328462
WordScorePoS
convention0NN
rights0NNS
migrant0NN
worker0.0454743001434393NN
family0NN
unite0VB
action0.0135141354781442NN
banking0NN
system0NN
educational0JJ
achievement0.0368585655748969NN
fair0JJ
health0.0377086395700813NN
insurance0NN
income0.110649350233433NN
inequality0NN
mobility0NN
value0NN
world0.00257642711761688NN
survey0NN
infrastructure0.192202909044225NN
land0NN
poverty0NN
reduction0NN
strategy0NN
woman0NN
violence0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.0333418786418181
WordScorePoS
convention0NN
rights0NNS
migrant0NN
worker0NN
family0NN
unite0VB
action0NN
banking0NN
system0NN
educational0JJ
achievement0NN
fair0JJ
health0NN
insurance0NN
income0NN
inequality0NN
mobility0NN
value0NN
world0NN
survey0NN
infrastructure0NN
land0NN
poverty0NN
reduction0NN
strategy0NN
woman0NN
violence0.164686343640793NN

See crime violence voice and accountability enhancing judicial independence and accountability macroeconomic policies and accountability structures political accountability strengthening accountability in education voluntary contributions private assistance vulnerable groups social programs for see also specific groups e

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.406110956368358
WordScorePoS
crime0.214981650384708NN
violence0.164686343640793NN
voice0NN
accountability0NN
enhance0VB
macroeconomic0JJ
policy0.0201317944152378NN
structure0NN
political0JJ
strengthen0.0396437925143789VB
education0.0201317944152378NN
contribution0NN
private0JJ
assistance0NN
vulnerable0JJ
social0JJ
specific0JJ

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.341823658474951
WordScorePoS
crime0NN
violence0.0416255041156371NN
voice0NN
accountability0NN
enhance0VB
macroeconomic0JJ
policy0NN
structure0NN
political0JJ
strengthen0VB
education0.244244978014045NN
contribution0.0499016491051341NN
private0JJ
assistance0NN
vulnerable0.051052537468787JJ
social0JJ
specific0JJ

Label: 17, with a score of: 0.546740599214516
WordScorePoS
crime0NN
violence0NN
voice0NN
accountability0.048933054487825NN
enhance0.0601477977507998VB
macroeconomic0.048933054487825JJ
policy0.0641521854453136NN
structure0.048933054487825NN
political0JJ
strengthen0.0120313639527759VB
education0NN
contribution0NN
private0.0898760357768464JJ
assistance0.0499801157438617NN
vulnerable0JJ
social0JJ
specific0JJ

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.365276439119941
WordScorePoS
crime0NN
violence0NN
voice0.064698038783335NN
accountability0NN
enhance0.00994073584907126VB
macroeconomic0JJ
policy0.0848203862485078NN
structure0NN
political0.0792212041430275JJ
strengthen0.00795378154685591VB
education0.0121171980355011NN
contribution0NN
private0JJ
assistance0.0330412182586772NN
vulnerable0.0202620733250388JJ
social0.101310366625194JJ
specific0JJ

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.353222393400097
WordScorePoS
crime0NN
violence0.0931221694711702NN
voice0NN
accountability0NN
enhance0.0140083044329373VB
macroeconomic0JJ
policy0.0341506708422088NN
structure0NN
political0.111637082206855JJ
strengthen0.0112083245137075VB
education0.0512260062633133NN
contribution0NN
private0.0558185411034276JJ
assistance0NN
vulnerable0JJ
social0.0285529457667019JJ
specific0JJ

caste systems disability and disabled persons etc

Label: 11, with a score of: 0.704483962380117
WordScorePoS
system0.0315914058171786NN
disability0.0631828116343571NN
person0.107539312031977NN

Label: 4, with a score of: 0.349512759613013
WordScorePoS
system0NN
disability0.0704120546711269NN
person0.0299609328954485NN

Label: 2, with a score of: 0.337927048052921
WordScorePoS
system0.0756001353333673NN
disability0NN
person0.0214456704626236NN

Label: 1, with a score of: 0.334828863233924
WordScorePoS
system0.0519476926891779NN
disability0NN
person0.0442083771593746NN

wealth

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

See affluence and wealth welfare distributive justice and intergenerational transmission of inequality well being

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.943166572317208
WordScorePoS
welfare0NN
justice0NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.319159225569825
WordScorePoS
welfare0NN
justice0.214981650384708NN
inequality0NN

See equity and fairness concerns global inequity and well being WHO

Label: 0, with a score of: 1

See World Health Organization WHO women benefits from infrastructure investments crime violence against discrimination missing women and girls inequality traps land inheritance rights status and inequality traps World Development Report World Development Report World Development Report World Development Report World Development Reports various World Health Organization WHO violence data World Migration Organization WORLD DEVELOPMENT REPORT World Trade Organization WTO fairness of decision making process GATS Mode IV membership and representation migration issues World Value Survey WTO

Label: 10, with a score of: 0.613534668986699
WordScorePoS
world0.00276879546803864NN
health0.0405241466500776NN
organization0.02794560829783NN
woman0.0242343960710022NN
benefit0NN
infrastructure0NN
investment0.0202620733250388NN
crime0NN
violence0NN
discrimination0NN
girl0NN
inequality0.635305170773079NN
land0NN
inheritance0NN
rights0NNS
status0.0488696285210061NN
development0.0177346522508396NN
report0NN
datum0NN
migration0.12939607756667NN
trade0.0237821918091848NN
decision0.02794560829783NN
process0NN
representation0.0488696285210061NN
issue0NN
survey0.064698038783335NN

Label: 5, with a score of: 0.512366999169229
WordScorePoS
world0.00585260443759492NN
health0.0571058915334038NN
organization0NN
woman0.221979360474357NN
benefit0.0393804437159645NN
infrastructure0.024255976440725NN
investment0NN
crime0NN
violence0.0931221694711702NN
discrimination0.111637082206855NN
girl0.393804437159645NN
inequality0NN
land0.024255976440725NN
inheritance0.0688661930304451NN
rights0.078760887431929NNS
status0NN
development0.0124956749436837NN
report0NN
datum0NN
migration0NN
trade0NN
decision0.0393804437159645NN
process0.0558185411034276NN
representation0.0688661930304451NN
issue0NN
survey0NN

Label: 3, with a score of: 0.289973583282698
WordScorePoS
world0.00087176582269799NN
health0.191387734041787NN
organization0.0175975629039954NN
woman0.0381514605760894NN
benefit0NN
infrastructure0NN
investment0NN
crime0NN
violence0.020806307400253NN
discrimination0.0249430985430622NN
girl0.0527926887119861NN
inequality0.0307735781890304NN
land0NN
inheritance0NN
rights0.0175975629039954NNS
status0NN
development0.00837573444202498NN
report0.0307735781890304NN
datum0NN
migration0NN
trade0.0149758277542848NN
decision0NN
process0NN
representation0NN
issue0.0249430985430622NN
survey0NN

Label: 16, with a score of: 0.232516428671987
WordScorePoS
world0NN
health0NN
organization0NN
woman0NN
benefit0NN
infrastructure0NN
investment0NN
crime0.214981650384708NN
violence0.164686343640793NN
discrimination0NN
girl0NN
inequality0NN
land0NN
inheritance0NN
rights0NNS
status0NN
development0.0368309542451156NN
report0NN
datum0NN
migration0NN
trade0NN
decision0.0464294830712827NN
process0NN
representation0NN
issue0NN
survey0NN

Label: 9, with a score of: 0.19388408449671
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See World Trade Organization WTO youth social programs for nonworking youth Zambia infrastructure trade credit Zimbabwe health insurance land reform trade credit ECO AUDIT Environmental Benefits Statement The World Bank is committed to preserving endangered forests and natural resources

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We printed the World Development Report on percent post consumer recycled paper processed chlorine free

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The World Bank has formally agreed to follow the recommended standards for paper usage set by Green Press Initiative nonprofit program supporting publishers in using fiber that is not sourced from endangered forests

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For more information visit www

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Saved trees pounds of solid waste gallons of water pounds of net greenhouse gases kw hours of electricity nequalities in incomes in health and in educational outcomes have long been stark fact of life in many developing countries

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When such inequalities in outcomes arise from unequal opportunities there are both intrinsic and instrumental grounds for concern

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Because inequalities in opportunity are often accompanied by profound differences in influence power and social status whether at the level of individuals or groups they have tendency to persist

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And because it leads to an inefficient use of resources and to less effective institutions inequity is inimical to long term development

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It follows that there is legitimate role for public action in the promotion of fairness and in the pursuit of equity provided such action is cognizant of the primacy of individual freedoms and of the role of markets in allocating resources

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World Development Report presents evidence on the inequality of opportunity within and across countries and illustrates the mechanisms through which it impairs development

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The Report advocates taking explicit account of equity in determining development priorities public action should aim to expand the opportunities of those who in the absence of policy interventions have the least resources voice and capabilities

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Domestically it makes the case for investing in people expanding access to justice land and infrastructure and promoting fairness in markets

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Internationally the report considers the functioning of global markets and the rules that govern them as well as the complementary provision of aid to help poor countries and poor people build greater endowments

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Drawing on the World Bank years of development experience the World Development Report is essential reading for understanding how greater equity can reduce poverty enhance economic growth advance development and deliver increased opportunities to the poorest groups in our societies

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ISBN

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